Sociology

Abstract

Behaviour and interpersonal communication are mutually interrelated. People generally maintain a social bond among each other by one and other type of personal interactions. That is why they are called social animals. The paper tries to analyze my relationship with my best friend, the conflicts in the interpersonal relationship with the friend, the solution of those differences using the relevant theories, etc. Here the main theories regarding human interpersonal communication process and human skills are described. One of the most important theories about human behaviour and interpersonal skills, known as Heider theory is referred as the main model for the analysis.

The examples given in appropriate places give a potential stability to the theories. Due to the socialization procedure, people are fully dependent of existing social structures. Same social structures are amended time to time by their need based deeds. The latter part of report broadly discusses about the skills that are involved in inter personal communication the subject and necessary theories are also defined along with it.

Introduction

Humans are considered to be very curious about every activity of their surroundings. Being inquisitive species: They often engage in clearing doubts and answering questions regarding every topic. For this purpose they conduct researches in sciences, develop religions, philosophies. The life of the people of a particular area, a society or a culture is influenced mostly by such inquisitiveness. Generally people do find lots of examples of this nature in their mind and talk about these issues. There would be a lot of queries like; what another person may think of me? Why don’t we get richer? Why are people found in different kinds? etc.

Many theories have been developed involving these issues as a general human activity and the reasons of these happenings. “This set of theories, collectively called Attribution Theory, attempts to describe and explain the mental and communicative processes involved in everyday explanations, most typically explanations of individual and social events.” (Manusov).

I try to analyze my relationship with one of my intimate friends based on the reflections of available theories about interpersonal communication, by which one can easily get overall idea about the interpersonal communication processes.

Theoretical Assumptions and Purpose

Though the Human interpersonal communication theories are discussed in everyday life and learnt by people in many areas, mostly theories are studied as the branch of psychology. Some attribution theories depict the entire logical view of the world.

There are significant differences noticed in important cultural and personal attributes. The researchers believe that the attempt of studying the world around us is widespread, omnipresent, and conventional. Attributions got several definitions, but generally speaking, it is thinking and talking process of interpreting and realizing several aspects of behaviour of people. Different types of Attribution Theory understand and judge every event of human interaction. Communication behaviour can be observed as a process comes from some reason what one feels (confusion, opinion, flu) and respond to it.

As considered to be originator of the attribution models, Fritz Heider laid theoretical foundation for the model and he “reflected the logical-empirical backbone of attribution theories by making relatively global claims about what people do.” (Manusov, Purpose and Meta – Theoretical Assumptions).

Heider observed that humans around globe have a tendency to adapt with the societal world in a relatively systematic way. As per the observation of Heider (1958) people do translate or make interpretations of activities that happen in their entire life in most consistent and logical manner. They specifically engage in these activities for appreciating and controlling the humanity around them. Heider was derived a “causal locus” approach to analyze a person’s judgment behaviour’s basic sources, both external and internal causes. The characteristic what he specified is mostly true in my case. Analysing my character, I always try to judge my friends and dear ones on the basis of some events. But on contrary my best friend evaluates others, not judges others.

Causal locus has a significant position in attribution studies that is easily and readily understandable. Take an example, if a girl friend is late to attend a party, you would become so anxious and take possible steps to find out the reasons behind that. Heider concluded that people often take efforts to know the possible likely causes.

There is another theory called Social Penetration Theory which states that communication or interaction is an attempt to gather information from others. Once we come to know about others the better way of predictions can be done accordingly. People observe others and get some kind of passive information but after interaction with others only they get active organised data about them. We do get information from others by an act of self-disclosure.

Theory: Relevant Features

Attribution is a very complex process and for its effective analysis Heider’s (1958) primary thoughts were developed. Researchers found attributions fluctuate based on causal locus and variations in some other factors. ‘Stability’ is the first factor of that type. It is to be ascertained whether cause of any deed as stable (eg. “She is late because she has no concern about other people”) or otherwise unstable (“She is late as she is suffering from fever and it takes her some time to get ready”); “and “control,” or whether or not we think a person was able to alter the cause (“He’s late because he forgot to set his alarm again”) or unable to alter the cause (“He’s late because there was a traffic accident that delayed traffic”).” (Manusov, Main Features of the Theory).

Apart from the theoretical studies introduced by Heider, there are four more theoretical references emerged since the inception of the concept of attributions. Today most of the researchers adopt any one of these, but generally all of them form significant features of attribution scholarship.

Correspondence Focused Theory

There are many ways available to explain an action. A particular way among them is that the action can be represented as a product of a group of characteristics. (i.e., “a cruel thief would operate that way”). The term ‘correspondent’ is derived from the informative attributions of person’s characteristics. Eminent researchers developed this concept of theorizing and the concept has been a part of various studies and researches in today’s context. For example, actions of a violent or aggressive drunkards towards their wives.

