Sociology

Saudi Arabia follows the apartheid system in its treatment of women. The apartheid system resembles that of South African treatment of nonwhites in many ways. Gender-based apartheid speaks of disproportionateness in trivial and fundamental things such as education, legal rights, unequal rights to property and jobs and restrictions imposed on freedom movements by women. However the stereotype notions that claim Islamic women are uneducated and hold absolutely no rights are exaggerated verdicts propagated out of ignorance by the West. Ergo, one can’t rule out the fact that women in Saudi Arabia encounter obstacles in proving who they are and are mostly considered as sub-ordinates to their men. They are named as “dependents” on their male guardian cards (Jensen, 2005).

Women are allowed to have their identity cards with their respective photographs but this is possible only when she hits twenty-two and is expected to present the written consent of her guardian along with her employer’s consent if she is working under him. This liberty allocated to women did meet criticism by the Conservatism in various factions of the Arabian society. Similarly various resolutions calling for more employment opportunities and active involvement of women in politics have come across fierce resistance by different other segments of the society. The male segment of the society has been more pronounced in voicing out their disapproval of such liberties granted to women henceforth. Other institutes include labor ministry, religious police etc. Such influences have made women’s development in Arab countries a snail-paced phenomenon. Various factions of the society argue and point out that as per Shariah women should stay at home and be thoroughly involved in nurturing and taking care of the family. Women hence have been subjected to segregated restrictions in this country both in the cultural as well religious contexts. It should be noted that women in Saudi Arabia have not been sanctioned from seeking employment. They can be employed but the law states that they can’t work in a mixed-sex place. Thus sex segregation has a major role to play in Saudi culture. It goes unsaid that all forms of public interaction such as offices, colleges, schools, universities and libraries continue being segregated. The Mutawa, the local religious police plays an active role in ensuring that most segregation laws are properly abided by by both men and women. Due to such laws curbing women’s freedom of dress, entertainment, etc, separate restaurants for women eventually followed in 2003, the idea being to allow women to have their space while remaining unexposed to men. However family restaurants are often sighted albeit with relevant facilities provided to keep women concealed. Even then one can’t deny that visiting family restaurants by women is still an alien concept in Saudi culture. Even western companies operating there such as the likes of Pizza Hut, McDonald’s, Star bucks, KFC etcetera have to follow the laws of segregation enforced by the authorities. Women entering these places without their male beaus are not allowed to enter and be sent back (impish, 2002).

On the medical end, Saudi women cannot be treated and checked by male doctors if there is a female specialist available. The law does not vehemently deny women from being treated by men, however. The vice versa is not allowed. Women under no circumstances can treat men. Since Saudi women can’t travel without a close male relative by their side, public transport remains largely restricted to men there. Their culture imposes limitless restrictions on women’s freedom to move around in society. Driving cars is deemed haram by the religious authorities there on various grounds some of them being: whilst driving it would be necessary for women to stay unveiled and uncovered, something which is a strict no-no in the Saudi culture; driving would call on more trips of women outside their house and ultimately more interaction with na-mahram males such as traffic policemen on violation of traffic rules. Moreover, it is believed that women driving the cars would lead to dense more populous traffic which will eventually deprive the young men of the opportunity to drive around. Women’s mobility has been obstructed in various other genres in society. They are not allowed to ride on bicycles and motorbikes, to drive alone in a car and as will be discussed in the succeeding paras, they can only travel in segregated bus services.

1. Riyadh is the only city where women enjoy the freedom of travelling in buses and taxis. The buses in Riyadh are fully segregated with separate doors of entrance for women. Sex-segregation remains firmly embedded in the society where even banks have not been spared. Women are allowed to open their bank accounts only at the behest of their husbands while only female auditors can examine women’s accounts. (Saudi Women Barred from voting, 2004)
2. A woman who leaves her house for work is bound to meet and follow certain rules some of which are; the woman should pursue work only to muster up the money she needs to survive gracefully; the workplace should be completely segregated and there shouldn’t be any kind of interaction with “na-mahram” men none whatsoever; the kind of work taken up should be coherent to a woman’s physical and mental stature and should in no way obstruct her domestic life and obligations; Until and unless the husband has given his consent, women cannot proceed with their work and neither are they allowed to travel to far off places without the company of a close male relative. Irrespective, women cannot be delegated to the high profile positions in public offices and neither can they be appointed as judges in this country. (Salih)
3. As far as their clothing is concerned women of Saudi Arabia are bound with the obligation of wearing hijab and are called upon to cover their bodies with a black cloak popular known as the abaya. The niqab of face veil is also mandatory to cover their faces, failing to do which may lead to public harassment by the religious police in the country. Women in this country were not allowed to vote in the municipal elections that took place in 2005 and continue to bear the brunt of this ban. They are still not allowed to women. On the legal end too, women continue facing discrimination. They are not allowed to testify and even if they are then it has to be a personal matter where men could not be seen. A woman’s testimony has been dismissed on various grounds in Saudi Arabia, and is treated as a presumption than a fact. The authorities claim that the women tend to be more emotional compared to men which may impact the facts and distort the truth sought for; due to women’s limited role in public life they bear little of no understanding of what they witness and foresee; as women continue to be subdued by men who are the superior sex as proclaimed by God, women can only testify as per what the last men relayed to them. These laws have unfortunately had an adverse affect on the society and men have been able to scot free after coming barbaric crimes such as assault and rape because women’s testimony will be treated as a presumption and that of the criminal a fact. The opposite has happened in some case where in instead of the man being punished, the victim is for being alone with “na-mahram” males. Such is the state of women in Saudi Arabia in today’s time and age. As far as their domestic life is concerned, in most Saudi homes, men and women have separate entrances. In this culture, women cannot meet her fiancé before the wedding, nor are they allowed to talk to them. (Eltahawy, 2007)
4. On the education end, Saudi authorities have given their green signal for educational opportunities for women. Traditionally women were refused the rights to official education. This was put to halt when 1948 saw the dawn of the first elementary school for girls. The school is in Mecca and with this followed a number of other institutes opened solely for girls over the next decades. Today there are quite a lot of educational institutes including universities, for girls all over the kingdom. The education never the less continues to be segregated while the exams conducted for both girls and boys are the same. There exist minor differences in the courses followed. Today women makeup seventy percent of all those enrolled in universities in Saudi Arabia. Some women have also obliterated themselves from on-campus education and opted for online courses offered on the internet due to restrictions imposed on their transport. Thanks to the advancement in technology and globalization, video conferencing enables them to listen to lectures conducted by male teachers while not meeting them. The women constitute only five percent in the Saudi workforce, which is apparently the lowest in the world.
5. Wherever one peeks a boo into the Saudi Arabia society women clad in black abbayas will be found all over irrespective of their ethnic, cultural and geographical origin. Two decades later, the ubiquitous abaya which was unique to the Saudi women, symbolizes the ultimate victory of the conservative sections of the society over globalization. Today in shopping malls and private schools, their eyes can be seen and gone are the days of shroud abbayas while neatly embroidered silky black gowns have taken over in the upscale Saudi neighborhood. The fate of the public and what it “faces” today tells us the impact of Saudi engagement with the global economy. Today women move more freely in markets, are allowed to meet up in restaurants with their friend circles and can launder around a little more openly compared to what it was around twenty five years ago. The ruling elite have been more than pro-active in opening educational avenues for women and continue to support the society in this regard. Thanks to globalization, women groomed in the Saudi society of today’s time and ages are socially, economically and morally more aware compared to their predecessors and their ancestors (Ambah, 2008).

