Sociology

The lecture, “How Space Gets Raced” provoked my interest but, one aspect specifically was environmental racism. One example of environmental racism that was included was, “limited fresh fruit and vegetables,” (Wood, How Space Gets Raced Lecture). This example resinated, and the term “food desert” popped in my mind. According to the United States Department of Agriculture, a way to define food desert is, “neighborhoods that lack healthy food sources” (USDA). For the purpose of this paper, I want to explore the ways in which the process of space being raced and classed, specifically through residential segregation, effects low income urban neighborhoods in their access to healthy food (Wood, Space Gets Raced Lecture). Also, importantly this paper will be applying the Conflict Theory, in which, “says that groups in society are engaged in a power struggle for control over resources,” (Wood, Sociology and Theories lecture). This is a heavily researched phenomena in the world of social science, and there is a wealth of studies published.

Before diving into a discussion of food deserts, it is first important to review the ways in which neighborhoods across the United States have been “raced and classed” through the process of residential segregation (Wood, How Space Gets Raced lecture). This is a socially important subject, both in a historical and present context. Urban sociologists have found a common narrative for many old industrial cities in United States, that provides a causal chain of events that have been attributed to the residential segregation that we see in our cities today. A chapter, “The Short American Century” in the book, When America Became Suburban written by Robert A. Beauregard, provides a brief overview of these events. To paraphrase the discussion within this chapter, before the second World War, United States’ major cities were predominantly industrial, but post war a number of factors aided the decline of industrial cities (Beauregard, 2-3) Including, “massive loss of people and hemorrhaging of jobs and investment after the war,” (Beauregard, 2). Whites began fleeing from the cities to the very attractive suburban area and lifestyle, just on the periphery of the city (Beauregard, 4).

However, there was one catch, only white people were allowed to buy and sell within the up and coming suburban neighborhoods (Beauregard, 4-5). Leaving African Americans to purchase the abandoned housing in the cities, but African Americans were hardly in a position to go elsewhere (Beauregard,15-16). These are the processes that in a way laid a foundation for the practices discussed in our class literature, over residential segregation.

African Americans were forced to live in concentrated urban areas, primarily due to institutional level racism. The danger of this concentration is, “high levels of income inequality paired with high levels of racial or ethnic segregation result in geographically concentrated poverty,” (Wood, Lecture). This process creates an extensive list of social problems for many who live in urban areas with this level of poverty. Unfortunately, there are also institutional level discriminatory processes that ensure that these urban ghettos remain, as described within the assigned literature. Each source provides an analysis of different aspects of residential segregation. The first article, “Neighborhood Foreclosures, Racial/Ethnic Transitions, and Residential Segregation” states, “racial residential segregation has been a defining characteristic of U.S. cities for nearly a century and has played a prominent role in driving and maintaining racial/ethnic inequality,” (Hall, Crowder, and Spring 526).

This article discusses the trends within the, “U.S. housing crisis of the late 2000s was one of the most profound residential disasters of the past century,” (Hall, Crowder, and Spring 542). Although, the importance of this research lays within the patterns found within the rates of foreclosures (Hall, Crowder, and Spring 526). Hall found that, “white neighborhoods having an average rate of 2.3 percent, but mostly-black and mostly-Hipic neighborhoods having rates about three times as high (8.1 and 6.2 percent, receptively),” (534). Another important factor to examine, is physical boundaries and how they can contribute to residential segregation (Kramer, 82). This is explored within the article, “Defensible Spaces in Philadelphia: Exploring Neighborhood Boundaries Through Spatial Analysis” by Rory Kramer. The author conducts a study within Philadelphia that looks at, “how physical barriers affect racial segregation over time in an Urban Setting,” (Kramer, 82).

Several physical boundaries were discussed such as, highways, railroads, and rivers (Kramer, 86). Kramer’s findings were in a combination of different factors, such as, “physical geography of a given space and the collective efforts of residents to define neighborhoods as racially inclusive or exclusive,” (98). This leads to the next factor, African Americans’ not being granted loans within the article, “American Dream Denied: When the door is locked to buying a home,” by Ted Sickinger. This article reveals the institutional level of discriminatory acts that were occuring in Kansas City. Here are some of the specific patterns Sickinger uncovered, African Americans, “make up 13 percent of the area population, but received less than 5 percent of the mortgage money,” (1). However Banks will try and explain this trend as the areas that these applicants reside in are areas of concentrated poverty, which make it difficult to loan any money (Kramer, 2).

Kramer states, “lenders rejected 22 percent of high-income black mortgage applicants in the Kansas City area, almost three times the rejection rate for high-income whites,” (Kramer, 3). This reveals that there may be more than meets the eye on the decisions not to lend to African Americans. This literary review is important to include in this paper, because it reveals the ways in which African Americans and other minority groups have been systematically prevented from attaining upward mobility. According to the ‘How Spaced Gets Raced’ lecture, “these individuals are often kept segregated in areas that do not have adequate housing, jobs, health care, education, food,” (Wood). This is why I want to explore the phenomena of food deserts within urban areas, and specifically Kansas City.