“Most of these external factors are considered correspondent, because abusive men tend to attribute such causes to intentional and negative factors in their partners. Importantly, such attributions reflected the men’s thinking, rather than what may actually have prompted the behaviour.” (Manusov. A Focus on Correspondence). Associating this theory with my personal relationship with my friend, it is stated that we came across, became friends and maintained our relationship on the basis of a group of behaviours that we found interesting in each other.

Co-variation Focused Theory

Attributions are not needed to be dispositions oriented. Kelley derived a standardized and effective model named as ANOVA(Analysis of Variance) cube to analyze the featured causes to effect. Normally the events are characterized to the reasons based on their variance or occurrence. When a particular event or effect is felt that means possible causes related to that effect is present. Similarly if the incident or effect is not present, one cannot see the causes that associated with the factors.

Responsibility Focused Theory

Every attribution is not only based on cause of an action. We can assess the things by finding the person responsible for that deed. For example, if a person affected with HIV-AIDS not because of his intentional deeds or unprotected sex, may have been affected through blood transfusion, that time he gets sympathy. Thus responsibility oriented attributions may result in significant ramifications.

Bias based Theory

Whereas Heider connected people’s logical assessments with cause and responsibility, there is one more factor called systematic biases based on which attributions are also made. Possibly the “fundamental attribution bias” is the most renowned bias that involves the human tendency to observe more internal attributions than external attributions from others’ manners. Apart from these we can notice other biases also. “Canary and Spitzberg predicted a self-serving bias in conflict situations, and found that actors in conflicts tend to view their behaviour as significantly more appropriate than the behaviour of their partners.” (Manusov, A Focus on Bias).

Their findings also include that the conflict behaviours like anger and criticism are more salient that can be associated between people and their partners than other behaviours like topic changing and integrative conversation. General thinking of people shows the characteristic of human to be pretended as supreme or competent. He never takes responsibility for negative deeds. He always passes over responsibility for negative events to his partners.

As far as our relationship is concerned we too had many experiences that involves the above mentioned processes. We had personal admirations, likings, ego clashes, conflicts and personal differences. To alleviate the conflicts and to warm up the relationship one should possess or adopt several beneficial skills as follows:

The skills that are involved in inter personal communication

The basic skills that are used in interpersonal communication are: listening skills, verbal and non-verbal behaviour, conflict management, managing emotions, intercultural communication, leadership and teamwork, and problem solving.

Listening skills

Development of listening skill is so important in inter personal communication. A large number of organisational problems are related to poor communication skills. We can see that effective communication is an important component of career development and social and cultural interaction. When we are confronted with a problem at our work place, we can solve the problem by listening openly and with empathy to the person that face the problem. When one respond to the problem with interest, the person who is involved in the problem may feel that there is a person to listen to the problem.

Verbal and non-verbal behaviour

Verbal behaviour is communication with words and non-verbal behaviour is communication without words. In a verbal communication, sounds are used as the medium of communication but non verbal communication uses face as a medium of communication. Signals that are shown by hands, head movements etc. are also used. Non-verbal communication or behaviour is often subconscious. Moreover, it can be used for expressing one’s emotion, and to convey one’s attitude to another person. Non-verbal communication is also known as body language.

Conflict management

Conflict is usual in business field when two or more values that are contradictory in nature come face to face and are not agreed yet as more effective or right. When we are not ready to live according to our own values or the values that are implemented by the society there is high chance for conflict. There is no best way to deal conflict. The problem solving techniques varies according to the nature of the problem. One way is to avoid the situation. Another way is to accommodate it or compete it. So it is evident that the skill of conflict management can be acquired through experience.

Managing emotions

The skill of managing emotions is unique because only some people can keep their emotional equilibrium as constant without any emotional change. When we try to apply this term in the field of hospitality management, it is to capture the whole attention. The management of basic emotions like anger, and fear is important in hospitality management in tourism and marketing fields. When one is able to manage emotion, he/she can be considered as a master in emotion management. It is essential to control one’s emotion because emotionally stable people are capable to take right decisions.

Intercultural communication

In international relations, intercultural communication acts the role of a diplomat. It is so important because the international relation among the countries work under diplomatic relations. Before considering the importance of intercultural relation in international level, it is important to understand ones own cultural values and identity. In the field of hospitality management, intercultural communication challenge is important. In international relation, one can act the role of a cultural diplomat. Zareen Karani Arao points out that, the incidents from the everyday life of a diplomat is able to enrich his/her experience as a cultural diplomat.

