Sociology

Introduction

Domestic violence is one of the most prevalent crimes in the USA. Yearly FBI analyses indicate an incidence of 900,000 to 3,000,000 domestic violence crimes being reported to the police (Garcia-Moreno et al. 1686). At the same time, the number of underreported crimes is much larger. Some sources indicate that only 1% of domestic violence crimes ever reach the attention of law enforcement agencies, and popular estimations of domestic violence in the country range from 10 to 20 million incidents per year (Garcia-Moreno et al. 1686). Violence in families and between intimate partners affects both women and men, as it is said that one in three women and one in four men face domestic abuse at least once in their lifetime, either as children, as adults, or both.

The government plays a central role in mitigating the consequences of domestic violence crimes. Government spending is crucial for accommodating the victims of home abuse, providing them with short and long-term protection, and helping repair the physical and psychological damage done to them. However, the recent shifts in budget forming and government spending are putting the victims of domestic violence at risk.

According to President Donald Trump’s 2018 budget analysis, the expenses on victims of domestic violence are to be reduced from 480 million dollars a year to just 30 million within the next decade (Trump). Domestic violence services are crucial in saving lives, and more funding is needed. The current administration’s budget shows massive cuts to programs such as the violent act against women. Women, survivors, activists, and victims are worried about these funding cuts and are advocating for more funding.

Services Offered to Survivors and Victims

Domestic abuse is a crime that requires numerous resources in order to manage, as one of the primary concerns is to keep the victims away from perpetrators. It is very hard to do, as families often live under the same roof and do not have separate places to live. In addition, those housings may not present a safe space, as the abusers often know their whereabouts. Assistance to the victims of domestic abuse is typically provided by law enforcement agencies and various NGOs that are directly or indirectly sponsored by the government. Major services provided to victims of domestic abuse are as follows:

Crisis counseling

This type of assistance is the psychological first aid to a victim of domestic abuse. Their primary duty is to assess the victim’s situation, help them remain calm, and go over various options with them. Both the police department and various NGOs provide this type of assistance, either by telephone or in-person.

Shelter and safe housing

While sheltering is provided by various NGOs, safe housing is done almost exclusively under the patronage of the police, as only they have the authority and the capability to protect the victims of abuse from potentially violent assault.

Food, clothing, and transportation

This area is undertaken by government-funded welfare organizations and NGOs. The purpose of this program is to provide food and clothing to victims forced out of their homes as well as transportation to places that can provide aid.

Support groups

These are created mostly under the initiative of NGOs and groups of concerned citizens. They provide moral support by surrounding the victims with kind and caring people.

Individual counseling

Victims of domestic abuse require psychological rehabilitation and assistance from experienced psychologists. Government agencies and NGOs provide free counseling.

Accompaniment and advocacy

Victims of domestic abuse are often involved in complex medical, legal, and law enforcement processes. The police and various NGOs often provide counselors to assist with these motions. In addition, many organizations make efforts to improve the position of victims of domestic abuse through political actions and advocacy.

Legal services

Professional advocates and specialists are required to obtain restraining orders as well as assistance from government agencies.

Children’s services

Children require additional amounts of attention and support from various institutions, as they have a more fragile psyche and are more likely to suffer from domestic abuse.

As it is possible to see, domestic abuse programs encompass a wide array of services ranging from emergency psychological attention to medical, housing, provisional, transportation, and legal services. These require gratuitous amounts of resources and specialists, as the victims of domestic abuse need to be supported in almost every aspect of their livelihoods for prolonged periods of time, which is expensive. The money is primarily spent on paying the specialists for their work, provisions, clothes, housing, security, and awareness campaigns.

Types of Abuse and Victims of Domestic Violence

Domestic violence occurs in families and couples of all kinds, including heterosexual, lesbian, and gay pairs (Goodman et al. 355). It is classified as any kind of abuse in a domestic setting, such as marriage or any other type of relationship. There are four kinds of abuse, classified by their effects and root causes. These types are as follows:

Physical violence

This type of abuse is classified as exerting physical force upon a partner. It is usually manifested in short-term and long-term physical injuries and could even result in death (Straus 18). Women are more often found to be victims of hard physical domestic violence, which includes severe harm to a person’s livelihood. Men are more frequently subjected to lighter versions of domestic violence, as in the majority of cases, men are stronger than women physically, thus more likely to become perpetrators. Physical domestic violence also involves physical deprivation of a person’s freedom, intimidation, and threats of violence, and other forms of abuse.

Sexual

Often mixed with physical, this type of abuse is associated with forcing another partner to perform acts of sexual gratification against their will. Women and children are more likely to suffer from this kind of abuse, especially in heterosexual couples (Goodman et al. 357). In addition, domestic sexual abuse includes acts of sexual mutilation, marital rape, incest, and reproductive coercion. These forms are widespread in Africa among numerous indigenous tribes, where they are considered cultural norms. The majority of these crimes are underreported, under fear of retribution and public shaming.

Emotional abuse

This kind of domestic violence is the most difficult to classify and prosecute, as it does not leave any physical marks to be used as evidence and is usually committed within households, meaning that there are rarely any witnesses. This type of abuse often involves threats, intimidation, dehumanization, and depreciation of one’s sense of self-worth, which results in severe psychological problems such as depression (Goodman et al. 357).

In many cases, emotional abuse can lead to long-term psychological disorders or even suicide. Although this type of abuse is primarily aimed towards women, there are significantly more males who have reported crimes of this category than any others. It may be because of prejudice towards male victims of domestic violence and sexual abuse in general.

Economic abuse

This kind of abuse involves preventing the partner from utilizing economic assets of the family fairly, preventing them from earning money for themselves, and using unfair marital contracts, traditions, and marital assets in order to establish a form of dominance and control (Goodman et al. 356). It is typically associated with other forms of abuse, namely emotional and sexual, as financial power can be used to extract sexual favors and belittle the partner, diminishing their sense of self-worth. This form of abuse is less prevalent in the USA than in less developed societies but is still present. Women and children are the primary victims of this kind of abuse.

Since the cases of singular types of abuse are extremely rare, it is hard to distinguish the age and gender ratios for each type. However, the overall balance is 80% female victims to 20% male victims for repeated cases of domestic abuse, which indicates that women are typically victims, while males are more likely to be perpetrators due to being stronger and maintaining a more economically stable position in the society (Straus 35).