To begin, I will refer to a report published by the Kansas City Grocery Access Task Force called, “Stimulating Supermarket Development in Bi-State Kansas City”. The report states, “too many residents of bi-state Kansas City lack sufficient access to healthy, affordable food. Despite being in the heart of one of the richest agricultural regions in the nation,” (Kim, Harries, Tucker, Karpyn, 3). This is a powerful statement, and a realization of many urban sociologist and social justice advocates. Another source, a non-profit, Cultivate KC, also mentions that, “the fact that some people have to drive more than 20 minutes away in order to get to a grocery store in a metropolitan area is not sustainable,” (Johnson). This growing attention over food deserts both in rural and urban areas, is provoking the call to action in policy changes.

An article, “Food Deserts and Real-Estate-Led Social Policy”, by Laura Wolf-Powers provides an interesting critique of current popular policy. Wolf-Powers states: “the idea that poor access to markets- in this case large food retail outlets-drives adverses health outcomes resonates with the broader idea that community development efforts can mitigate social distress not by redistributing wealth but by the reconstructing the choices available to consumers,” (416).

This is an interesting critique, because from personal experiences I have heard people assume that placing another grocery store in the area will automatically help the position of the residents of the local neighborhoods. This leads me to question the recent development of the Whole Food Market off of 51st street, near UMKC. Will this new grocery store help provide healthy food access to surrounding low-income neighborhoods in KC, or are the prices of the product still outside of the residents economic reach? This will be an interesting subject to study in the future. Wolf-Powers believes that just adding more stores in food deserts, is not enough (416). However, I have found some ways in which Kansas City is trying to combat food deserts in low income urban neighborhoods. One example can be found with the article “Trained Master Gardeners promoting vegetable production in urban households and schools,” by L.A. Kumer. This is great resource, discussing the changes being implemented in Kansas City through the Master Gardener of Greater Kansas City program. Kumer states the program provides, “suggested solutions to current or anticipated problems, demonstrations, and programs designed to educate the public about gardening topics,” (73).

This program is suggesting that the use of urban gardens will help provide more fresh food in these neighborhoods, (Kumer, 75). Ten gardens are mentioned that help provide fresh food, “‘18 Broadway’, ‘Atkins-Johnson Farm and Museum’, ‘Blue Springs Community Garden’, ‘Kansas City Community Gardens’, ‘Harvesters Demonstration Garden’, and so on, (Kumer, 75). Also according to Cultivate KC, non-profit webpage, they have started a wonderful program to also help provide fresh food called “Beans and Greens”. The non-profit states, “the program was modeled after an existing one called the Michigan Double Up Food Bucks that matches food assistance dollars with tokens to be spend at farmers markets,” (Harbstreet). These are some ways in which Kansas City is trying to combat the sparse access of fresh foods.

Discussing food deserts is socially interesting because there is a connection between access to healthy food and how ‘space gets raced and classed’, that can lead to environmental racism, as discussed in class (Wood, “How Space Gets Raced” lecture). An article by The Associated Press, discusses how a grocery store struggled to stay open in an low income neighborhood, and eventually closed, (2015). Just as residents who live in lower income urban neighborhoods, have difficulty being approved for loans, grocery store chains also have difficulty investing in these areas (The Associated Press, 2015). However, the store chains may be afraid to invest, there can be many economic opportunities according to The Food Trust in a report such as, “job opportunities, local tax revenues, revitalized neighborhood housing markets, asset-building, workforce training and development,” (23).

I think the processes of residential segregation is mind-blowing, and examining the causal chain of events that allows for a concentration of poverty within our urban cities is eye opening as well. To see how powerful institutional racism really can be, and the lasting and generational effect of those processes. I selected a very specific consequence of environmental racism, food deserts. I learned so much surrounding these processes, and even was able to learn more about the ways in which Kansas City is addressing this injustice. I think some of the programs mentioned are helping to provide fresh food to low income neighborhoods. However, Grocery store chains need to understand their worth to these communities, we need to try and cultivate a new perspective of these neighborhoods, not as a risk but as a necessary investment.

Cases are held on a short term bases, which could be Initial Assessment, then or a Core Assessment, or a Strategy meeting then if further work is require, it will then be passed on to the long term Team. It was arranged for me to shadow Robert Mega In the Intake Team; he introduced me to the other team members and found a desk for me next to his own desk. Robert told me that he only Just found that I was to be shadowing him that day and that was why the Team Managers were not aware of It when I was Introduced to them.

He asked what I wanted to know or do for the day, I explained that I was there o observe and if able attend visits or meetings. Robert had 2 visits planned, one was an unannounced visit and he had to call before hand regarding the other one. However, when he called and spoke with the client at length, there was no need for an appointment that day. Robert hold another case that he was working on which involved Child Protection issues, he wanted to fully understand the next procedures that he needed to undertake and asked if I could look in the London Child Protection procedures to check the next steps he needed to follow.