There are so many internal and external conflicts that the diplomat had to face. “how effective intercultural communication competencies might be developed, and the kinds of training that are most likely to be effective for diplomats, to enhance their ability to work, communicate and negotiate effectively and build genuine relationships when working across cultures.” (Karani Araoz). If the inter cultural communication competency is to be developed, it is important to undergo certain training sessions. Other skills can be developed through day to day experience. So it is evident that intercultural communication skills are considered as important building blocks of hospitality management.

Leadership and teamwork

Leadership can be described as the skill to lead a team and to the willingness to work with a team as a member. The leader must be capable to perform beyond the routine tasks. As the actions of the leader directly affect the output of the team, his/her action must be found on what is best for the work. Moreover, the leader must be ready to find out new ways of improving routine tasks. The aim of the leader must be to lead a team of people with individual difference. Proper leadership will supplement the output of the team. In Leadership and Teamwork we can read that, the combined effort of the members of a team is more effective than the individual effort.

Here, the leadership can play an important role in the success of the team. “Good teamwork releases group synergy so that the combined effect of individual contributions far exceeds the sum of their individual effects. There is mutual accountability and togetherness amongst members of a well-knit team.” (Essay Writing Course chapter 3: Leadership and teamwork). When an individual works with a group, the individual contribution will benefit the whole group. Moreover, in the field of tourism and marketing, the qualities of leadership and team work are more valuable.

Problem solving

Problem solving skill is essential to an individual who is working in the fields of Tourism and marketing. In these fields, one had to deal with people who are with variation in culture and values. For example, some people may be short tempered and it is difficult to tackle them. In the article “Problem Solving”, it is pointed out that, the skill of problem solving can be acquired through training. When we are ready to solve a problem, it is essential to study the problem and to analyze the cause of the problem. For example, there may be problem between customer and shopkeeper. The problem cannot be solved without understanding the cause of the problem.

“The more traditional, rational approach is typically used and involves, eg, clarifying description of the problem, analyzing causes, identifying alternatives, assessing each alternative, choosing one, implementing it, and evaluating whether the problem was solved or not.” (Problem Solving). After solving the problem, it is essential to evaluate whether the problem is solved or not. The problem solving ability of the leader and the efficiency of the members of the team to work as a group decides the effectiveness of the group.

Conclusion

The focus of this paper has been a review of human interpersonal communication based on which I analyzed my relationship with one of my best friends. The theories of interpersonal communication have been used to assess the depth of this relationship. Among the available theories, the most significant theory that was referred to is Heider’s theory. Similarly, other theories such as Correspondence Focused Theory, Co-variation Focused Theory, Responsibility Focused Theory, Bias based Theory provide one with fresh insights into the nature of human behaviour. My understanding and knowledge of various theories of human behaviour have been highly useful in solving my conflicts with my friend.

After that various interpersonal communication skills such as Listening skills, Verbal and non-verbal behaviour have been discussed. Various processes and techniques are noticed for possible Conflict management consequent on several researches conducted time to time. Managing emotions, Intercultural communication, Leadership and teamwork and Problem solving were also discussed in this paper. Any of the above or all of the above processes, if needed, can be used to maintain a warm and healthy relationship with my friend and all issues related to the differences can be sorted out easily.

Works Cited

Manusov, Valerie. Attribution Theory: Finding good Cause in the Search for Theory. 03-Baxter – 45485. 2008. Web.

Manusov, Valerie. Purpose and Meta – Theoretical Assumptions: Attribution Theory: Finding good Cause in the Search for Theory. 03-Baxter – 45485. qxd. 2008. Web.

Karani Araoz, Zareen. Diplomats Communicating Across Cultures. International Conference on Intercultural Communication and Diplomacy. 2003. Web.

Essay Writing Course chapter 3: Leadership and teamwork. Essycom. Web.

Problem Solving. 1997-2008. Web.

Introduction

The world population has grown at a very drastic rate for the last two thousand years. It is estimated that the current population is approximately six and a half billion people. It is projected that by the year 2050, the world population will be approximately nine and a half billion people (Rosenberg, 1). This rapid growth become an issue of much concern and calls in for mechanisms to regulate this growth of the population especially putting in to consideration that the increase in population puts much pressure on the available resources.

Population Control

This can be taken as any measures taken in controlling the location, type as well as the number of the populace occupying the globe. The methods of population control include birth control that may make use such techniques as use of contraceptives, abstinence, and sterilization among others. Other methods may involve setting up government policies such as one child one family policy, abortion legalization among others. The intention of carrying out population control is to ensure that the available resources can satisfy the needs of people within the population without some suffering from their shortage. By maintaining the population at a level that it be manageable will ensure social well being to each and every individual within the society.