Benefits of Domestic Violence Programs to Victims

The effectiveness of domestic violence programs varies, as in order to receive the majority of the benefits associated with the domestic violence victim status, a person in question must file a case to the police. While NGOs provide counseling and support to anyone who requires help, involving the government agencies usually means opening a domestic violence case. The majority of reported victims receive a sizeable support package, and the delivery of help is much more efficient in that regard.

According to the research performed across all 50 states, the three main beneficial programs for victims of domestic abuse include the federal food stamp program, the housing assistance program, and the Medicaid and Medicare program.

The researchers found that the food stamp program is useful to roughly 82% of all victims on a regular basis. Similar numbers are found for housing needs (82%) and medical relief (75%), which highlights the three primary needs of domestic violence victims (Goodman et al. 360). They need food, shelter, and medical attention. Consequently, these three programs are on the list for budget cuts in the current administration’s budget for 2019. The food stamp program is to be cut by 78%, housing – by 14%, and Medicare to be eliminated or severely cut back as well (Trump).

However, there are many more programs not directly affiliated with domestic violence relief that the victims benefit from. Many victims die as a result of police officers attempting to rescue them and stop the fighting. Officers often lack the proper knowledge and training to recognize the signs and symptoms of domestic violence. Likewise, they do not know how to properly de-escalate a violent conflict situation (Zaher et al. 619). In a country where there are enough guns to arm every man, woman, and child several times, it often results in the deaths of the perpetrators, victims, and police officers involved. Trump’s 2019 budget cuts training programs for police officers even further, instead funneling money into hiring more officers.

Funding Decrease and Its Negative Impact on Domestic Violence Survivors

The effects of decreased funding, especially those in the major welfare sectors such as food stamps, affordable housing, and Medicare, are not hard to predict. The majority of the victims of domestic violence live below the poverty line. Black women are four times as likely to suffer from abuse than white women (Goodman et al. 359). The black community is notoriously poor in the USA as a result of the country’s history of slavery and systematic discrimination. The majority of women, in general, have lower income compared to men as a result of institutionalized sexism and gender role stereotypes, which have been prevalent in the USA for the entirety of the 20th century and persist even now. Thus, the population groups that are the most vulnerable to domestic violence will be cut off from governmental support.

The 78% decrease in the food stamp program means that the majority of victims will not be able to afford the food and provisions to sustain themselves. It makes them more likely to be forced to return to abusive relationships, as males are often better off in terms of financial independence and have effectively debilitated their spouses from being independent as a form of financial abuse. In addition, malnutrition is likely to cause more serious health problems down the line and increase anxiety and depression in victims of domestic violence.

As a result, psychological rehabilitation programs, which are also receiving significant cuts due to the government’s 358 million dollar cut of NGO grants for providing medical assistance (Trump), will have an increased influx of patients with no means of treating their problems. No amount of psychological help will be effective if the patient in question is starving.

The cut to affordable housing is another serious blow to the victims of domestic violence. Although a 14% budget cut to the industry does not seem as drastic as the cuts made to food stamps and Medicare (Trump), it still means that a good portion of victims will remain on the streets. Neither the police nor NGOs would be capable of sheltering and offering protection to everyone if the rates of domestic violence are to remain the same or even increase.

Those without shelter or protection will be forced to return to abusive relationships in order to survive or turn vagabond. Homelessness is associated with numerous physical and psychological disadvantages as well as hazards to life and health. This will mean increased loads on the already underfunded social security organizations, meaning increased criminality, poverty, and reduced quality of service.

The cut to Medicare and Medicaid services will impact not only the victims of domestic violence but all American citizens living under the poverty line. Obamacare, introduced in 2010 and continued in full until the presidential elections in 2016, provided medical coverage for more than 23 million poor American citizens (Garcia-Moreno et al. 390). These provisions covered not only the reported victims of domestic violence but also many underreported individuals, as most of the domestic violence occurs in households stricken with poverty.

The impact of cuts on Medicaid would be massive, as they would affect not only the individuals confirmed as victims of domestic abuse but also those under the radar. More than 10 million victims will suffer. Medical care is one of the primary methods of detecting signs of domestic violence, as the doctors will often be called upon to treat injuries and testify in court. Without medical attention, the victims are going to suffer both physically and psychologically, which would drastically increase morbidity and mortality rates among them.

Cuts to psychological aid will severely worsen the situation for victims of domestic violence, especially children. Children are more vulnerable to the psychological aspects of the crime than adults are and require greater amounts of counseling as well as more time to adjust. Without professional help, they are likely to develop phobias, depression, and self-destructive habits such as smoking, alcohol, and drug abuse, as well as adopt risky lifestyles outside of the household (Hackett et al. 130). Adult victims, on the other hand, would not be able to integrate back into society, which would mean additional social, psychological, and economic issues down the line.

Overall cuts and changes to the government’s VAMA policy are going to affect lawyers working on providing judicial assistance to victims of domestic violence as well (Garcia-Moreno et al. 391). While some lawyers offer their services free of charge, the majority of them require some sort of reimbursement from the organizations that employ their services. Without their help, the majority of victims would not be able to get restraining orders, file for patent rights protection, and successfully presenting their cases in court.

The results of these policies are two-fold. First, the number of reported cases of domestic violence will decrease, but not because the actual number of abuses declined. Instead, the majority of the cases would simply not reach the court, further increasing the number of crimes committed under the radar. Second, the overall quality of legal assistance would deteriorate, meaning that the court of law would see fewer restraining orders and successful cases against domestic violence. Overall, the situation would worsen considerably while appearing good in the official reports.

Lastly, the increased numbers of police officers will not help remedy the situation in any way. The majority of newly-employed officers would be stationed in prisons, which have been severely understaffed for a whole. While these measures may help resolve the problem of violence in prisons, such as the abhorrent numbers of prison rapes, they will not directly affect the quality of law enforcement in regards to domestic crimes. On the contrary, the addition of inexperienced officers lacking sufficient training to deal with sensitive and delicate matters of domestic violence is likely to exacerbate the problem. In short, the amounts of deaths because of the police’s untimely interference is likely to increase.