After looking into the Procedures, It would seem that Robert was already on the right track and the next step was to either have a Strategy meeting or undertake a Core Assessment on the family. The Social Work Law Robert was working wealth was Children Act 1989….. Before Robert left for unannounced visit he briefed his Team Manager who gave advice and suggestions to complete during time at the family’s home. The arranged time for the visit was planned after young person finishes school and was estimated that she would be at home by the time the visit was to commence.

When we arrived he young person was just arriving home, her mother opened the door and if she was surprised, she hid it well and was forthcoming inviting us in. She co-operated well as did young person who was a teenager with all the typical attitudes of a young person her age. The school had raised concerns re the young person, however the concerns were unfounded after Robert spoke with the family. The young person was resistance when asked If we could see her room, but she complied after assurance that It would be a brief observance of the room and nothing more.

A meeting was planned at the school which the family will attend and Robert will also attend and discuss his findings. Shadow day 16th May Davis House This Team was a very large team with many Social Workers and a number of Managers as well as a team of Admit workers, finance worker and Project worker. Susan introduced me to the many members of the team, she had already arranged for me to observe within a Referral Strategy Meeting that was due to start. During the introductions with the team one of the Social Workers had a Review Meeting to which

I asked if I could attend and observe. Strategy Meeting was to discuss and arranged and put plans in place regarding the unaccompanied minor who was the subject of the meeting. Brief overview was a 14 year old with a possibility of trafficking background, placed with Foster careers, but has now gone missing. Discussions took place around the safety of the young person, the possibility that she could be in the hands of people who are in the trafficking industry, or maybe she made friends with people she has met and is able to work and sustain herself.

Other possibilities were issued and suggestions as to how to locate her were put forward. It was suggested that the Media was a very good source of outlet to use and because the young person might be high risk, this is one way that could bring about positive results. Discussions also took place about the Foster Careers who were currently feeling that they were to blame for YAP going missing. The meeting felt that the foster careers needed further training and that their Supervising Social Worker to visit and offer support.

My next observance was the Review meeting of a young person who as now placed with new Foster Careers but the Review was already planned and too late to cancel. There were doubts about the real age of said YAP, it was believed that she was older than she stated, however she had to be treated and referred to as the age she said she was. The Reviewing Officer was very through and all aspects of the reviewing issues of young person were dealt with. I had the opportunity to observe duty and had the procedures explained to me.

When an unaccompanied Minor from another present themselves or come to the attention of the Home Office they are offered to Crayon Social Services. There is usually a Social Worker based at the Home Office in Crayon. If there are queries regarding the YAP age, an age assessment need to take place. If the young person appears to be under 16 they are places with Foster Careers if they appear older they are placed in B and passed on to the 16 plus team. All accompanied Minors are placed On Crayon Data base, it seems that Crayon is one of the Boroughs that is targeted by those who claim to be an unaccompanied Minor. Janet Williams

Are a Result of the collection and analysis of data from a variety of sources such as: Interviews Observations Surveys They are models that allow us to generalize and make predictions Students Need To Be Objective When Studying Sociology Do not be subjective We all have a belief system that can be a problem when studying sociology Remove the “I” Social Control = the social mechanisms that regulate people’s actions – Studied through 3 paradigms: Functionalism Conflict Theory Symbolic Interactions A paradigm is a theoretical framework through which scientists study the world.

Founders of the Discipline of Sociology Functionalists: Augusta Comet (1798-1859) – Wanted to build better societies Recognized 2 equal yet opposing forces in society: Social Static (Tries to keep things the same) & Social Dynamics (force for change & conflict) Founders Continued:- Herbert Spencer-social Darwinism Emilee Druthers (1858-1917) First social researcher to carry out an Investigation using a large scale collection of data & wanted sociology to be more scientific Ideas and values are the driving force structure could influence human behavior Social Solidarity = The bonds that unite society – Shared beliefs These are important for society to operate harmoniously Collective Conscience = A group’s common values, goals, outlook, interpretation of events & identical ways of thinking in smaller societies Solidarity = how connected people feel to others in the environment Mechanical Solidarity = Pre-longitudinal Organic Solidarity = Social ties based upon a functional interdependence of the members of society (we are all dependent upon other, people we do not even know, for our everyday necessities) This is less personal than with mechanical solidarity hen everyone knew each other, what to do, how to behave, and their place in the scheme of things. A lack of solidarity can lead to Egoistic Suicide -few social connections and isolation Alarmists Suicide – Exceptionally high level of solidarity places the soup’s interests as superior to the individual’s. Fatalistic = Too much social control and Anomic = rapid change, usually economic. Division of Labor = A unifying force Tailcoat Parsons – One of the most influential Functionalists Robert Morton – – Manifest Consequences = the intended consequences of an action, Latent

Consequence = unintended consequence of an action, & Dysfunctional Consequence = when an action weakens social bonds (a negative societal effect) Conflict Theorists: Karl Marx (1818-1883) – Extreme influence on world politics Focused upon discord and exploitation in society Social change, social institutions and social values are dictated by economic forces Bourgeoisie- Owners of the means of production Proletariat – Sold their labor Capitalism- Bourgeoisie seek to maximize profits & exploit workers Alienation – Workers removed from creativity and achievement, leads to despair False Consciousness Historical Materialism Harriet Martinets (1802-1876) – Little recognized – Focused upon Industrialization & Capitalism, class, race & gender inequalities W. E. B. Du Bois (1868-1063) – First African American to receive Ph. D. From Harvard. Studied dual heritage & advocated the eradication of prejudice and discrimination Jane Adams (1860-1935) – Hull House – Poverty results from ignorance and structural barriers, not from failings in the morality of a person. John Bellary Foster – The negative effects of capitalism on society and the planet as a whole. C.