Works Cited

1. Ambah, F. S. (2008). Saudi Women see a brighter road on rights.
2. Eltahawy, M. (2007). Punished for being raped. International Herald Tribune.
3. impish. (2002). Islam, Women and Saudi Arabian Society. Web.
4. Jensen, R. H. (2005). Taking the Gender Apartheid tour of Saudi Arabia.
5. Salih, S. M. (n.d.). Condition of Muslim Woman’s Hijab. Web.
6. Saudi Women Barred from voting. (2004). Web.

Introduction

Abortion refers to the termination of a pregnancy resulting in the removal of fetus, and has been legalized in all the fifty states by the Supreme Court of America in 1973, for medical or social reasons (Roe v. Wade, 1973 and Doe v. Bolton, 1973). Whether morally accepted or not, abortion today is a large part of society and provides an alternative and a choice to women whether they want to have a baby or not. The reasons may be numerous, ranging from personal to societal to medical. It is the responsibility of couples or partners to ascertain that appropriate contraceptive measures are taken in order to prevent unwanted pregnancies.

Main body

However, in some cases of rape or incest, this is not possible, and abortion seems the only practical option to avoid further complications related to health and society. This paper aims to discuss the unethical and immoral act of abortion and highlights the disadvantages of abortion. The paper also aims to address the crucial aspect of ill effects of abortion on the health of women and females undergoing it.

The occurrence and debate regarding the morality or immorality of abortion, is a historically ancient subject, and women have been involved in the practice of abortion since times immemorial (Devereux, G., 1955). Today, abortion is performed at the hands of qualified professionals, but in early days it was not so. Horrible and primitive methods were used to terminate pregnancies, and these methods varied from society to society and culture to culture. According to Devereux George (1955), there is evidence to prove that more than three hundred currently existing societies, practice abortion in non-industrial settings.

Research indicates that women have been following the practice of abortion in primitive times and societies, with inhumane methods that could prove fatal to their lives. Women of the Yanomami tribe of the Amazon would jump on the stomach of a pregnant woman to abort the child (Early and Peters, 1990). Shepherd (1995) elucidates a method used by the Surayas of Taiwan sometime in the 17th century, where abortion was carried out by powerful massages of the stomach with special force applied to the uterine region.

Potts et al. (1977) also confirm that abortions have been carried out either by the women themselves or other women, since ages. Abortions have been the topic of regular debate in societies, especially the current modern ones, with respect to the right of the fetus to live. Opponents of abortion state many religious, moral and ethical reasons for banning the practice of abortion. Opponents of abortion argue that by the time the mother realizes she is pregnant, the fetus’s heart has already begun to beat, and as such, abortion is the destruction of a living child (Moore K., 1988). They state that the practice of abortion is like murdering a living entity, who is in no position to defend itself.

Opponents also debate regarding the negative effects of abortion on the body of a woman (Martin D., 1993). The harmful effects that abortion has on the health of a woman, physically and in some cases psychologically are a matter of great concern to them. They state that the pain and suffering that women undergo during an abortion is highly intense and is very similar to a fracture of a bone or even the pain experienced when one is afflicted with cancer (Wells N., 1991; Belanger, Melzak & Lauzon, 1989). Women do not know about this pain until they experience it, and are very often not informed by the performing doctors regarding this aspect.

Apart from this, there is the possibility of several complications including hemorrhage, disturbances in the menstrual cycle and in some cases increased risks of future miscarriages and even breast cancer (Janet Daling, et al, 1994). In cases where abortions have been carried out, there have been cases of miscarriages and delay or failure in conceiving.

Abortion is believed to put the mother at risk not only when she is undergoing the abortion but also in the future when she may want to have a baby, and as a result of her previous abortion and complications, may not be able to do so or which will result in potential risks to her pregnancies, later in life (Hern 1982; Hogue, Cates, and Tietze 1982).