Conclusions and Recommendations

As it is possible to tell from the analysis of potential consequences for domestic violence victims brought upon by the considerable budget cuts to the welfare sector. As a result, the number of deaths and injuries, as well as long-term psychological and economic aftereffects, will increase dramatically. Nevertheless, this budget will remain a reality for at least the next two years, so long as the current administration maintains its course on cutting the welfare sector. This does not bode well for government agencies, medical organizations, and NGOs dedicated to supporting the victims of domestic violence. Nevertheless, the necessity will force everyone to adapt to the reality of the situation. There are several recommendations to improve the situation.

First, domestic violence programs that rely on federal and state funding would need to seek out other forms of financial sustenance. In these troubled times, where the government effectively turns against the poor and downtrodden, the NGOs must call out to the good people of America, seeking out private and corporate sponsors. The organizations must form a united front and conduct massive awareness campaigns in order to attract support and make up for the lost funding.

Second, domestic violence NGOs must fiercely advocate against the budget cuts on all legal and political levels. The organizations must engage local legislators, senators, counselors, the media, and everyone else with a voice in order to attract the attention of the public to the pressing matters of domestic violence. Through such actions, it would be possible to sway the political climate and gather support for this critical welfare issue.

Lastly, the organizations involved in fighting domestic violence must reorganize and optimize their structure in order to reduce all unnecessary administrative expenses and seek out to improve the quality of care without raising costs. In the realities of financial shortages, it would be required to perform as well as possible and deliver help to those who need it the most. To save money, it could be possible to engage the issue on the community level, getting the local religious groups and political associations involved. Although the quality of help will likely suffer from including individuals not directly associated with domestic violence assistance and rehabilitation, it would help improve the quantity of help and increase public awareness about the issue.

To summarize, domestic violence is a major problem for many communities across the country. Cutting funding will increase the number of victims. Domestic violence programs rely on federal funding and state funding as well as private donors. To continue serving victims and survivors, many of these programs need all funding from different sources.

Works Cited

Garcia-Moreno, Claudia, et al. “Addressing Violence against Women: A Call to Action.” The Lancet, vol. 385, no. 9978, 2015, pp. 1685-1695.

Goodman, Lisa A., et al. “Advancing Domestic Violence Program Evaluation: Development and Validation of the Measure of Victim Empowerment Related to Safety (MOVERS).” Psychology of Violence, vol. 5, no. 4, 2015, pp. 355-366.

Hackett, Shannon, et al. “The Therapeutic Efficacy of Domestic Violence Victim Interventions.” Trauma, Violence, and Abuse, vol. 17, no. 2, 2015, pp. 123-132.

Straus, Murray. Physical Violence in American Families. Routledge, 2017.

Trump, Donald. “Efficient, Effective, Accountable: An American Budget.” White House, 2018. Web.

Zaher, Eman, et al. “Effect of Domestic Violence Training: Systematic Review of Randomized Controlled Trials.” Canadian Family Physician, vol. 60, no. 7, 2014, pp. 618-624.

Introduction

When talking about animal experimentation, it is hard not to mention the quote by Jeremy Bentham, who formulated the ethical question like the following: “The question is not ‘Can they reason?’ nor ‘Can they talk?’ but ‘Can they suffer?’ Why should the law refuse its protection to any sensitive being?” (Bentham, 2017, p. 144). In the 21st century, science and medicine face numerous challenges in the form of incurable diseases, hunger, poverty, natural disasters, and many others. Experimentation and development of new drugs, crops, and chemicals have proven to be invaluable in saving numerous human lives. At the same time, the price for progress was often paid in the lives of test animals, who were sacrificed on the altar of science.

The population is divided on the subject of animal testing. According to Swami, Furnham, and Christopher (2008), while the majority of the population is in favor of animal testing, that support comes with a promise of humane treatment of the test subject. However, that promise is largely used as a universal compromise to numerous ethical issues surrounding animal experimentation. The purpose of this paper is to provide a convincing argument against animal experimentation by evaluating ethical and practical concerns regarding the use of animal subjects in experimental science.

Ethical Issues Regarding Animal Experimentation

The main ethical issues related to the subject of animal experimentation are the issues of animals suffering and the risks associated with the experiment outweighing potential benefits to humanity. These two issues can be looked upon through the lenses of virtue ethics, presented by Socrates, and utilitarian ethics developed by Jeremy Bentham. Virtue ethics see causing deliberate animal suffering, even for a greater cause, as an unjust deed, as it conflicts with the virtue of Mercy. It cannot be equalized with the process of hunting or slaughtering animals for food, as such actions are directly related to the process of humanity’s survival. Animal experimentation does not directly influence humanity’s survival, as the end result of experimentation is inherently unknown.

Utilitarian ethics seek to determine the balance between pleasure and pain, which is then used to justify the decisions made in personal or public service. As evidenced by Bentham himself, animal suffering is not excluded from the equation and plays a role in his ethical framework. According to Bentham, rights and protection by the law are not granted just for the ability to think and hold a conversation, but also for the ability to suffer (Bentham, 2017). Suffering is placed above the other two prerequisites.

Once more, the issue of unpredictability comes forth, as the benefits from potential experimentation are unknown, whereas potential harm is almost complete certainty.

Lastly, there is an issue of motivation. It cannot be plausibly determined that the request for animal experimentation is motivated by an earnest desire to help humanity rather than the personal ambitions of the researcher. According to Gluck and Kubacki (1991), it is impossible to tell the true motivations of people. The only method available in ethical research revolves around self-examination, which is inherently subjected to personal bias.

Practical Concerns Regarding Animal Experimentation

As it stands, the scientific community implements the rule of the three Rs in animal testing and research. The three Rs stand for Reduction, Refinement, and Replacement. It means that scientists should strive to reduce the number of test subjects, refine the processes to reduce unnecessary danger and suffering, and overall avoid testing on animals if possible.

According to Hagelin, Hau, and Carlsson (2003), the introduction of obligatory ethical scrutiny managed to significantly refine and reduce the use of animals in experiments associated with medicine, agriculture, and animal husbandry. Stafleu, Tramper, Vorstenbosch, and Joles (1999) propose an ethical framework for animal experimentation, which determines the necessity of animal use based on the ultimate aim of the experiment, the weight of human interest, the likelihood and severity of suffering, the assessment of the relevance of animal experiment, as well as harm scores for humans and animals.

The problem with both of these approaches lies in the fact that the majority of the variables that are supposed to justify the research are usually based on incomplete data, anecdotal evidence, or assumptions. According to Greek (2002), animal testing in drug development often offers inconclusive evidence to justify human testing, which is a necessary next step in medical research, thus making risking animal lives a potentially pointless endeavor. Goodall (2000) states that animal experimentation was not as critical to medical research as initially claimed and that the results of many animal experiments were controversial and misleading, causing human and animal suffering as a result.