Wright Mills – Social Conflict (Marxist) Sociological Imagination” = A way of thinking that gives you an understanding of the societal forces that shape your life- how society influences the outcome George Herbert Mead (186-1931)- Founder of Symbolic Internationalism, interested in colonization George Simmer (1858-1918) Interaction amongst people is influenced by size of group Herbert Blamer – Human beings behave toward things on the basis of the meanings they ascribe to those things – Contagion = a rapid, irrational mode in which people don’t think rationally or clearly = in a group setting. People ‘lose their heads’ and react eke acting Howard Becker – Labeling Theory – Human action is related to the labels attached to it. A label is attached to a certain behavior when a group with powerful social status labels it deviant. Deviance is rooted in the reactions and responses of others to an individual’s acts. Max Weber (1864-1920) Began as Karl Marx, social class influences our outcomes, but thought that Mar’s two class system was too simple. Wealth is important, but so are political power and social status.

Discussed the emerging Bureaucracies and Rationality . The Protestant Ethic led to or influenced the rise in Capitalism. The accumulation of wealth is a sign of God’s favor. Stressed that the study of sociology should be value free with no personal bias Emerging Paradigms Feminist Theory Gendered and interdisciplinary Exchange Theory Our social experiences consist of a series of rewards and costs. People want to maximize their rewards and minimize their costs which leads to their choice of social action Environmental Theory How do societies adjust to ecological changes (Beasts of The Southern Wild movie). Humans are Just one type of organism sharing the ecological space with animals.

This situation Is an example of: Selected Answer: d. Both a and c Question 2 0. 5 out of 0. 5 points Sarah works as a lawyer in a prominent law firm in New York City. She has more awards and recognition in her field than any of her colleagues, and has also been with the firm the longest (aside from the partners). When one of the partners retires, Sarah applies for the promotion.

She assumes that with her numerous awards and years with the firm, she will get the promotion to partner. However, John, a far less experienced and qualified lawyer Is given the promotion Instead. Sarah may be the victim of: Selected Answer: c. Glass ceiling Question 3 O out of 0. 5 points Mexican Americans, Irish Americans, and Muslims are all examples of: Selected Answer: c. Both racial and ethnic groups Question 4 whereas women. Is a relationship in which one woman is married to multiple men, s a relationship in which one man is married to multiple Selected Answer: b.

Polyandry; polygon Question 5 Sally has worked at General Motors for many years. She started off as a factory worker, worker her way up to factory manager In Just a few years, and Is now a regional director for all GM factories in the Midwest. This scenario is an example Selected Answer: a. Upward intergenerational mobility Question 6 The trend of credentials in the U. S. Has disadvantaged Blacks and Latino. These groups are less likely to be able to afford a college education, and as a result, re finding it increasingly difficult to find a well-paying Job.

Which theoretical perspective would be most likely to make this argument? Selected Answer: a. Hidden Curriculum Question 7 The former caste system in India, in which people were unable to marry and work outside of the caste they were born into, is an example of what kind of stratification system? Selected Answer: c. Closed System Question 8 Ryan holds strong beliefs about people and is always willing to voice his opinion. For example, whenever a conversation about driving comes up, Ryan is always quick o share his opinion that females and Asian-Americans are bad drivers and make it more difficult for White males to drive safely.

Which concept best describes Ryan’s beliefs? Selected Answer: d. Stereotype Question 9 Increasingly, the number of degrees/diplomas needed for many Jobs has increased over time. For example, Jobs that only required a high school diploma in the past now require a bachelor’s degree. This trend is known as what? Selected Answer: b. Credentials Gender is not socially constructed; gender is determined by biological differences between males and females. Selected Answer.

With reference to football hooliganism in Britain and the latest theories and research, state your views to agree or disagree with the statement?

Who are hooligans and why do they do it? Discuss the latest theories.

Football hooligans are noisy, violent people who want to make trouble. Evidence suggests that most of these hooligans are in their late teens or early 20’s. And also that they come from mainly working class backgrounds. It is also suggested that generally hooligans are from low-income occupations- some are unemployed or are working in a poor economy.

Hooliganism is actually non-violent. Hooliganism involves verbally abusing rival fans, threatening them with attack and most of the time they aim to have a laugh. Although seem of them do seem more interested in fighting rival groups who are, like themselves, looking for trouble.