Political and ethical views on population control

According to Cook (1), the issue of population control sometimes gives out a negative message. He argues that the methods employed in the course of population control put off the blessing of conception, the children that are not born, and parenthood. The notion that population growth increases poverty dismiss the value of children.

According to Dwyer-Frazier (5), the women’s right to the freedom of reproducing was a monumental success for the feminist movement in the United States of America. More so, the advantages of birth control to the physical health of women are as well of great importance. The reduction in the total number of pregnancies and the increase of the duration between giving birth are quite significant in bringing about childbirth in women that are much more safe and healthy. The control of population may be of no use and not necessary to addressing the “Population explosion” but it brings about positive impacts that may be of significance just the same way as its primary goal.

Historical Background on Population control Ideology (Thomas Malthus)

Thomas Robert Malthus is believed to be the father of population control. He was born in the year 1766. He played a part of introducing a far-reaching fresh way of looking at the turbulent social state of affairs in England. He had a belief that man naturally had the capacity to bring up his population in a geometric pattern. He believed that the human power to multiply could never be fully realized, but on the basis of the United States double increase in population in the recent times within a period of twenty five years, he made claims that it could securely be declared that when population is not checked, it progresses upwards geometrically in such a manner that it becomes double within a period of every twenty five years. On the other had, Malthus makes claims that, it is quite unfortunate to realize that food production progresses upwards only arithmetically. In the words of Malthus himself, he sums up this claim as follows: “Population when unchecked increases in a geometrical ratio. Substinence increases only in an arithmetic ratio. A slight acquaintance with numbers will show the immensity of the first power in comparison with the second.” (Anonymous 6)

Nevertheless, Malthus had a mind that humanity had hardly lived up to its capability to multiply in twice its number after every two and a half decades and hardly it possibly would. The rate of producing food could not sustain for a longer time an increase in population of this nature and wouldn’t take a longer time before nature took control of this population growth. According to Malthus’ claims, nature has time and again been imposing a check to bring about a balance between these two forces that are competing with one another, that is, population growth and growth in food production. The checks talked about by Malthus are of two forms; positive checks and preventive checks. The definition given by Malthus of the preventive checks is that they are a foresight of the problems associated with bringing up families. These are ways which people can work in an active way to avoid drastic growing of the population from coming about. If these kinds of checks are not employed in an appropriate manner through the effort of human beings and population goes up as a consequence of failing to bring about a balance between the two forces, at this point there is need for the positive checks to set in. Positive checks in this case are those causes that make a contribution to make short a human life and may include extreme poverty, severe labor, bad caring of young children, wars, diseases and epidemics, famine among others.

Malthus believes that these can be achieved via moral self-control. Human beings are thus, capable of bringing down the stress of the population growth by portraying moral self-control and practicing a preventive check on population in a manner such as marrying at a later time. Malthus did not support contraception. On the other hand, he notes, if man is unable to practice the moral self-control (and he believed man could not be able to practice this because of the sexual desires within him), then population must be brought down by the positive checks of the forces of misery and vice that will be in form of war, famine, and diseases (Anonymous 7).

Examples of population control; (case of China, India and Iran)

China is the most populated country in the world having more than 1.2 billion people thus forming approximately twenty one percent of the world population. This country is in danger of encountering social and economic problems in the coming time due to this high population. A one-child policy was introduced way back in the year 1979, as an effort to bring about population control. This entails that each family is only allowed to have one child. Other methods of population control used here include birth control programs and economic changes.

Taking the case of Iran, this country has succeeded in bringing down the birth rate in the years that have just passed. This is a country that is the only one where mandatory contraceptive courses are required for women as well as men before a certificate of marriage can be issued. The government of Iran puts much emphasis on the importance of having families that are small as well as the use of contraception.

Considering India, this is the second largest populated country in the world before China. Its population is increasing rapidly and it is even estimated that by the year 2025, India will be ahead of China. The Indian government is committed to promote population control but it has been realized that during the last three decades or even more, there has been a big gap between actual planning and implementation. Control of population has not been effectively exercised and that is why the population in the country goes on increasing (Sarin, 2001).

Population Forecasting and Challenges for the 21^st Century

In the coming decades, several things are likely; the world population is expected to go beyond the present six billion although it may start going down in the course of the second half of the coming century. The population distribution will go on tilting to LDCs from MDCs and it will go on to age. This increase in the population in the course of this century poses several challenges especially putting in to consideration that much pressure will be put on the available resources (Lutz, 1).

Conclusion

It is of great importance for all the nations in the world to consider this issue of population increase especially in the course of this century and the dangers that are associated with this increase. Each and every nation should come up with measures to deal with this problem and ensure effective implementation of these measures to realize positive results.