Conclusions

Animal experimentation is a major ethical and practical issue in scientific research. The survival and prosperity of the human race rest upon scientific progress. However, that progress should not be built on the suffering of animals, which, in many cases, does not even lend any tangible results. Animal experimentation has always been a poor substitute for human experimentation, which raises more ethical questions and dilemmas. Animal experimentation should be banned by law because it is immoral and inefficient. It should stay that way until researchers manage to predict the results, benefits, and dangers of the experiments with a reasonable degree of certainty. Once they would be able to do that, however, the need for animal experimentation would vanish altogether. The suffering of animals should not be used as a tool for the elimination of doubt.

References

Bentham, J. (2017). An introduction to the principles of morals and legislation. Web.

Goodall, J. (2000). Reason for hope: A spiritual journey. New York, NY: Grand Central Publishing.

Greek, R. (2002). Animal studies and HIV research. BMJ, 324, 236.

Hagelin, J., Hau, J., & Carlsson, H. E. (2003). The refining influence of ethics committees on animal experimentation in Sweden. Laboratory Animals, 37(1), 10-18.

Stafleu, F. R., Tramper, R., Vorstenbosch, J., & Joles, J. A. (1999). The ethical acceptability of animal experiments: A proposal for a system to support decision-making. Laboratory Animals, 33(3), 295-303.

Swami, V., Furnham, A., & Christopher, A. N. (2008). Free the animals? Investigating attitudes toward animal testing in Britain and the United States. Scandinavian Journal of Psychology, 49(3), 269-276.

Introduction

Historically, there has been a more or less strict division of men’s and women’s gender roles in life, to which the vast majority of people used to confirm. Most typically, females were viewed as the ones who had to look after the children, husband, and household. Males, on the other side, were considered the breadwinners and, as such, were not supposed to do any work about the house or look after their children.

Women were not allowed to become soldiers, obtain higher education, and enter some professions that were regarded as “non-feminine.” Meanwhile, a man would have been judged or even ridiculed if he wanted to do some creative work. All of these prejudices are slowly vanishing, giving way to the freedom of expression for both sexes. However, this process of transformation is not easy, and it is necessary to discuss the major issues related to gender roles in society, as well as analyze the possible ways of overcoming the difficulties.

The Traditional Understanding of Gender Roles in Society

Gender roles are commonly grounded in various expectations that people, groups, or societies have of some individuals depending on their sex and society’s beliefs and values concerning gender. As Blackstone remarks, gender roles are generated by the interaction between people and the environment (335). As a result, these interactions suggest some hints concerning what kind of behavior is treated as suitable for what gender. The appropriateness of such role division is, thus, dictated by a society’s assumptions about dissimilarities between sexes (Blackstone 335).

It is highly crucial to differentiate between the terms “gender” and “sex” in the context of the current analysis. Gender is a social concept, whereas sex is a biological one. Thus, sex refers to a person’s primary sex characteristics, and gender is related to values and meanings ascribed to different sexes (Blackstone 335). Gender is contingent on the biological division into males and females, but it also involves the social appraisal of masculinity and femininity.

Since the concept of gender is created socially, gender is considered to be a social construction. This social characteristic is reflected in individuals’ and societies’ inclination to ascribe specific traits or values to people based solely on their sex. An interesting aspect of this relation is that gender role are the ones that women and men are presumed to fulfill based on their sex (Blackstone 336). Because of the traditional belief that females are more “nurturing” than males, women are commonly associated with such type of behavior (Blackstone 336).

One of the most typical beliefs about a woman’s role is that she should nurture her family and not engage in any employment besides full-time household work. On the other hand, men are traditionally associated with leadership, so the common gender role of a male is to make family decisions and provide for the family financially (Blackstone 336). Although these beliefs have existed for many centuries, the past several decades allowed for more freedom in identifying gender perspectives.

Housework as Related to Gender Roles

One of the reasons for the traditional gender role division is concerned with children’s upbringing. Since childhood, girls perform more household chores than boys do. In developing countries, this type of work includes looking after children, washing dishes, cooking, cleaning the house, and bringing water or fuel (Wikle 17). In developed countries, the amount of housework is smaller, but still, it is commonly performed by girls rather than boys.

On the one hand, as Wikle remarks, housework can be quite beneficial: it develops time management and increases social skills (18). On the other hand, too much work about the house may distract a child from pursuing some educational goals. In developing countries, girls do more housework than boys, and the amount of this work grows with age (Wikle 18). In the US, boys are reported to be engaged in household chores 6% less often than girls (Wikle 20). These data indicate that girls are already viewed as the “nurturing” kind since the very childhood. It is no wonder that society expects that women will take care of the whole family since it trains females to do so from an early age.

Modern Views on Gender Roles

The twenty-first century altered traditional views on gender roles, allowing for some alternative approaches. Various disciplines suggest their views on role division, thus giving ecological, biological, sociological, and feminist perspectives (Blackstone 336). According to the sociological theory, feminine and masculine roles are learned, and these roles are not necessarily linked to females’ and males’ biological characteristics.

The feminist approach, which is related to the sociological one, states that if the functions are learned, they can also be unlearned (Blackstone 336). Thus, feminists consider that it is possible to create entirely new roles. A particular emphasis in feminist perspective is put on the fact that gender roles are not only about behavior. Feminists argue that the division of responsibilities has a great effect on the distribution of power among society members.

One of the problems in gender role division is the losses experienced by each party in case a marriage collapses. Because men tend to have more power and financial independence due to women staying at home and looking after children, females frequently find themselves in a difficult financial situation when they separate from their partners (Blackstone 337). A similar issue concerns the division of work duties among men and women. Males tend to occupy managing positions more often than females. However, this tendency is gradually changing, giving more freedom to women and letting them feel more confident and independent.

Expectations for Marriage in Modern Society

It is noted by researchers that the traditional gender role division has a negative impact on both girls’ and boys’ development into adulthood. As Dastalgir remarks, children grow up to have an erroneous understanding of their social roles. Most of all, it happens so because society fails to find a distinction between biological and sociological aspects of role divisions (Dastalgir). However, other scholars note that the situation has improved greatly. In research on attitudes and expectations for marriage, Ogletree mentions that gender roles have evolved lately (71). Moreover, with such a shift, it is also possible that the potential advantages and limitations of marriage can be altered for both males and females.