What is the motivation of the hooligans? There are many theories for this. The main reason is said to be the risk and excitement involved in hooliganism drives people (esp. them who are in their late teens or early 20’s). For example, the British sociologist Paul Willis (sociologist analytical theory) talks about the tension involved in the fight situations and the risk in these attractive situations is what makes them do it. The sociological approach also states that male hooligans are formed because young men are expected to be able to look after themselves. Fights can be prepared for and enjoyed, not only because of the risk in it but also because of how these fights make the hooligans feel cool and masculine (i.e. manly). Young men like these defend their own, their gang’s, and their town’s reputation against similar rivals who are aimed at playing against their hosts. Most of this engagement is about insulting and verbally abusing opposing fans, but core hooligans also enjoy a fight when they can get one.

Not only this, but the rewards involved in such activities like the loyalty and the entertainment you get from hooligan involvement is very valuable for these young men whose opportunities for status and excitement from other ways are very limited. Heavy drinking, for example, is often considered having a good day out. Hence hooligans do this to get status and loyalty in the society also.

The sociological approach also states that hooligans behave in this manner to act cool and to show-off (i.e. get attention). For example hooligans come wearing very fashionable casuals and try to compete with their hooligan rivals on the means of stylish and expensive clothing. The socialist approach also tells us to read the act of hooliganism as a form of resistance to the intrusion of more middle class sensibilities1 into sport and local cultures.

The anthropology approach is more bent towards the theory that hooliganism is performed because of its attractions as social drama and the opportunity it provides for a sense of belonging, for competition and risk, achieving honor and throwing shame on rivals.

Another approach/theory is the social-psycological one, which is based more on the meaning of the activity itself than on the social background of those involved. They see hooliganism as an example of the search for a peak experience, which is an intense, emotional experience not usually, encountered in everyday life. Peak experiences allow for an open expression of collective emotionality: an outpouring of joy or sadness, and a strengthening of a common social identity via suporting a team. Hooligans, like other fans, seek peak experiences through their involvement in football.

These were the three theories for why do hooligans do what they do. All of these theories are convincing though we still do not have all the data required to agree or disagree with the statement.

Do only the English Produce Hooligans?

No. There have been many cases of hooligan violence in other countries- even the more serious ones. Some examples would be:

* In December 2000 a match between Strasbourg and Metz in the French First Division was abandoned because an assistant referee was injured by a firecracker.

* In Italy, hooligan groups known as ‘ultra’s’ clashed with rival firms and the police.

* In Greece, AEK Athens were banned from playing in their own stadium for four matches after their fans threw missiles and invaded the pitch during a Greek Cup tie with Olympiakos.

* Perhaps the most serious football-crowd disorder takes place in Eastern Europe, sub-Saharan Africa and South America where serious crowd rioting is much more common place than in the U.K.

So it is not only UK who suffers from these troublemakers. Most of the world does.

Is their hooliganism in other sports?

Yes. Certainly there is. Hooliganism at sports like boxing, rugby league and cricket provoke very regular panics about the behavior of spectators. There have been disturbances even at horseracing competitions. But the difference is that hooliganism at football gets lots of newspaper coverage while the others don’t. And nor are these problems as routinised as they seem to be at football.

I have seen hooliganism in Cricket myself in a match between England and India in India where some people started throwing water bottles (known as water missiles) and other stuff on the English cricket players. As we have read from the theories, the main of hooligan-like behavior is to get loyalties, be honored, and be involved in risk. Though the difference was that since it was an International match in India- there was no hooligan in the rivalry.

Hooliganism is not tied to a sport as I said. Hooligans disturb matches because of the many reasons I have explained from the three different theories.

Why is hooliganism linked to football?

Well, I think that hooliganism is related to football simply because of the explanation given by the social theory and the others. The socail-pyschological theory tells us that these football fans have a passion for football. Hooliganism is a way to search for a peak experience, which is an intense, emotional experience not usually encountered in everyday life. Peak experiences allow for an open expression of collective emotionality: an outpouring of joy or sadness, and a strengthening of a common social identity via suporting a team.

And since football is the world’s most popular and one of the most intense sports it has got more advertisement in that manner. Hooliganism in football would hence be the easiest and best way to get loyalties, raise your status, have a peak experience and have risks. This is what I believe.

Does drink have a part?

Yes, but not all the time. In the English society, drinking heavily is considered being manly. Males of all social classes are often encouraged to celebrate special occasions with their male friends by drinking to excess. Football trips abroad seem regularly to involve male fans drinking heavily together in situations where drink is cheap and easily available. On occasions like this, situations can get out of control because Englishmen placed in an unfamiliar, and perhaps threatening culture have had too much to drink. This may increase the chances of serious hooliganism.

However, it cannot be said that drink is the cause of hooliganism- yes, it can make it worse.

Are political groups involved?

There is no real evidence that such organizations are actively and effectively controlling hooliganism in England or anywhere else. Though yes, there are rumors, which cannot be, carried true until and unless evidence is provided.

What is the role of the media?