From an ethical perspective, abortion has been termed immoral and unethical due to the fact that the fetus is being deprived of the right to life (Marquis 1989). Marquis bases his argument on the premise that the ‘valuable future’ ¹of the fetus, which is a victim, like any other human. Marquis (1989) bases his argument on the premise that killing a normal human is wrong because it causes severe harm to the victim and in case of death, deprives the individual of the future which is in store (Pg. 190) which is comprised of all the precious “experiences, activities, projects, and enjoyments” which the individual would have experienced in the future.

As such, killing anything which has a future ahead would be extremely harmful and seriously wrong² (Marquis 1989, pg. 190). Adhering to this premise, an embryo is a potential living being with a vluable future ahead which is why Marquis condemns the act of abortion stating that “the overwhelming majority of deliberate abortions are seriously immoral” and is equivalent to the immoral act of “killing an innocent adult human being” (Marquis 1989, pg. 190).

The primary basis of the ethical and philosophical aspects of the morality of abortion is deontological³ (Olson, 1967). Immanuel Kant, (1964) one of the noted philosophers famous for his deontological theory of ethics asserts that in order for individuals to act in the moral and ethical ways, it is essential for people to act in accordance with their duties. He also asserts that it is not the consequences of any action which gives it the virtue of right or wrong, rather the motives of the individual who is engaged in such actions.

According to the deontological premise, abortion is considered to be unethical and illegal due to the moral dilemmas surrounding it. The fact that the fetus is a human organism and has a moral right just like a human being confirms the act of abortion as an unethical one. Stimulated abortion would then mean that the embryo has been killed and its rights have been violated and as such the law should prohibit such unjust actions such as the taking away of life.

Applying the concept of ‘utilitarianism’⁴ to the debate over abortion raises the crucial concept of whether abortion can be justified due to the constraints of work, financial stress or other issues pertaining to family and society. Accepting these constraints, the utilitarianism challenges the traditional views of abortion being an evil and immoral act and supports abortion as being a pro-choice situation which according to Mill is based on the sovereignty of an individual so that there is complete control of an individual “over himself, over his own body and mind”. Nevertheless, this concept of the right to choose and make personal judgments and choices is rejected in classical utilitarianism.

Conclusion

The debate revolving around the moral involved with abortion may continue even as societies and nations legalize the act. However, abortion remains an unethical and immoral act and no human being or individual has the right to take the life of an innocent fetus, which has not even seen the light of the day in the world. Each and every human has the right to live and the fetus is the very beginning of that life in his world. As such, abortion must be banned and made illegal so that the practice of abortion does not kill anymore innocent lives before they take birth. To avoid pregnancies, women must consider safer options such as contraceptive measures to control unwanted pregnancies, rather than indulge in the cruel practice of abortion.

References

Belanger E., Melzak R., & Lauzon P., 1989, “Pain of first-trimester abortion: a study of psychosocial and medical predictors,” Pain, Vol. 36.

Daling J., et al, 1994, “Risk of Breast Cancer Among Young Women: Relationship to Induced Abortion,” Journal of the National Cancer Institute, Vol. 86, No. 21.

Danforth D., 1986, Obstetrics and Gynecology, 5th ed. Philadelphia: J.B. Lipincott. Devereux G., 1955. A Study of Abortion in Primitive Society. New York: Julian Press. Early D., & Peters, J. F., 1990. The Population Dynamics of the Mucajai Yanomama. San Diego: Academic Press.

Hern M., 1982. “Long-term Risks of Induced Abortion.” In Gynecology and Obstetrics, ed. J. J. Sciarra.

Hogue R., Cates W. & Tietze C., 1982. “The Effects of Induced abortion on Subsequent Reproduction.” Epidemiologic Reviews 4:66.

Kant, Immanuel (1964). Groundwork of the Metaphysic of Morals. Harper and Row Publishers, Inc.

Marquis, Don (1989). “Why Abortion is Immoral”. The Journal of Philosophy 86 (4): 183–202.

Martin Haskell. Dilation and Extraction for Late Second Trimester Abortion: In “Second Trimester Abortion: From Every Angle,” Fall Risk Management Seminar, September 13-14, 1992, Dallas, Texas, National Abortion Federation.

Mill, John Stuart. ‘On Liberty’, ed. Himmelfarb. Penguin Classics, 1974.

Moore K., 1988, ‘The Developing Human,’ 4th ed., Philadelphia, W.B. Saunders Co.

Olson, Robert G. 1967. ‘Deontological Ethics’. In Paul Edwards (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Collier Macmillan: 343. ‘Deontological Ethics’. In Paul Edwards (ed.) The Encyclopedia of Philosophy. London: Collier Macmillan: 343.

Potts M., Diggory P., & Peel J., 1977. Abortion. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press.

Roe v. Wade, 410 U.S.; 113, 163-164 (1973) and Doe v. Bolton, 410 U.S. 179, 191-192 (1973).

Shepherd R., 1995. Marriage and Mandatory Abortion Among the 17th Century Suraya. Arlington, VA: American

Schulz K., Grimes D., Cates W., Jr., 1983, “Measures to Prevent Cervical Injury During Suction Curettage Abortion,” The Lancet.

Footnotes

1. Marquis argues that killing a fetus is like killing an adult human with a potential future of desirable experiences, activities, enjoyments and projects (Marquis 1989: 189-190).
2. The type of wrongness appealed to here is presumptive or prima facie wrongness which may be overridden in exceptional circumstances.
3. Deontological ethics focus on the rightness or wrongness of intentions through the motives behind such actions, and not the consequences of those actions.
4. Utilitarianism is the notion that the moral worth of any action is determined by its outcome: that is, the end justify the means.