Men’s greater participation in childcare and housework may be associated with higher satisfaction from marriage. Research performed by Ogletree gives insight into modern males’ and females’ attitudes toward marriage (71). In particular, the scholar notes that women’s views are less sexist and more egalitarian than men’s. Out of 144 respondents, 51% rated both spouses working full time and dividing childcare equally as “likely” or “very likely” (Ogletree 71).

At the same time, 27% of men reported that they would not likely perform childcare responsibilities and let their spouse work full-time. Among women, the likelihood of staying at home and looking after children constituted 85%, only 15% of participants saying that they found such a situation “very unlikely” (Ogletree 71). These data indicate that modern society is ready to alter traditional beliefs about gender roles. More and more people, both men and women, realize that they should not dedicate their lives to justifying stereotypes existing in societies. Rather, everyone should be able to do what he or she prefers without being scorned for their choices.

The Media Representation of Gender Roles

It is not only a matter of looking after children and performing household duties that are at the core of modern gender role division. Throughout history, men’s prevalence at leadership posts made them look more desirable as partners and business representatives. As a result, it is difficult for women to gain the same level of respect at work even if they do the same job as men. An article by Rittenhouse discusses the challenges met by females who want to reach more representation on screen and in the boardroom.

The author remarks that men appear on TV ads twice as often as women do (Rittenhouse). What is more, one-fourth of ads portray only men, while the number of women-only ads reaches as little as 5%. Research indicates that as many as 66% of women are likely to switch off their TV when they see a stereotyped ad (Rittenhouse). Thus, this aspect of modern gender role division needs more serious consideration.

Women are trying to oppose the underrepresentation of their gender in the media. Such movements as #TimesUp and #MeToo have become “catalysts” of change, making agencies take a “hard look” at business (Rittenhouse). One of the possible approaches is employing more females in creative roles. A recent LinkedIn research indicates that in 2017, 33% of all chief creative officers were women (Rittenhouse). Thus, it is crucial to increase the representation of females not only in creative job posts but also in the ad business.

Both genders should be equally represented in major creative events and projects. It is important for everyone to understand that biases must not be allowed in any sphere of social life. It is unacceptable that many female creative directors still have to “always double-check for stereotypes and misinterpretations of women roles” (Rittenhouse). All possible efforts should be made to eliminate biased opinions, and it is good to know that some actions are already being taken.

Conclusion

The traditional understanding of gender role division used to be rather harsh on individuals who had to conform to society’s expectations of men and women. However, modern approaches allow for more freedom of expression and enable both sexes to participate in major social activities equally. While these are only initial steps to building equality in gender roles, they are quite significant both for the present and the future. It is high time for humankind to realize that people’s functions and responsibilities should not be based solely on their biological sex. Both women and men should have the right to choose which social functions to perform and at what point in their lives.

Works Cited

Blackstone, Amy. “Gender Roles and Society.” Human Ecology: An Encyclopedia of Children, Families, Communities, and Environments, edited by Julia R. Miller et al., ABC-CLIO, 2003, pp. 335-338.

Dastagir, E. Alia. “Gender Stereotypes Are Destroying Girls, and They’re Killing Boys.” USA Today. 2017. Web.

Ogletree, Shirley M. “Gender Role Attitudes and Expectations for Marriage.” Journal of Research on Women and Gender, vol. 5, 2014, pp. 71-82.

Rittenhouse, Lindsay. “Powerful Female Creatives Are Challenging Representation on Screen and in the Boardroom.” Adweek. 2018. Web.

Wikle, Jocelyn. “Patterns in Housework and Childcare Among Boys and Girls.” Journal of Research on Women and Gender, vol. 5, 2014, pp. 17-29.

Introduction

Various social aspects define individuals. The gender and age discipline is the defining unit among age sets within the community. However, gender roles are key aspects of a traditional society, with women accorded the lowest positions within the societal task completion. In the book, there is a depiction of nature that society limits the equality between men and women. The women in society are considered to be weak sex and are allocated to lesser functions. When referring to most aspects of society, individuals often consider the sex topic. The activities within the social setting are diverse and require particular consideration when being categorized. This paper analyzes the sex and gender concept in relation to the book Sociology by Macionis and Gerber.

Main Body

Sex is the entity that defines males from females. It is considered to be a biological entity in relation to human species. Through sex, humanity is capable of procreating and bearing new offspring. In the procreation entity, there are preferences that individuals articulate when the issue of attractiveness is involved. Sexual orientation is an individual’s preference in selecting a male or an email as a mating partner (Gerber and Macionis, 193). Heterosexuality is the characteristic that individuals experience deciding to mate with different sex partners. This is the only method that an offspring can be produced to mature in society. Research has articulated that heterosexuality depends on the biological components that individuals accord from their parents. However, sexuality is a sensitive component in the individual’s development in society. Bruce had had an accident in his circumcision ritual that made him lose his identity as a male.

Sex is defined by the genital parts that individuals have, and some religions articulate David’s case to feminism. It is necessary to link the identity of an individual to his/her sexual characteristics, and develop a proper sense of belonging to the sex. He had undergone several surgical procedures to transform him into a girl, but these failed because his instincts wanted to embrace his male sexuality (David Reimer n. p.).

Gender is defined as the characteristic and social rank that social individuals link to the nature of being male/female. Gender involves the sensitive topics involved in inequality, with a majority of the males dominating more stable positions within the society. Sociologists analyze the concept of social stratification when the topic under discussion involves gender roles. Taking into consideration gender roles, analysts have developed concepts that were used to analyze individuals’ regarding their physical appearance, as society moves to less conservative states. In the modern century, women participate in roles that were initially meant for their male counterparts (Gerber and Macionis, 322).

Gender roles are used to identify female/male roles in society. Reimer tried to adapt to the roles of the females but found more interesting living as a male. Though his gender role as a male had been limited, he found the need to create a family. Gender roles make individuals comfortable within the societal setting, with the man taking most responsibility in creating a comfortable family life setting. Reimer could no longer bear children due to the misfortune he had faced when a child. The depression he faced in failing to satisfy his gender roles eventually led to his demise when he committed suicide.

Conclusion

Both sex and gender are entities that define male and female beings. They analyze the nature of the behavior and roles of individuals in society. Men and women share similar roles in modern society, and soon, the traditional roles of male/female will be depleted.