It is true that newspapers report on football using the language which seems to derive more from the world of war than it does from sport. Maybe this helps to heighten rivalries between opposing fan groups. And my sources also inform me that so do the predictions newspapers sometimes used to make that trouble is likely to occur between rival fans. Media coverage of hooligan activities worked at promoting if not causing hooliganism. The main reason for this which comes to my mind is that since the hooligans are doing this to get honored and be involved in risk (using the theories) media coverage will amplify and multiply the effects and its significance.

After answering these questions I can discuss a lot on whether I agree or disagree with the statement that “It’s easy to become a football hooligan!” Well, it is not easy to become a football hooligan- (from the theories we have) the situations and mental conditions of a person have to be very in a particular way to be a hooligan. In the below paragraphs (and some of the paragraphs I have already written) you will get to know from me that I do agree with the statement and I don’t also.

It is easy to become a football hooligan only if the situations are perfect i.e. you are mentally down, you want to be entertained- to be noticed, to be involved in risk, you want loyalties, you want to act cool or you deeply love your football club (which is the least chance for a person to become a hooligan).

Also it depends upon which nationality or culture you are from. For example the Indian culture doesn’t encourage us to drink (which may make situations worse) nor does it encourage us to get involved into fights of some kind. Generally it is very rare for Asians (i.e. Eastern hemisphere) to get involved in these hooligan fights.

Not only this, but it depends upon the stable mentality of the person- if you are not mentally stable and are looking for attention- hooligan behavior might be the answer for your prayers. Also it matters what your status is in the society. If you are at a high post- fights and verbal abuses including so much life risk would not be the thing you would want to do- this may hurt your reputation.

It is generally found that youths (late teens and early twenties) are the ones involved in such activity. This is because of the mental imbalances going on in their mind and how they react to what they see in the society. If you live in an environment where there is some existence of shame and security, a person would not get involved in such activities, (which is again found widely in the Eastern Hemisphere).

If you looked at what the sociological theory is closely: The rewards involved in such activities like the loyalty and the entertainment you get from hooligan involvement is very valuable for these young men whose opportunities for status and excitement from other ways are very limited.

Now, if you get opportunities and excitement and the involvement in risk (if required) from other ways (excelling in studies, participating in state or club teams and gaining reputation etc.) these activities will not at all be necessary to do.

There is some affect of how you are brought up and what environment you live in. Peer pressure comes into play. And so do so many other factors.

What I mean to say is that it depends upon how you are suppressed under the factors i.e. are all the factors positive to say that your requirements are of one to become a hooligan. It is very hard to answer this question that why some young men, rather than others, might find this sort of activity attractive and rewarding. Nor is it clear why, at particular times and in particular kinds of societies or in particular places, hooliganism of this kind should become so attractive. What my opinion is that things should match with those in the theories to give us some sense of realization that this person might be a hooligan because of these reasons. It is not easy to become a hooligan but it is not hard also.

Social inquiry is the act of ‘inquiring’ into human society. The method of ‘inquiring’ varies. The factors which are taken in to account of which method to adopt to ‘inquire’ can be influenced by a number of factors. A certain type of inquiry could be used due to the inquirer’s past experiences of a certain method, his/hers preferences, cost, availability of sources are to name but a few. I intend to examine Social Research Methods written by Alan Bryman and Research Methods written by Patrick McNeill.

Both refer to the various methods available to one in order to inquire about human society. The two books are similar in that they both put forward ideas and theories related to the selected methods they want to discuss.

McNeill’s book is broken down into six short chapters, which has an informative introductory chapter into why we have research methods in sociology. At the beginning he provides the reader with a brief history of social research which is helpful as it explains why the ‘inquiry’ stage is very important. The 1960’s began to saw changes in sociology which was to “encourage survey style of social research and move towards participant observation.”

There is a clear, logical progression through the chapters. They begin at a basic level and then slowly build upon points. Therefore, it caters for anyone new to the subject who can follow it through with little difficulty. For example, in chapter one, it is rudimentary for McNeill’s to ask in the first sentence, “What is Sociology?” This illustrates that McNeill has written the book, trying to accommodate for individuals without the presumption that the reader has prior knowledge of the subject of sociology.

The book is laid out so that it has a number of sub-headings which breaks down the text making it easier to read and allow time for the reader to ‘digest’ the information. This is a good quality because it makes sure the reader is feeling they are understanding what is being written and also feeling comfortable and confident enough to carry on. It is liked that McNeill has made reading the book interactive by giving the reader a number of ‘activities’ to complete at the end of each chapter. This is a very good idea as it consolidates what the reader has read so far.

McNeill states that there are three important concepts that are used throughout the book: reliability, validity and representativeness. This allows the reader to remain focused as McNeill has pointed out what is essential.

The book discusses a range of processes including Ethnography also known as Participant Observation in chapter four. The use of examples such Taylor (1984) and his infamous a covert study of the London Underworld makes what the author say believable. Too much fiction can make readers reject the book.