Abstract

Extensive researches and studies have been conducted on the methods, strategies, and techniques of managing conflicts in life. Some writers opt to refer to it as conflict resolution, while others call it Conflict Management. Actually there is a very thin line between these concepts. The two have quite often been used rather interchangeably and more or less confusingly. In this essay, however, not everything tackling on conflict management and resolution is discussed. A few of the written literatures and research findings have been critically observed to help explain a technical theme in this piece of work.Yes, we have heard much from authors like Ruth Anna Abigail and Dudley D. Cahn (Ruth, A, & Dudley D, 2010).Also given much attention while writing this essay are the ideas and opinions from individuals and group discussions on how the principles , concepts and suggestions borrowed from literary works , findings and suggestions, can be applied in the real life situation.

Key Concepts in Conflict Management

Conflict management is a concept that has been explained differently by different authors. According to Ruth Anna and Dudley D. Cahn, Conflict Management can be defined as the diversity of ways by which people cope up with the ongoing intractable disagreements (Ruth, A, & Dudley, D, 2010).A Conflict is a situation which poses two or more contradicting values, perspectives or opinions. People may have conflicting views within themselves or amongst themselves. How we manage such continuous conflicting views, ideas, opinions, value and believes is what has been termed as conflict management (Ruth, A, & Dudley, D, 2010).

The terms Conflict Management and Conflict Resolution have often been used rather distinctively and interchangeably. The latter refers to the process of trying to live with the current conflicting conditions in a more tolerable or bearable way. This implies that the conflict may never have an amicable solution, but we have to learn how to live with it. The former connotes that a solution can possibly be found to end the conflict. This involves resolving a dispute, as approved by the conflicting parties involved.

What the Authors say about Conflict Management

Reading from the writings of Ruth and Dudley, conflict is part and parcel of life, it is “a fact of life”, and therefore inevitable (Ruth, A, & Dudley, D, 2010).These authors emphasizes that the one sure way of dealing with conflicts in life is through effective communication, ranging from intrapersonal communication level to an organizational or even public level. Acquiring the communication skills is thus as important as managing the conflicts more efficiently.

Conflict is not a problem or a kind of discomfort as others may perceive it. Ruth Ann and her research counterparts put it clear that, a conflict only becomes a problem when people fail to manage it properly. It is indeed a problem when it causes us more harm than good, lowers our morals, causes us to behave inappropriately, or leads to even worse conflict situations. How to manage the conflict correctly is therefore of much significance in every individual’s life, whether at home, in school or at the work place.

Many authors writing on conflict management and resolution have put forward several suggestions and theoretical perspectives on how conflicts can be managed at different levels, and in every sphere of life. Among them are Ruth and Dudley whose works seem to have contributed quite significantly in the study of Conflict Management. Among such common suggestions are good communication skills, accepting and accommodating the conflict as part of life, using or taking it as an opportunity to better the future, approaching the conflict in a logical and sequential manner, assessing it from all angles and levels, this list is by no means exhausted.

Critical suggestions in Managing Conflict

It has widely been suggested that communication is the hallmark to conflict management. In their book titled “Managing Conflict through Communication”, Ruth Anna Abigail and Dudley D.Cahn, explains elaborately how important communication is in managing conflict. They view conflict management partly as a process that involves the use of communication principles and strategies to keep the conflict situation at bar. They, however, note that communication can either be productive or destructive in managing a conflict (Ruth, A, & Dudley, D, 2010).

For such reasons as the possibility of destruction through communication in managing a conflict, they gave a pretty long list of suggestions. These are inclusive of, defining interpersonal conflict, avoiding the negative view of conflict, identifying the problems, needs or issues concomitant to the conflict, talking about them with others, confronting the situation, considering other persons views and/or opinions, coming to a mutual understanding, and reaching an agreement, following up the possible solutions (Ruth, A, & Dudley, D, 2010)..

Discussion and Conclusion

Having been informed that conflict is part of life, and that it is not a problem until we make it so i.e. through poor communication and management, we are bound to polish our communication skills. This will help us in implementing the principles, ideas and suggestions that have been put forth to assist people in managing conflicts.

With better communication skills, we become good listeners and communicators in different contexts. We know better when to say what, why and how, so that what we say should not be destructive, but productive. Understanding the conflict from different angles has also been suggested as an important principle.So, we need to know the cause of the conflict, the possible solutions to it, what others know about it and what they suggest, the key areas that we tend to agree with others and those that constantly keep us apart in disagreements. With the understanding of all these, we are likely to be on the right track in managing a conflict.

Besides good communication and understanding of the conflict, we have also been enlightened by Ruth and Dudley that defining the conflict at interpersonal level is also of importance in managing the conflict. Interpersonal here implies that as much as we understand ourselves, we should also have a better understanding of the other parties that may be involved in the conflict. Their values, attitudes, weaknesses, likes, dislikes, and cultural norms. In this way, we would be able to reduce the chances of interpersonal disagreements or conflicts.

Reference

Ruth, A, & Dudley, D. Managing Conflict through Communication.4^th Ed. Pearson.Inc.2010

Introduction

Gender basically refers to the cultural construction of biological differences between women and men in society. These differences bring about the sex division of labor in society. Gender scholars beliefs that division of labor on a sex basis leads to gender inequality in society. This is because women are forced to occupy the reproductive labor category while men occupy the productive labor category. This two labor category invites different remuneration packages with men being paid higher than women. The productive labor category is more prestigious and involves public activities, while the reproductive one is less prestigious, and it involves domestic duties and chores. Therefore women are not equally compensated for their services leading to discrimination that is sex-based.