Works Cited

“David Reimer, The boy who lived as a girl”. CBC News, 2004. Web.

Gerber, Linda. and John Macionis. Sociology, Seventh Canadian Edition, Toronto: Pearson Education Canada, 2011. Print.

Definition of conflict

The term conflict refers to the disagreements, misunderstandings, or differences which arise between different individuals. In day-to-day activities, for instance, in places of work, schools, churches, or at home, people encounter different types of conflicts. In most cases, conflicts emerge as a result of differences in beliefs, level of understanding, views, and personal feelings towards certain issues in life. Conflicts at the workplace arise during project planning, where colleagues have conflicting ideas.

At places of work, conflicts also arise during general meetings where the organizational management team talks about various emerging issues or debates about general issues, but one group of the team opposes while the other group consents. In such a case, conflict can arise if the conflicting groups refuse to come to an agreement concerning the way forward. In daily lives, conflicts arise at home where one child conflicts with another or a child conflicts with a parent or parents conflict amongst each other (Ferrell, 2006). All these conflicts arise where there are different opinions and a lack of understanding amongst individuals.

Types of conflicts

There are two main types of conflicts that are categorized based on the end results of the conflict. Below are the two types of conflicts and how they occur.

Constructive conflict

This refers to a conflict that exists between individuals, and due to the patience and understanding existing between the two, they end up settling the disagreement (Allyn; 2008). This type of disagreement exists under the following circumstances;

• Two or more conflicting parties change their opinions and viewpoints concerning issues, and as a result, they end up solving the conflict by coming to an agreement or agreeing to disagree. Mostly, this kind of conflict is solved when people understand that all people are entitled to their own opinions, and being different is not wrong.
• The two or more conflicting parties discuss the issue, causing hostility, and eventually, they solve their problem.
• Conflicting people become close, and they end up forgetting about the conflict. For instance, a man and his wife can have an argument but due to their familiarity, they end up forgetting and learning to understand one another.
• The parties argue or conflict for a long time and eventually a strong cohesive bond is created hence binding them together.

Destructive conflicts

This refers to the kind of conflict that exists between individuals but ends up not been solved thus causing disharmony among conflicting individuals. This type of conflict exists under the following circumstances:

• The two or more conflicting parties do not agreement and as a result the problem is never solved.
• The conflict may cause discord and people may end up fighting or calling one another names. In my family for instance, I avoid conflict at all cost, I do not like arguing and whenever I get involved in such a situation, I walk away. In most cases my family members end up yelling-at one another. My mother yells a lot and this behavior has been emulated by my little sister. Many times, we never solve anything; we just yell at each other. This behavior has been in my family for the longest time; there is so much yelling in my family. I am the only quiet person in my family. My grandfather has always taught me to be peaceful; he is a very calm person and he hates conflict.
• Conflict mostly destroys people and particularly where conflicting parties lack control of their emotions. Many people lack understanding thus causing disharmony among people who around them.
• The two or more conflicting individuals end-up on bad terms and disunited by their conflicts.

Places where conflict arise

In life, people encounter different types of conflicts where some are solved after the conflicting parties agree to solve their differences while others remain unsolved. In most cases, the conflicts that end up unsolved leads to hatred or fighting. Below are different types of conflicts encountered by people in their day-to-day lives.

Family Conflicts

In families, people conflict on a daily basis due to different reasons. In a family setting, the main conflicts that take place are; siblings conflicting among each other, a child conflicting with his/her parent or a parent conflicting with another parent. All these conflicts arise due to different opinions, lack of understanding and thoughtfulness among people. In most cases, these conflicts are caused by lack of understanding and poor communication skills. For example, a parent may be talking to his daughter, son or his/her spouse and they end up disagreeing because they did not have the same opinion and as a result they end up conflicting. Conflicts can be avoided if people can learn to understand other people’s point of view. If the conflicting parties do not listen to each other, the conflict may carry on thus causing insufferable consequences (Hudson; 2009).

Work Conflicts

Conflicts at work places occur due to differences arising between colleagues or employers and members of staff. These conflicts arise when one party or both parties fail to understand one another. Disagreements at work places occur during working period, project planning, discussions during general meetings or when solving issues within an organization.

Communal, tribal and racial conflicts

As people live in their different societies, their conflicts can originate from their tribal or cultural backgrounds. These types of disagreements occur due to incites from community or tribal leaders who are mostly affected by tribalism and racialism. Another cause of tribal and racial conflicts is communication etiquette. This happens where people who use their vernacular languages in places where people do not understand them.

The role of communication in conflict management

Communication plays a very important role in the process of conflict management. An effective communication system enables the conflicting parties to come to an agreement; this system helps people to resolve their issues and live in peace (Allyn; 2008). Poor communication skills hinder the process of solving conflict whereas effective communication is the best method of solving conflicts. Below are different ways through which effective communication skills aid in solving conflicts in real-life situations;

Causes of conflicts during communication process

There are things that take place during communication process thus causing people to engage in conflict. Below are some of these things;

• Jumping into conclusions; when people are holding a conversation and one party rushes to make a conclusion from his/her point of view, the two parties are likely to conflict. This is because the other party did not agree-with the outcome of the conversation.
• Use of generalizations and stereotypes; if two parties are communicating and one party creates uninformed and undermining sweeping statements, the other party may feel undermined thus causing conflict.
• Communication barriers; the conflicting parties are likely to conflict if one party is not paying attention or seems disinterested.

Theories and practices which help in communication process

Effective communication is a theoretically studied topic in several books which discuss communication processes (Hudson; 2009). It is very important to apply learnt theories about effective communication in our daily conversations. This is the only way one can avoid conflicting with people in the society. Below are practices people should apply during communication thus solving daily conflicts;

• People should focus on the issue under discussion and not the other party. This practice helps in reducing conflicts related to racial, tribal, gender, and age differences.
• The parties involved in a conversation should be genuine and avoid being manipulative.
• The parties involved in a conversation should be keen and learn to listen to each other.
• The parties involved in a conversation should respect one another thus avoid intimidation.