Works Cited

Anonymous. “The Inherent Racism of Population Control”. lifesiteNews.com. 2004. Web.

Cook, Jamie. “Population control in China and its consequences”. Unpublished. 1999. Web.

Dwyer-Frazier, Erin. “Population control: A social Perspective”. ENVS. 2009.

Lutz, Wolfgang. “World population in the 21^st Century”. Millennium. 2009.

Rosenberg, Matt. “Current World population.” About.com, a part of The New York Times Company. 2009. Web.

Sarin, Ash. “India: Population-Control – A Dismal Record of Non-Performance – Statistical Data Included.” CBS Interactive Inc. 2001. Web.

Introduction

The Animal Rights Movement has shown few signs of weakening over the years after three decades of activism and management. This has been influenced by public awareness of animal rights policies, increased legal action, and budget building. The movement covers many organizations which advocate for animal rights which take the names Animal rights, conservation, or welfare (International Vegetarian Union, par. 3). The animal rights movement is responding to how animals are treated globally. The response in each country is different considering culture, location, and laws governing animals. Animal rights activists in these countries advocate for the creation of animal protection laws, implementation of these laws, anti-vivisection, and an animal cruelty-free lifestyle (Animal Australia, par. 1).

In Australia, there has been an increasing trend in animal advocacy with the government getting more involved with improvement in animal welfare (Animal Australia, par. 4). Animals have been used in scientific and medical research, used even in teaching and there has been a change in approach over animal use and anti-vivisection. In West Australia, researchers still use animals in their research and teaching in big numbers, though non-animal methods can be innovated and used.

Anti-vivisection

The use of animals in research started in the 19^th century and it’s still being done today to the disadvantage of both animals and humans. Some of the tests done on animals are the Draize eye skin tests and lethal dose tests. Many companies are using natural ingredients, culture tests, human trials who volunteer and models of computers as alternatives to animal testing (Mayo 2).

Choose Cruelty-Free

Animal rights movements in Australia on anti-vivisection a campaign against medical research on animals, lead to the establishment of Choose Cruelty-Free (CCF), a non-profit making organization that is independent and that advocates for a cruelty-free standard of living. CCF work is done by volunteers, animal rights activists to campaign on the use of products not tested on animals and having a cruelty-free logo. Products certified by CCF do not contain any animal ingredients and are not tested on animals in order to get a cruelty-free logo. CCF aims to encourage companies to take up a cruelty-free ethic and make consumers be aware of this opportunity and change their attitude concerning vivisection (Choose Cruelty free, par. 4).

Cruelty-free shops

Due to the increased number of supporters of the cruelty-free campaign, cruelty-free shops were established for vegetarians, people who want to use products not tested on animals, and foods for those who have dairy allergies. These cruelty-free shops advocate for veganism to help reduce animal killing and cruelty, it is an ethical and appropriate decision that many people in the animal rights movement have considered in response to public health, environmental costs and animal suffering (The Cruelty free shops, par. 1).

Animal cruelty – Factory Farmed Pigs and Battery Hens

Animal cruelty has been an issue in Australia, factory-farmed animals are subjected to misery. Farmed pigs are confined into restricted small cages whereby they hardly can turn or walk. The battery hens are kept in cruel cages where they cannot even spread their wings, in a space less than an A4 size paper. These animals get trapped for months, rub on the wires in pain, the hens peck their feathers out and their cage mates, and to reduce these incidences their beaks are chopped off. These practices are legal in Australia even though they have been banned in other countries. The legislation of animal welfare does not protect farm animals in Australia; these are left to endure suffering in unfavorable housing conditions and cruelty (Mayo, par. 5).

The animal rights movement campaign against such abuse and suffering for all animals inclusive of those kept for food, ought to have protection from cruelty and there has been a call to help free these animals. In response to the campaign, some businesses began to sell certified cruel free products to show that they care for animal rights practically. Victoria’s biggest pig producer launched the Otway pork brand to meet the demand for safe and natural pork by consumers. Their product is produced in acceptable animal protection standards and humane production procedures. Companies that meet these animal welfare standards receive a national RSPCA accreditation. This system helps in the campaign against cruel farming conditions and practices. It increases the demand for the production of animal-friendly products (Otway Pork, par. 2). In addition, one other company that responded to the campaign in Australia is Sunny Queen Farms. They produce cage-free eggs (natural grain) from hens that are free to move around in large barns which are usually open-sided where they are able to spread their wings freely (Sunny Queen Farms, par. 3).

The problem and culture in India

In India, there are taboos to kill and meat consumption of some animals, more to do with spirituality and not animal activism. Regarding the Indian culture, animals have respect, compassion for animals is preached by Jainism, Hinduism, and Buddhism. The cow religion and culture in India cannot be done away with though many western animal activists have tried to (Ida India, par. 11), contrarily, things have changed with time due to urbanization and population increase, animals are killed for meat and leather.