This essay is going to highlight the reasons which force women to be discriminated in public and workplaces. Where statistics are available they will be cited in order to elaborate the argument and finally a way forward will be hinted. Since this problem arises from the social structure of our society, it cannot be addressed fully, without altering the entrenched social structures and this is not something that can be achieved overnight.

Discussion

Gender discrimination includes: the marginalization of women in the economic process, different forms of violence against women, the fewer number of women in political circles, and few women who are in control of vital resources yet they are the majority in the society. Women face all these predicaments because of the patriarchal system that is in society. The patriarchal system makes men dominate, control, and own everything that is available. Therefore sexual division of labor has forced women to seek employment in low-paying sectors which are much disorganized. Women mostly find employment in sectors such as agriculture, selected service sectors, cottage industries, and other traditional industries. Arguing along the same line Paranjothi et al (2008) notes that ‘although were are having very powerful trade unions, equal payment for equal work still remain a mirage, and unchallenged and gender discrimination at the workplace is still prevalent.

A recent study also proves this case. (“Most work places” 2006) notes that research carried out by Peninsula law firm in the UK showed that ‘ of more than 2,000 who participated in the poll, more than eight out of ten said that they were not ready to report that they were being harassed.’ This is because they feel that reporting won’t help and it may even make things worse for them. This is a common scenario since women at workplaces are bullied by their bosses who are men, thus reporting such a case to men will fall on deaf ears. I addition reporting such a case may force a woman to lose her job. Thus women are compelled to keep quiet in order to retain their job.

A shocking report by the same firm showed that ‘almost three-quarters of women around 76 % confessed that they hand experienced gender-based bullying at work’ (“Most work places” 2006). In addition, many women felt that things were getting worse in their career progression and male biases in the workplace were increasing. In 2002 Peninsula hand reported that 82 percent of women believed that there was male bias in the workplace but in 2006 this percentage had risen to 85 percent. A change in statistics here shows that the problem is almost getting out of hand although the feminism movement is live in our society. Then we are left to look for the reasons that are making things become worse for women instead of improving. The simplest reason to explain this is that gender stereotypes are still live in our society.

Howard et al (2000, p 89) define gender stereotypes as ‘beliefs about the characteristics of women and men, including their characteristics, typical behaviors, occupational positions or personality traits.’ Thus gender stereotypes are beliefs held about traits and activity domains that are “deemed” good and appropriate for both men and women in society. Crossing over these traits is highly discouraged. For instance, women are expected to be submissive while authority is a trait to be exhibited by men. These stereotypes are carried along in the workplace leading to discrimination against women.

Amble (2005, p.1) suggests that ‘gender stereotypes hamper chances of women advancement at the workplace.’ This is because the way the management perceives men and women in the workplace is different. The seniors’ perception of their junior staff is informed by the gender stereotypes that they have, and this blurs them from recognizing the skills and talents that women have. At the end of the day gender gap in business management emerges. Research finding released by Catalyst Research Organization compounds this argument. Women and men who participated in this research agreed that women are better at feminine “caretaking skills” e.g. those that are involved in support and giving rewards. In addition, men were believed to be good at masculine “taking charge” positions e.g. Delegation of duties and responsibilities.

We have to keep in mind that it’s these taking charge skills, which are stereotypically assigned to men that are desired for senior management positions. Therefore men end up becoming CEOs solely because of their masculine nature. This has nothing to do with achievements and problem-solving skills. Even where women are exposed to leadership positions these stereotypical notions are not eliminated: at best they are reinforced. This is because women in leadership create an extreme perception of women making their representation in leadership positions remain stagnant or decrease.

Gender discrimination is also manifested in the payment women receive for services rendered. This inequality occurs in two forms. First, women are paid less for completing a similar job to men. Therefore we end up having different pay for the same job category. Sisely (2004, p.2) suggests that ‘women are also paid less than men because they mostly work in the overlooked female-dominated occupations’. These occupations include teaching, nursing, and hospitality sectors. Therefore it is very common to find a man chef, being paid twice the amount a female chef with similar qualifications is earning. We need to remember that these occupations are categorized in the reproductive labor section by society.

In order to justify this discrepancy, various weak reasons are given. One of the reasons is that society believes that man is the head of the family and the sole breadwinner. Thus as breadwinners men should be paid more than women because they have more responsibilities compared to women. Men are also viewed to be performing skilled work while women fulfill the unskilled category. Most of the skills women possess are believed to be innate and this is why more women serve in human resources functions. All these factors have had a negative impact on women and the job market at large. Thus roles that were traditionally assigned to women have not been fully considered during the development of industrial relations.

At public places the policies that are made by the government may also contribute to gender discrimination. Government policies in Canada on cutting down its expenditure are good examples here. A flexibility policy was employed because it allowed workers to be retrained in order to acquire different skills which could be used in deferent jobs. But since women are often seen as flexible workers the government policies affected them most. Women are perceived this way because of their care giving role and this makes them to be looked upon as persons whom are not committed to fulltime employment as men are. In addition women are also believed to be flexible care givers, and are forced to compromise on their families’ time meaning that they can easily be hired as ‘on call workers’. Once women are put in such categories, the employers expect them to be ready to work any time of the day.

Arguing a long the same line Mareva (2007, P. 4) note that ‘such policies which the government as an employer had used, in order to achieve greater flexibility in her work force, fall in the category of pure gender discrimination.’ Further more the government actions are solely aimed at keeping women out of work because they makes up the largest percentage of employees in this sector. It is also worth to note that more women are employed in public sector because it mostly deals with services. In turn service givers are expected to be women who fulfill the nurturing role in the society.