Conclusion

A conflict refers to a misunderstanding or disagreement that arises between two or more individuals during communication. In life, people engage in different conflicts but all these conflicts are classified into two groups; the constructive conflicts where disagreeing parties come to an agreement and destructive conflicts where the conflicting parties end up not solving their differences. Based on this essay, practical application of effective communication skills is the only method of solving conflicts (Ferrell; 2006). Therefore, it is suggested that people should practically apply effective communication skills in order to avoid conflicts. In addition, people should use communication skills in order to solve the differences which exist among them.

References

Allyn, C. (2008). Interpersonal Communication. New York, NY: Beebe Press.

Ferrell, B. (2006).Textbook of Palliative Nursing. New York, NY: Oxford University press.

Hudson, R. (2009) Unique and Ordinary – Reflections on living and dying in a nursing. New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Gender Roles Have Changed Significantly from the 20th to the 21^st century

Historically, women occupied a subservient position in a male-dominated society. Since the formation of ancient social hierarchies based on force and physical prowess, the patriarchal system formed a set of institutionalized prejudices that were designed to maintain the status quo, with the male occupying the dominant position at all levels of the system. However, as society progressed, and women struggled for their rights and identity, the perceptions of women changed. The public view regarding voting rights, employment, sexuality, and family duties in the 21st century are vastly different from those at the beginning of the 20th century. These differences are highlighted in the story to be explored in the scope of this paper, namely, Trifles.

Gender Roles and Expectations as Demonstrated in Trifles Were Largely Traditional

Trifles is a story set in the early 1920s that revolves around the murder of John Wright, who was found dead with a rope around his neck. The main heroines included Mrs. Hale, Mrs. Peters, and Mrs. Minnie Wright. As the Sheriff, Mr. Peters, is inspecting the house, the women, as stated by their gender roles, are expected to stand aside and look pretty, while men are solving the case. They often stop to laugh and mock the arrangements inside the house, hinting that Mrs. Wright was neglecting her “feminine duties” (Glaspell 4). This earns a scornful remark from Mrs. Hale:

“I don’t know as there’s anything so strange, our takin’ up our time with little things while we’re waiting for them to get the evidence. I don’t see as it’s anything to laugh about.” (Glaspell 5)

Although the sheriff is the designated ‘hero’ to solve the case, it is Mrs. Hale and Mrs. Peters that discover the real culprit, Mrs. Wright. Her husband was abusive of her, and she killed him after he had taken away the life of her pet bird (Glaspell 18). The developments of the tale demonstrate the gender roles associated with women at the beginning of the 20th century.

Gender Roles and Law Enforcement in the 21st Century Have Been Expanded to Become More Liberal

While in Trifles, all women were shown as repressed and not allowed to participate in any major positions within the society, there have been many changes since then. Along with the right to vote, which was granted to the majority of women around the world by 1954, in accordance with the Convention of Political Rights for Women, came the struggle for greater representation in the workforce (Crouch 27). Trifles describes not only the prejudice shown by some of the suspicious and sexist people but also the causes of the society’s perception of justice and women’s role in shaping it (Glaspell 17). This fact, coupled with the knowledge of the lead character’s past demonstrates how far society progressed since Trifles, where even the best of women had a hard time being taken seriously.

Gender Roles and Leadership in the 21st Century Have Shown Greater Involvement of Women

Trifles paint a sad picture of the 20th-century world for women, where their thoughts, ideas, and potential for leadership are constantly undermined by sexist, bragging, and less competent men. While the current status of women in society offers hope and portrays genuine change, the overall perspectives of breaking the glass ceiling remain a contentious subject. Recent studies, in turn, seek to help women break the glass ceiling and aspire to higher positions of leadership (Crouch 38). Therefore, while men can no longer openly control women as they do in Trifles, the unspoken notions of gender roles and expectations are still present in the modern business environment.

Gender Roles and Domestic Life in the 21st Century Have Become More Flexible for Women and Men

The change that has occurred in women’s domestic life is also noteworthy when comparing the situation described in Trifles to the one observed in the modern society. Similarly to the alterations in the domains of leadership and law enforcement, women have gained a sizeable amount of authority and agency in domestic life and family relationships (Baksh and Harcourt 161). The observed situation stands in stark contrast to the relationships between characters in Trifles, where domestic chores are attributed necessarily to a woman and are often a tool for ridicule, “They wonder if she was going to quilt it or just knot it!” (Glaspell 7).

The contemporary family hierarchy no longer necessarily features a patriarch in the traditional sense of the word as portrayed in Trifles. Instead, the role of a leader can be assumed by a woman. In a similar fashion, responsibilities of a leader are often distributed equally among adult family members disregarding their gender, which signifies that vast progress has been made since the era of Trifles.

Gender Roles Depicted in Trifles Are Distinctly Different from Current Ones Due to Social Change

Gender roles and stereotypes are gradually ebbing away, as it was possible to see when comparing the culture as seen in Trifles with the majority of the modern world. But they have not disappeared completely. Recent studies, in turn, demonstrate a plethora of prejudices against women which, while weaker than 100 years ago, still restrict women from achieving their true potential. The struggle for emancipation must continue until these stereotypes disappear completely.

Works Cited

Baksh, Rawwida, and Wendy Harcourt. The Oxford Handbook of Transnational Feminist Movements. OUP, 2015.

Glaspell, Susan. Trifles. Players Press, 2007.

Crouch, Colin. Society and Social Change in 21st Century Europe. Society and Social Change in 21st Century Europe. Macmillan International Higher Education, 2016.

Introduction

Community service work focuses on helping the vulnerable populations and marginalised members of society. Since social workers directly interact with people, their professional values are of great importance to ensure proper practitioner-client relationship. The values underpinning community service work in Australia include social justice, commitment to social inclusion, respect for individual self-determination, confidentiality and integrity. This paper aims to provide a critical review of the domains of human service, challenges faced in terms of social work and theoretical approaches that shape the basis of community service work.

Domains of Human Service

Of a variety of domains existing in the area of human service, it is possible to distinguish between the assistance to individuals, families, groups and communities. In terms of the first domain of providing social services to individuals, social workers are expected to recognise their clients as social beings and creatures (Payne, 2016). This means that professionals should consider individuals’ personal development and offer the guidance that helps them to survive, both physically and psychologically (“Australian community workers ethics and good practice guide”, 2017).

While helping the families, the values of integrity and respect for individual self-determination should be taken into account, which identify the relationships between the family members. It is critical for a social worker to establish a balance in the family, in which its members would achieve a compromise and learn to act as a collaborative team.