The book is organised so that any difficult or complex topics/issues featured are provided with relevant “Furthering reading”. For example, “The next best thing is to read about a community study. I recommend Stacey’s books (1960 and 1975), and those by Grans (1962 and 1967). The latter have more humour.” This allows the reader to further their knowledge. This is what differentiates this book from other books. This type of book is helpful to students in circumstances where they need to do research.

McNeill uses diagrams to explain key points which are vital to aid the readers understanding. For example, Fig 7, explains the relationship between choice of topic and the research method.

McNeill goes into further detail by breaking down the stages of research. This is helpful to anybody i.e. students studying sociology. ‘A’ Level sociology students even to members if the public who want to learn about social research.

McNeill uses a number of references to support the various pros and cons for each research method. For example, McNeill questions “How can sociologists use official statistics?” McNeill states that “…sociologists take these statistics at their face value and use them as ready-made source of data for their research. They are cheap, readily available, cover a long time-p, and are comprehensive in their coverage of social life. They maybe the only source of data on the topic in question.” He also provides a balanced and objective argument – “However, there are many problems. Since the statistics are collected for administrative rather than sociological purposes definitions and classifications made are often unsuitable”. This gives the reader a better appreciation for each method. McNeill helps the reader assess which method of inquiry is good.

The aim of Brymans book is to bridge the gap between theory and methods in social research. He states that it is the “introduction to the study and implementation of social research methods.”

When writing the book, Bryman had two readers in mind –

(i) Undergraduates. The research methods, the use of British examples whenever possible and appropriate.

(ii)-Undergraduates who are wanting to conduct research projects.

Bryman wanted to write a book that would be “helping students make informal decisions about doing their research”. He would explore the uses and limitations in order to help with students any hesitations.

We can appraise Bryman’s structure of the book because it is clear, accessible style with an in-depth understanding of the subject. This is clearly demonstrated through the initial layout of the book as it has two parts; Part one: Issues and Part Two: Methods used in social research. The book is divided into four parts. The first part has two chapters introducing the natural science approach as an appropriate framework for the study of society. This would comprise social surveys, case studies and experimental research. These first two chapters would apply the building blocks for the rest of the book

The second part has ten chapters based on quantitative research methods including sampling, design of questionnaire, structured observations. The third part has eight chapters with a strong overview of the nature of qualitative research, including ethnography/participant observation and the analysis of this method. Finally, the fourth part has five chapters which take the reader beyond quantitative and qualitative.

The physical characteristics of the book are one of the concerns some readers have when deciding on choosing a book to read. McNeill’s book is of ‘reasonable’ size as it does not look overwhelming which would put off potential readers. In comparison, Bryman’s book is literally twice as large and as heavy and because it is considerably larger, this may come across as a daunting read. I believe it is not designed for a reader who is new to the subject, although it doesn’t expect students to have any prior knowledge of the subject.

The written text is clear, using a standard type and font size twelve, making it easier on the eye. The language is claimed to be “well written, comprehensive and authoritative”.

Contrary to this view, the language has been described to be severely convoluted.

Throughout the book, it is laid out so that on each page, the text is broken into two columns. This gives the allusion that there is less to read. In contrast, Brymans book is very colourful using red, blue and green which grab the potential reader’s attention. This is intelligently done as it makes the book look aesthetically pleasing and attractive. Though, it is believed the book is that multifaceted it requires ‘colour’ to attract a reader to it!

A weakness that proves to be a problem throughout the book is that Bryman reiterates and labours his points further than needed. For example, trying to explain Interpretivism in the main text. However, Bryman then reviews this in his ‘summary key points’ in “Box 1.9 What is Interpretivism”. This is too much for students because it is time consuming. In contrast, McNeill’s book is more succinct.

The book has a number of ‘Special Features’, including Boxes, a Readers Guide which is a route map of what is to follow. Key Points mentioning any significant points to make a note of. Similarly, McNeill’s book, there are revision questions which test the readers understanding and finally a glossary which has the definitions of central terms. The abbreviations page was very supportive because it enabled the reader to familiarise themselves with the subject matter. At the beginning of each chapter there is a contents of page, thus making it very easy to refer to. The books adhere to all the commonalities of a ‘normal’ book.

Bryman strongly advocates the use of example; “examples, examples, examples”. Though it can be argued that this goes onto much more detail than is required. Hence, the reader begins to lose focus on the content. Bryman clearly states the advantages and disadvantages of research methods. For example, “Open Questions”, the advantages mean “respondents can answer in their own terms. They are not forced to answer in the same terms as those foisted on them by the closed answers”. However, the drawbacks mean “they are time consuming for interviewers to administer. Interviewees are likely to talk for longer than is usually the case with a comparable closed question”

Brymans book would be useful for someone who is seriously interested in obtaining a full and detailed analysis of methods. This is excellent if you like illustrative books. Bryman is targeting the type of reader which enjoys detail.

A positive point about the book is that it has questions at the end of chapters allowing the reader to engage in empirical work. I don’t like Brymans book because it is focused for 2nd year and 3rd year students and even for them it is sometimes hard to grasp what the author is trying to say. In contrast, McNeill’s book is very helpful because you are able to find something out, quite quickly and also understand it with little difficulty.