Gender discrimination at work place also takes different perspective which needs to be addressed. This is because women at times make choices when it comes to looking for employment, and the choice they make may force them to be under paid. Therefore for those complaining of discrimination in work place, they should also look at the choices that women make. (“Gender” 2005) asserts that ‘workplace choices made by women often perpetuate the disparity that we seen in payment.’ some of the choices that women taken and contribute to the m being underpaid may include the following.

Women first of all, tend to drop out of work in order to raise children. The years that women are out of job thus ends up stagnating their income statistics and when they goes back to the job market they find it difficult to climb the ladder. Women also do not value being workaholic because they have other family responsibilities. Since being an executive call for a forty hour per week dedication to the job, many women tend to shy a way from top positions. Moreover, women are not to be interested in jobs that are not physically demanding yet those jobs carry good remuneration packages. Probably it’s because all a long their life they learnt that these are values to be exhibited by men and no by them.

As observed by [Gender, 2005] ‘woman also make wrong choices in colleges and they end up advancing in degrees that ends in low payment jobs.’ For instance many women opt to advance in therapy related degrees which attract low pay while men focus on a degree which pushes them up in the executive ladder. Men generally register for MBAs. In addition, earning power is not a cultural goal for women; it is a goal for men. Thus women are not compelled to ask for better pay compared to their male counterparts. Finally women also charge less for services lender especially in private practice compared to men. Therefore they end up making less money which brings power.

Gender discrimination at work place may have other negative consequences. For instance, it is a good cause of sexual harassment at work place. Sexual harassment generally refers to a form of sex discrimination which is exhibited through use of unwelcome request for sexual favors and other physical conduct which affects the woman performance in the workplace. Sexual harassment mostly involve a senior and a junior employee and it take space because the man knows that the victim will find it difficult to report the case because of the factors that had be highlighted earlier on in the discussion.

Since any form of discrimination is not acceptable in the contemporary world necessary measure should be taken in order to eliminate this vice. Some of the measures that could eradicate this problem include: restructuring the society in order to eliminate the patriarchal system. This is not an easy task but it can be achieved because culture is dynamic and it keeps on clanging, in order to enhance the survival of the society. In order to speed up these changes, the society at large should develop other values and attitudes which put women at par with men.

Private companies as well as government bodies should lead the way in combating stereotyping. This goal can be achieved through a very rigorous and transparent evaluation process. The public at large should be educated about stereotyping through national campaigns and this should be supplemented by enactment of various laws that punish offenders. The achievements that have been made by women should also be highlighted in order to encourage more women to fight for their rights and positions in the society. This show cases should be biased on those women who have successfully made it in the traditionally male dominated fields.

Conclusion

In conclusion, gender discrimination in public and workplace is a common problem today. This problem emerges from our culture since it’s through our socialization process that we acquire various values that in forms our decision. From our cultural teachings men should be masculine while women should always portray feminine characteristics. These notions are then carried on to the work place, thus hampering chances of women advancement as wells curtailing a good pay for them. In order to overcome this problem we need to challenge the patriarchy system in the society through developing other good values that promote equity between men and women.

Work Cited

1. Amble, B. gender stereotypes block women‘s advancement.  2005.
2. Howard, J.D and Hollander, G. The Gender Lens: Gender situations, Gender lives. Boston: Rowman Altamira press, 2000. pp 70-90
3. Gender discrimination in the work place.
4. Mareva, m. (2007). The Gender Discrimination Perspective on Public Sector Downsizing. Issues in Business and Society. 2007, November edition
5. Most workplaces still biased against women. 2006.
6. Paranjothi, T., Ravichandra, k. and Babu, v. N. Empowering women and reducing gender discrimination through kudumbashree programme. New Delhi: regional institute for cooperative management press, 2008
7. Sisely, D. Sex Discrimination is alive and well. 2004. Web.

Introduction

Racialism refers to race discrimination. This means that a certain race is considered to be more superior to others (Floyd-Wilson, M. 2003, p.8). The discriminated race is segregated from facilities and opportunities such as education, medical services, and employment. On the other hand ethnicity identity is the sense of belonging to a group of people that share the same characteristics such as, beliefs, country of origin or cultural practices.

I am an American and the essay gives a personal opinion on how human interactions in my community have been influenced by racialism. Racialism in my community is viewed on the relations within my neighborhood, local government, service groups, schools and workplace.

Racial discrimination among community members

The members of my community are different. In America whites are the largest population, but there are some African Americans who are black. Myself I am a white and African Americans are blacks. In addition, in my community some people are Christians but majorities are Muslims. In America people are also discriminated in line of language. According to Wolcott (2002, para 2) in the 20^th century the major racial classification was between the Negroes and the Nordics. In America those people who are not speaking European language are considered uncivilized. However, those groups who are able to speak European language are considered civilized and hence they are more respected (Mufwene, 2006, p.4).

In addition, the blacks are not given opportunities in employment. The whites are given the first priorities and hence they are given the high positions while the blacks are given the low positions such for the cooks or cleaners. Those people who are not like me in my community do not have education opportunities. Education opportunities given to the whites is not the same as that given to the black people? For the whites the education is free but for the blacks to be admitted in a collage they have to be athletes. Therefore the society considers the blacks as poor and illiterate.

Politics and racialism

The leaders treated those people from my race as more superior than the blacks. For example, the blacks are not allowed to vote and also in some institutions such as the army there are the units for whites and those for the blacks. However those units for the blacks are not led by a black but rather they are controlled by whites. During voting the voting technology makes it difficult for blacks’ to vote than the whites. This is because the most complicated and uncertain machines that produced uncertain results are concentrated in those regions where there are many blacks (Entman & Rojecki, 2001, p. 12). Therefore the leaders do not give the same opportunities to the blacks and the whites.