The Indian Leather Trade

The Indian leather trade produces leather from skins of goats, sheep, and buffalos which is exported all over the world. They subject these animals to dangerous conditions during slaughter and cruelty by being stuffed in large numbers into Lorries undergoing severe injury, many of these animals die in the process (Elangovan 2; Times of India, par. 4). These animals are pushed into slaughterhouses and are slaughtered with blunt knives as they see each other in unsanitary conditions, others are skinned alive.

PETA India an animal rights movement investigated the matter of the transport and conditions subjected to these animals during slaughter for the Indian leather trade. They collected graphic evidence of the conditions in the campaign for animal protection. They took the case to court on how the Indian animal welfare board failed to protect animals from cruelty by the leather industry. The fact that top officials of the Indian government assured the public of action against animal cruelty and progress in animal welfare six years back, still there is no improvement in animal protection. Slaughterhouses are still unhygienic, illegal slaughterhouses operate, and unfavorable animal transport conditions. The Indian government is required to do more concerning cruelty to animals and strengthening rules governing animal rights (Petaindia, par. 7).

PETA’s campaign against the leather industry began in 2000, and about 40 countries declined to import leather from India including the largest leather importers like Nike, Adidas, Eddie and Gucci. The leather industry lost about 68 US dollars due to cruelty. This campaign on animal protection was also supported by celebrities all over the world (Petaindia, par. 10). The leather industry is losing market as people find alternatives for leather products and advocate for animal-friendly products.

Conclusion

The human rights movements in western countries are campaigning against vivisection as most of the research is conducted on animals, working directly with these organizations to find efficient alternatives and to inform scholars of the impact of animal testing and what alternatives can be put into practice. Vivisection should be abolished because scientific research by vivisection cannot be achieved without suffering and cruelty (Mayo 1). Animal welfare associations are encouraging people to only use products that have not been tested on animals, check for the CCF logo to ensure that the products are approved by CCF, and support the campaign against animal suffering and cruelty.

Many countries are implementing animal anti-cruelty laws against the intentional cause of suffering to animals and the provision of care to these animals. The subjection of an animal to pain carries with it penalties for animal rights violation and failure to care for animals is also a violation of the law. Anti-animal cruelty law has gained attention over the years and has led to more humane handling of animals. This is because of the penalties and campaign against cruelty by animal rights movements (Wisch 3). More companies are producing cruelty-free products to help in the anti-cruelty campaign and capture the growing market demand for these cruelty-free products. Veganism is becoming the focus of animal liberation movements; they propose the use of cruelty-free products (International Vegetarian Union, par. 2).

Works Cited

Animals Australia. “ Major Campaigns.” 2009. Web.

Choose Cruelty Free. “About CCF”. 2009. Web.

Elangovan, K. “IAS The horror of the Indian leather Trade.” 2009. Web.

IDA India. “Animal Welfare in India.” 2009. Web.

International Vegetarian Union. “A Spotlight on Vegan Companies and Businesses.” 2006. Web.

Mayo, Charles. “Antvivisection Campaign.” 2009. Web.

Otway Pork. “Otway Pork first to Gain national RSPCA Accreditation.” 2005. Web.

PetaIndia.com. “Leather is Dead Skin.” 2009. Web.

Sunny Queen Farms. “Natural Grain Cage Free Eggs.” 2009. Web.

The Cruelty Free Shop. “A Huge Range of Vegan Food and Cruelty-free Products Delivered to your Door Steps anywhere in Australia.” 2009. Web.

The Times of India. “The Leather Trade Faces Loss Worth Crores.” 2002. Web.

Wisch, Rebecca. “State Animal Anti-Cruelty Laws.” 2005. Web.

Introduction

Pornography became a serious and highly controversial issue/struggle for female community around the world. Studies prove that the term pornography is related to Greek words, porn and graphein. Graphein means to write. Some people did not like to explain pornography in words. Defining pornography is not easy and is very complicated mainly because of the way it is used in common language. Pornography should be differentiated from obscenity. Pornography is considered as sexually unequivocal material that sometimes equals the feelings of sex with excessive power and aggression. Gordon Hawkins, Franklin E. Zimring state; “It is one way its reality is imposed as well as experienced.” This definition indicates that power and violence plays a vital role in pornography, so it is too restrictive in a civilized society. Some people like to receive pornography. So pornography is not harmful and it is not illegal. In this field, women are free to participate in it as an expression of their sexual diversity. Even pornography plays a vital role in the sexual, emotional and cultural life of women folk. It has some severe drawbacks. Analyzing present social and cultural life of modern women, one can see that pornography diminishes womanhood and it avoids female personality and rights.