The domain of groups implies the assistance to more people who belong to a single category, which can be complicated by the issues of confidentiality, mutual trust and social enhancement needs. In this connection, ethical competences should be employed by social workers, who should maintain the confidentiality of clients and safeguard their right to privacy (Howe et al., 2018). At the same time, the value of social inclusion seems to be significant to promote it in groups, thus creating the feelings of connectedness and appreciation of each other’s contribution (“Practice standards”, 2013).

As for communities, the concept of social justice can be noted as the important professional value that is to be emphasised by social service staff. In Australia, the awareness of other communities, diversity recognition and acceptance as well as greater empathy are the benefits of social service that is provided to communities. For example, social treatment is an instrument that can be used to correct dysfunctional behaviours via counselling, education or other types of therapy.

Social Justice

Social justice is one of those phenomena in which the economic, legal, political and moral conditions of life and development of society are reflected in a condensed form. Cunningham, Baines, and Charlesworth (2014) state that through the prism of social justice, people evaluate the actual environment of their existence. The system of interpersonal relations that has developed in a particular society, its social status, the social division of labour and the distribution of social wealth are the key characteristics (Everingham, 2018). Social justice is defined in the light of two key ethical values, such as fundamental ethical equality and impartiality, which are reflected in the nature of human relations and social institutions.

The scope of social justice assumes that any principles of justice make sense only against the background of a structured social reality. Its features turn into a prerequisite for the search for a fair system of relations between the members of society. The issue of the field of justice can be considered relatively independently of the issue of the definition of justice (Mills, McGregor, Baroutsis, Te Riele, & Hayes, 2016).

However, in reality, their solution is possible only in the course of a comprehensive approach to all the individuals involved in one or another case (Webster, 2016). Therefore, community service workers should apply social justice to follow the principles of fairness and moral correctness. The way the social institutions and the government realise and assist those in need is also a subject of social justice (Garbarino, 2017). Thus, the situations of injustice are to be addressed based on fairness, right protection and prevention measures.

Social Barriers Faced in the Community Service Sector

In terms of the community service sector, the social environment is composed of two views on a given situation, a client’s and social workers’ perspectives. The client has unique characters and refers to a professional to receive certain aid. In turn, the social worker possesses a professional background, practice values and helping roles. According to Mattsson (2014), one of the key barriers faced by both parties is the view of the change process. In particular, the social service employees have skills and techniques, but the abilities and decisions may turn out to be different (Gould & Baldwin, 2016). The inconsistency between the tools of help and a client’s views leads to misunderstanding and low effectiveness of the community service area.

Another social barrier is associated with stigma, which is expressed in a client’s belief that he or she can be perceived as a weak person due to concerns and complains. It is quite difficult for both social workers and clients to overcome stigma since working with shame, embarrassment and the inability to openly discuss the problems requires additional time and efforts. In addition, some communities view the visits to social workers as a taboo, which creates one more barrier that is related to cultural peculiarities (Bø, 2015). Therefore, integrity should be at the core of service, and the counsellors should always act in trustworthy ways (Greene & Schriver, 2016). The recognition of the primary significance of human relationships engages clients in the change process based on communication and patience of community service professionals.

Theoretical Approaches Underpinning Professional Community Service Work

The evidence presents a range of theories that provide the foundation for the community service work area. Chenoweth and McAuliffe (2017) identify the essence and benefits of the human relations approach that implies the view of human interaction as the vehicle for productive change. Consistent with this theoretical approach, the value of human relationships proposes the restoration of a client’s functionality. In turn, a strict evidence-based practice approach promotes the reliance on the evidence-based interventions, which goes in line with the goal of helping people through public service to resolve their social problems (Cheers, 2019; Greenslade, McAuliffe, & Chenoweth, 2015).

In addition, an ethnic-sensitive practice approach is one more advantageous perspective that assigns a top priority to one’s unique background, which is especially important to assist various ethnicities living in Australia.

Conclusion

To conclude, this paper reviews the professional values that are to be adopted by the community service workers in Australia. The analysis of the reliable evidence shows that integrity, social justice, commitment to social inclusion, confidentiality and respect for individual self-determination are the key professional values. Most importantly, they are consistent with the modern theoretical perspectives that emphasise the cultural specifics and evidence-based nature of the services to be provided by social workers. Human relationships and communication are regarded as the driving forces that help the counsellors to implement the expected professional values in practice.

References

Australian community workers ethics and good practice guide. (2017). Web.

Bø, B. P. (2015). Social work in a multicultural society: New challenges and needs for competence. International Social Work, 58(4), 562-574.

Cheers, B. (2019). Welfare bushed: Social care in rural Australia. London, UK: Routledge.

Chenoweth, L., & McAuliffe, D. (2017). The road to social work and human service practice (5th ed.). Sydney, AU: Cengage AU.

Cunningham, I., Baines, D., & Charlesworth, S. (2014). Government funding, employment conditions, and work organization in non‐profit community services: A comparative study. Public Administration, 92(3), 582-598.

Everingham, C. (2018). Social justice and the politics of community. London, UK: Routledge.

Garbarino, J. (2017). Children and families in the social environment: Modern applications of social work. New York, NY: Routledge.

Gould, N., & Baldwin, M. (2016). Social work, critical reflection and the learning organization. New York, NY: Routledge.

Greene, R. R., & Schriver, J. M. (2016). Human behavior and the social environment: Engaging diversity and difference in practice. London, UK: Routledge.

Greenslade, L., McAuliffe, D., & Chenoweth, L. (2015). Social workers’ experiences of covert workplace activism. Australian Social Work, 68(4), 422-437.

Howe, D., Kohli, R., Smith, M., Parkinson, C., McMahon, L., Solomon, R.,… Walsh, J. (2018). Relationship-based social work: Getting to the heart of practice. London, UK: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Mattsson, T. (2014). Intersectionality as a useful tool: Anti-oppressive social work and critical reflection. Affilia, 29(1), 8-17.

Mills, M., McGregor, G., Baroutsis, A., Te Riele, K., & Hayes, D. (2016). Alternative education and social justice: Considering issues of affective and contributive justice. Critical Studies in Education, 57(1), 100-115.

Payne, M. (2016). Modern social work theory (4th ed.). New York, NY: Oxford University Press.

Practice standards. (2013). Web.

Webster, M. (2016). Challenging workplace bullying: The role of social work leadership integrity. Ethics and Social Welfare, 10(4), 316-332.