Media

The local media represents the whites because most of the journalists are whites. Therefore the blacks are not employed in the local media productions. In addition the media is not mostly concerned about the welfare of the other racial groups but it is always concerned about the social welfare of the whites. most of the television shows are dominated by the whites while in most movies the blacks’ males acts as subordinates of whites who are hero’s. The local media does not report on the racial discrimination during the voting process. In other films the blacks feature to be getting help from the whites because they have no power and also they are not intellect (Entman & Rojecki, 2001, p. 17). This shows that the media segregates the whites from the blacks by considering the whites as hero or more superior.

Interests of minority group

I don’t think the needs or interest of the minority groups are represented in my community because the media which is the best channel to voice out the interests of all the races it only airs the interest of the major group (Entman & Rojecki, 2001, p. 16). The government which should consider the needs of the entire citizen without discrimination it does the vice versa (Zackodnik, 2004, p.64). For example in voting the machines used by the blacks are the uncertain ones. In addition in various opportunities such as education all people do not have equal opportunities. For example in collages most admissions are given to the whites and the only blacks who are given opportunity are the athletes.

If I would resolve any inequities within my community I would change the access of education opportunities to the blacks. This can be done by giving the blacks quality education. This is because if all have quality education the economy of my country would grow and develop at a higher rate. In addition, when blacks are educated they will be treated as civilized people by the other community members.

Conclusion

Racism is a device in most communities and it leads to poverty and decline in a country’s or community’s development. In America the whites are segregated from many opportunities such as education, employment and also in voting. The minority groups are considered uncivilized by the other members. Local media also contributes towards racism in America. It does not express the interests of the minority group. In addition the local government also supports racial discrimination by not giving equal opportunities to all the citizens. However elimination of racial discrimination in a community may lead to economic growth and development.

Reference list

1. Entman, M.R & Rojecki, A. (2001). The black image in the white mind: media and race in America. University of Chicago press; Chicago.
2. Floyd-Wilson, M. (2003). English ethnicity and race in early modern drama. Cambridge University press; New York
3. Mufwene, S.S. (2006). Race, racialism, and the study of language evolution in America. University of Chicago; Chicago.
4. Wolcott, W. (2002). Nordics and Negroes. The Johns Hopkins University press; San Francisco
5. Zackodnik, C.T., (2004). The mulatta and the politics of race. Univ. press of Mississippi; Alberta, Canada.

Gender approach, gender analysis and consideration of gender-sensitive indicators are required for developing gender-sensitive programs and achieving the goals of gender equity and equality.

The approach ignoring the social and economic differences between men and women is considered to be gender blind. A comprehensive analysis of the country’s economics is impossible without considering this significant aspect. Gender perspective needs to be applied to economics analysis of the rate of women’s unemployment in developing countries, for example. Terms of gender equality and equity have got similar meanings. Thus, gender equality means equal rights for both men and women, while gender equity denotes fairness in the distribution of men’s and women’s responsibilities. For example, men and women can have a claim on the same executive post. Still, most managers are men, while women are expected to be under their ferrule. The majority of employers would give preference to male specialists because they will not need maternity leaves. This phenomenon of favoring men over women is called gender bias.

First Conference on Women held in Mexico in 1975 was a significant step forward. The main objective of the meeting was women’s full integration into social development. The second Conference on Women was held in Copenhagen in 1980, the third – in Nairobi in 1985. The questions of women’s equal footing with men were raised at these meetings. Nairobi conference indicated a shift to the gender perspective in economics analysis, considering the difference between women and men within various spheres of life. Gender questions were discussed at a number of UN meetings in 1990s. Human rights conference in 1993 coined the concept of reproductive rights as human rights. The evolution of understanding presupposed the shift of emphasis from statistic and medical aspects to accepting the differences between genders and providing equal rights and opportunities in various spheres of life.

The term gender mainstreaming denotes the strategies aimed at achieving the goal of gender equality. It presupposes shift to the gender perspective an accepting the existing differences in men’s and women’s opportunities. Other ways for reaching the goal are taking into consideration gender relations, changing the current legislation concerning the problem and gender analysis. Gender analysis consists of the investigation of the nature of differences and establishing the cause-and-effect relations between gender differences and inequality. Knowing the roots of the problem, it would be easier to look for its solutions. For this reason, gender analysis may be regarded as an integral part of gender mainstreaming. It is helpful for defining the socio-cultural variables and following manipulating them.

A gender-sensitive indicator denotes qualitative or quantitative measurements of changes in gender-related spheres in the course of time. This testing is helpful for monitoring the differences between men and women arising from their gender roles. The latest measurements indicated decreasing the gender gap. The United Nations Organization conducts statistical researches in three main dimensions, such as social resources, political power and employment. Analysis of quantity of women-parliamentarians, women-managers or women receiving a post-graduate degree might be good examples of gender-sensitive indicators. Still, statistics data is insufficient for making all necessary measurements, and qualitative testing requires conducting surveys and further analysis of the answers. Status within the family, material resources, time burden and career choices are the most popular dimensions for making the measurements. Thus, the examples of gender-sensitive indicators might be analysis of participation of women in family decision-making and/or bread-winning, analysis of statistical data concerning the number of women owning land and women’s answers concerning the distribution of household chores in their families.

Gross Domestic Product (GPD) measures the official economic output of the country using a technical approach to data analysis. For this reason, it might be regarded as a gender blind indicator. The fact is that only quantitative data is used for assessing this parameter, while its qualitative characteristics are not taken into consideration. At the same analysis of gender differences could have a significant impact on these results. For example, notwithstanding the present-day moving towards gender equality and equity, there are certain differences in financial compensation for men’s and women’s labor. It might become a hindrance for estimating GPD per capita precisely.