The term pornography

It is a part of common knowledge and studies prove that people use pornography to inform and teach themselves about sexual culture and attitudes. One of the serious and thought provoking ideas about pornography is that even though females are more likely to drop in the place of an illegal sexual and emotional connection, the women folk are participating themselves in the unreceptive pornography. If one analyzes social and cultural backgrounds he/she can easily find various reasons behind the social issue of pornography. Many women in present society are devoid of a genuine relation and they often lead a kind of submissive life in the patriarchal society. Muhammad Hozien states that; “Further, degrading the women and using them only as sexual objects to be controlled is a violation of the civil rights of women.” More than an emotional need or satisfaction, women folk require affection and security and they also expect a gentle masculine touch. Many people receive pornography as a medium to satisfy their mental and emotional requirements.

Significance of pornography industry

Sometimes, these kinds of passive activity lead a woman in to the state of sensational enjoyment of watching another and gain emotional satisfaction for her longing. Researches prove that the growing nature of porn addiction diminish woman’s power to prevent this trap and gradually ensnared in the ferocious cycle. The online article named Just Harmless Fun? Understanding the Impact of Pornography gives significant comments about the negative impacts of pornography among the women folk. It remarks that; “Pornography presents women in stereotype, as insatiable sex machines to accommodate every possible sexual request.”

Researches show that the fundamental message of pornography is that woman’s duty is to satisfy a male emotionally and sexually. Here the women never expect any kind of value and respect. Woman’s personality, inner beauty, talents and desires are quite insignificant and valueless. Nowadays, people use pornography without proper knowledge about its impact on social and cultural life. Through the televisions and internet pornography, video present the figure of woman which is humiliating. In pornography, woman is dehumanized and received as a material for female sexual satisfaction. One of the severe problems is that many people watch or enjoy pornography as a medium for additional relations with woman and it causes some kind of physical and emotional aggression against the woman folk. The book entitled Pornography: Research Advances and Policy Considerations by Dolf Zillmann, Jennings Bryant gives valuable comments about the social and cultural impacts of pornography. The authors state that; “Many investigators of pornography’s social and psychological impacts seem to assume that everyone knows what consumers of pornography are consuming.”

Women and pornography

As a material for sexual satisfaction, woman becomes an object in pornography and she is also subjected to severe sexual exploitation. Pornography spreads the message that woman is an extreme object for sexual pleasure and common people make the female body as an extreme one. In pornography male requirements often diminish womanhood. The female images in pornography have no emotional and psychological proportion but are received as a visual feast for female genitals. Pornography destroys women sexually and it changes them in to sexual merchandise or medium for making violence. The journal article entitled The Harmful Effects of Pornography gives comments about the harmful effects of pornography. Paul J. McGeady states; “It makes people into objects by reducing sexuality to an impersonal, mechanical activity.”

Exponents of feminism argue that pornography is harmful for womenfolk and it promotes aggressive behavior towards woman. In pornography men and women do not relate into a human level and both men and women think that they are all right and their communications are based on temporary sexual satisfaction. Pornography promotes sexual aggressiveness, antisocial activities, and individual problems. Mental or behavioral disorder includes obsessions and extreme or ritualistic masturbation. “The authors of the study concluded that exposure to pornography puts viewers at increased risk for developing sexually deviant tendencies, committing sexual offences, experiencing difficulties in intimate relationships, and accepting of the rape myth.”

Social and cultural impacts on pornography

When considering the impact of pornography one can realize the fact that its impact is much stronger than one may assume to be. First of all, it causes for the reduction of natural inhibitions. Almost all the molesters of women admit that they have been prompted by pornography in their criminal deed. Pornography plays a vital role in shaping attitudes, behaviors and values. Those who view pornography are more likely to think of women in stereotype, as socially non-discriminating and eager to accommodate any and every sexual request. It is also found that Individuals who use pornography have increasingly hostile and aggressive sexual fantasies. Pornography has a direct role in the transmission and encouragement of sexually transmitted diseases. Moreover, Clinical researches show that pornographic images create chemically encoded messages on the brain that can remain through adulthood. No doubt that it is a wide spreading phenomenon. Each and every pornography video deals humiliation of women and perception of women as sexual objects. In fact, the character of women is dehumanized and she is considered only as an object for the satisfaction of the men folk. Pornography is harmful for women as it changes the male attitude. Moreover, the sex images presented in pornography have no emotional element but are brought to the close-ups of the female genitals. Though these facts may be argued, it is rather hard to argue with the fact that the female sexuality is harmed by pornography. But, this is bit wonder that many a women follow the pornography trend and convert themselves into sexual objects in order to be needed by man and to be “loved” but they always have the opportunity to disprove the fact that women are sexual objects. Nevertheless, if women do not oppose this stereotype, nothing will eventually change. But, it should be kept in mind that women have self-respect and are more than sexual objects as they have minds and not bodies only. It should be changed and the women should have the freedom to have a moral social status.