I believe that both books are very helpful and do fill a gap in the literature. Overall, I found both books to be very helpful as they successfully enabled students to learn how to do social inquiry. They outline the advantages and disadvantages to various methods. Although this is a good point but sometimes this can overwhelm the reader. On the other hand, a reader should be well informed. Though, each book is tailored to the potential readers as discussed earlier.

Modernity and postmodernism are terms used to describe different eras in the development of human societies. It is different from most sociological perspectives in that it has no over arching theory. Some think that western societies have moved from an era of modernity to post modernity, but others do not agree. The debate between modernity and postmodernism tends to be about to what extent society has changed, and so which theoretical approach is the most appropriate. Modernism began as a way of describing the ideas that emerged during the .

There were three main elements modernism, economic, political and cultural. Modernist thinking supports the idea that the purpose of learning is to better the human condition. Postmodernism opposes each of the assumptions of modernism. They say there is no such thing as valid or invalid knowledge, they see knowledge as a form of control rather then liberation and that grand theories are inadmissible. Postmodernism began to have a significant effect on sociology in the 1980’s.

Most postmodernists believe that conventional approaches are no longer relevant to sociology, and must be discarded, approaches such as Marxism, functionalism and feminism they claim, were useful in explaining how society operated in previous eras but are no longer relevant to today’s society. Modern theorists such as Durkhiem and Weber claim to be able to provide a comprehensive and definitive theory of society. Post modernists claim that this is not possible. Postmodernists claim that enlightenment has been abandoned in contemporary society.

They claim people no longer believe in the inevitability of progress and the capacity of science to explain all. People are more pessimistic and no longer believe that grand theories such as Marxism and functionalism are able to explain society. There is now a much wider set of beliefs. French postmodernist writer Jean-Francois Lyotard argues that post-industrial society and so post-modern culture began to develop at the end to of the 1950’s, although the rate of development varies between countries.

Lyotard agrees that the advance of postmodernism undermines metanarratives of social progress, and people no longer believe that reason can conquer superstition. Lyotard’s explanation of how postmodernism has come about is somewhat vague, although he seems to attribute most importance to technology. He believes postmodernism rest upon the “miniaturisation and commercialisation” of machines. Computer technology has become the principal force of production.

He claims that post-modern society is founded on the production and exchange of knowledge and predicts that future wars will be about the control of knowledge as opposed to territorial disputes. It has been suggested that Lyotard’s theory sounds very similar to a Marxist criticism of capitalism, but postmodernism offers the possibility of tolerance, in which humans are not all corrupted by metanarratives. However critics have pointed out that wile Lyotard repeatedly critic’s metanarratives in his theory he himself has huge generalisations about the direction of human development.

He also provides little evidence to support his theory. Marxist critic Terry Eagelton has pointed out that Lyotard’s key concept in the development in human society is technical language, and he says this is nothing more than a justification for capitalism and the pursuit of profit regardless of human consequence. Jean Baudrillard is also regarded as a post-modern theorist. Like Lyotard he sees societies as having entered a new and distinctive phase. Unlike Lyotard, and indeed most postmodernists he is rather pessimistic about the outcome of these changes.

Baudrillard argues that society is no longer based production and economic forces involving material goods (in direct contradiction of Marxism). He says they have been replaced by the buying and selling of signs and images, which have no relation to material reality. To him society is based upon production and exchange of free-floating images that have little or no connection to what they actually represent. Baudrillard differs from Lyotard in that he sees humans as trapped in a type of powerless uniformity and not being liberated by diversity.

He too is vague in explaining how exactly postmodernism has come about. Unlike Lyotard he attaches significance to the television and mass media as an important factor. Critics have argued however that Baudrillards writing is very abstract. It offers examples to illustrate arguments and no systematic evidence. It has been suggested that Baudrillard was so immersed in his theory that to some extent he lost his grip on reality, as in later work he went on to suggest that the gulf war did not exist, but was just a series of images produced by the media, with no evidence that they were real.

One of the most inflection sociologists to reject the claims of postmodernism is Anthony Giddens. He does not accept that enlightenment thinking must be abandoned and that metanarratives no longer have a place. He believes postmodernity may develop in the future but unlike sociologist such as David Harvey he does not accept that we have entered an era of post modernity. He does however think that significant changes have taken place within modernity and claims that we are in a period of late modernity.

He says that when we move into an era of post modernity there will be four main institutional structures present in society. These are, multi-layered democratic participation, demilitarisation, and humanisation of technology, post scarcity system. He does admit that his idea of a post modern society is a rather idyllic one, as it is hard to imagine richer countries sharing their wealth with poorer countries for example, but is willing to except it may happen in the future.

His theory is backed up only by occasional example rather than systematic evidence, however it remains the main opposition to post modernism theories. The main criticism of postmodernism is that it is paradoxical. How can you have a general theory that argues that general theories are no longer relevant? However many consider postmodernism to be an important area of sociology even if they do not believe society has yet reached that stage in development.