Notwithstanding the evolution of gender approach and emphasis on human rights of reproductive health, Sexually Transmitted Diseases (STD) clinics enjoy wider popularity among men than among women. Due to their misconceptions concerning the rules of examinations at such institutions, women do not attend STD clinics as often as men do. The prevalence of male patients in these institutions might be considered to be one of the gender-sensitive indicators. Women might be afraid of being tested against their wishes or of their partners’ disapproval. The main goal of a gender-sensitive program is to guarantee equal rights for reproductive health for both men and women. It is important to raise the awareness of the population concerning the procedures of clinical testing, putting emphasis on its optional and anonymous character. “It is achieved also through the set of learning mechanisms in ongoing socialization experiences” (Klein 40). The measures that need to be taken for achieving these goals are creating separate sex sessions at clinics and spreading information concerning clinical testing and its benefits. For enhancing the effectiveness of the program, its developers should choose gender-sensitive indicators, such as comparative analysis of male and female patients and their motivation for undergoing a test.

Advocacy is defined as a set of actions aimed at the mobilization of individuals and organizations for supporting specific policies. Gender-sensitive advocacy presupposes supporting gender-related programs, strategies and legislation. Producing a gender-sensitive advocacy plan requires preliminary analysis of the significance of the problem, its actuality for both male and female populations as well as expected positive consequences of changing the existing situation. “Questions concerning the change of gender relations within the organization must be understood and addressed before they can truly implement a gender and development strategy as part of their organizational structure” (Mudgal 225). After defining the program objectives, it is possible to proceed to planning concrete actions, evaluating possible risks and identifying the target audiences. The next step after collecting the necessary information would be searching for potential partners, such as women’s organizations, for example. The three most important ways for making the plan gender-sensitive are analysis of the program on both male and female target audience, choice of gender-sensitive objective and gender-sensitive indicators.

The main difference of the concepts of a network and coalition is in sharing the common interests by the participants. Members of a network have got common interests; it might be a smaller group, such as women labour union at a concrete organization. Members of this union have common interests and objectives. The coalition would consist of labor unions of several organizations, not sharing common interests but uniting their efforts for achieving the main goals of gender equity and equality.

Women have been struggling for equal civil rights with men since nineteenth century. Within the latest decades, the gap was decreased, still, the question of gender discrimination remains topical.

Bibliography

1. Gender Mainstreaming: Taking Action, Getting Results, UNFPA, 2008.
2. Klein, Susan. Handbook for Achieving Gender Equity through Education. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 2007. Print.
3. Mudgal, Shubha. Feminism and Status of Women. Jaipur: Book Enclave, 2007. Print.

Introduction

Everybody has different learning styles and personality types. This indeed affect the way people learn, communicate and even the way they understand things. While developing an effective communication and collaboration strategy, it is important to recognize these differences in order to achieve common goals among a group of individuals.

Learning Styles, Their Preferences and Strategy for Communication and Collaboration

There are several learning styles. Among them are verbal/linguistic, interpersonal and logical/mathematical. Verbal/linguistic as a learning style entails images and words presented either in written or spoken Language. Verbal/linguistic learners prefer learning new things and teaching other people. Effective communication and collaboration among individuals with such learning styles would therefore include presenting information verbally, conducting interviews and providing group education. Providing written instructions and verbal communication would be effective method of communication and collaboration (Carter, Bishop and Kravits, 2007).

In Interpersonal learning style, individuals learn best by comparing, sharing and cooperating. The learner in this case gives other people’s point of view. The effective communication method is therefore discussion in which they listen to other people’s ideas and hence providing a better way out for a group. A good example is that of a board meeting in which ideas of different people are provided.

Individuals under the logical/mathematical learning style prefer working with abstract, classifying and categorizing. The learners are accurate and organized while solving problems. They prefer to study and understand information before analyzing it. They understand patterns and computations as well as scientific interpretation. One can communicate and collaborate with them effectively by discussion, providing challenging questions and making logical connections. This can be achieved by putting the materials in a logical way. For example providing tests from which the best are sampled.

Personality Types and their Effective Strategy for Communication and Collaboration

In a group of individuals, personality types can conflict or compliment. Communication and collaboration can be enhanced by learning the strengths of each of these personality types. Personality types in a given team have its unique characteristics, interests and concerns. Personality types in a group of people may comprise of adventurer, giver, thinker and organizer.

A giver is honest, friendly and faithful. He appreciates his own potential as well as that of others. He is the peacemaker among other people. Giver works best in a favorable environment for interaction. Effective method of communication and collaboration in this case is discussion groups.

A Thinker is an intelligent and analyzer of the situation. He makes careful consideration before making decisions. Other characteristics are; good at problem solving, and exploring new ideas. To communicate and collaborate effectively to thinkers, one can use written work such as memos and emails. Providing questions is also another method since they are able to solve such problems in form of graphs (Carter, Bishop and Kravits, 2007).

Organizer is responsible, loyal and reliable in a group. He ensures that there is a good flow of the activities by keeping the group focused. The best communication and collaboration strategy include verbal communication and written work. For example use of memos and emails to communicate.

Conclusion

People working together as a team will display different and unique personalities such as desires, abilities and talents. The different learning styles and personality types can hinder communication and collaboration if not considered. It is therefore necessary to know and understand fellow team member’s learning style and personality type. This helps in management such as delegating responsibilities.

Reference

Carter, C., Bishop, J., & Kravits, S. (2007). Keys to College Studying: Becoming an Active Thinker (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.