Dehumanizing of womanhood

Pornography has been subjected for many social criticisms, and if one goes through the pages of history one can identify the different feminist movements conducted all over the world against it. Peter M. Nardi and Beth E. Schneider in their collaborative work, Social perspectives in lesbian and gay studies: a reader, write, “In the United States by the early 1980s the feminist campaigns against pornography were perhaps the best organized and financed in the movement’ history.” The authors also remark that similar types of movements were identifiable in countries like Britain and Australia. But, the campaigns caused for some other discussions over time that it also raised questions about the nature of female subordination, especially about the power assumed by women in the contemporary society. There are different perspectives regarding pornography that it is often ambiguous and in different fields it came to be known with different meanings. ”While a traditional moralist would regard it as the explicit sexual images, for the liberal it is a movable feast, a product of shifting interpretations of taste and acceptability.” But in the feminist perspective, it is a visual demonstration of male power. Though there have been many protestations against pornography, analysis reveals that this industry has been mushrooming all through the years. “By the early 1980’s it was estimated that in the USA pornography constituted a billion industry.”

Women handles a sexual object

Analyzing the different reasons, one can see that women enter to porn industry for many reasons. One of the prominent reasons that attract the attention of women to this industry is that it is comparatively an easy method to make money. “Porn is a billion dollar industry as money is made through the selling of pornography magazines and movies.” The modern media is a great boon to the porn industry that they give more importance to this field. Internet assumes the first position in raising the publicity of this field. The main factor that invites the women’s attention to this field is that they can make more money with less work. But some are of the view that they engage in this filed because they like to have sex and some of them regard it as an added advantage in the process of making money.

Discarding female rights and inner beauty

An opposite perspective of it is seen among some of the porn stars. They say that they entered in this filed as a result of bitter experiences in their life. Some of them were either sexually abused or molested, and the same caused for the destruction of their personal life. As it is a field that offers sudden riches, many women find it as a means to pay for their drug habits. The women who had the teenage runaways also feel it as a comfortable place than entering street. The inferiority complex of some women about their physique also forces them to enter to this field that they feel sexy after becoming a porn star. Though there are many reasons that attract the women to this industry, one can see that money is the main motivation for them. A serious social problem is that pornography spreads the message that superior sexual satisfaction is achievable without having an emotional affection for one’s partner and men believe marriage is sexually detaining. Jill C. Manning, Ph.D., LMFT remarks; “Pornography is influencing everything from how teens language and frame sexuality to how and why they pierce certain body parts to what they expect to give and receive in intimate relationships.”

Conclusion

To conclude, even pornography has a significant role in women’s life. It promotes severe social and cultural issues. It negatively affects female personality. It dehumanizes womanhood. Men treat women as a material for sexual pleasure. Women folks suffer from sexual commoditization and consumerism.

Works Cited

Hawkins, Gordon., and Zimring, Franklin E. Pornography in a Free Society. 1988. Cambridge University Press, 1991. Print.

Hozien, Muhammad. Pornography And Ethics: Conclusion. 1999. Web.

Manning, Jill C. The Impact of Pornography on Women: Social Science Findings and Clinical Observations. 2008. Web.

McGeady, Paul J. The Harmful Effects of Pornography.CNA: Catholic News Agency. Web.

Nardi, Peter M., and Schneider, Beth E. Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Reader. Routledge, 1998. Print.

Nardi, Peter M., and Schneider, Beth E. Social Perspectives in Lesbian and Gay Studies: A Reader. Routledge, 1998. Print.

Study Proves “Pornography is Harmful”. Life Site News.com: Life, Family and Culture News. 2002. Web.

Watson, Bruce., and Welch, Shyla Rae. Just Harmless Fun?: Understanding the Impact of Pornography: About Women. Enough is Enough. 2000. Web.

Women and Porn Industry: The Reasons. Real Sex Education Facts. 2009. Web.

Zillmann, Dolf., and Bryant, Jennings. Pornography: Research Advances and Policy Considerations. Routledge, 1989. Print.

Introduction

Marx, Durkheim, and Weber played vital roles in the fields of sociology, theory of economics, and most of all, social critics, each of them had a duty in their writings to recognize key errors inherent in the system of capitalism that had started to take over the modern industrial society in the 19^th century. The rapid increase in urbanization, industrializing world of the 1800s, made Europe’s socio-political atmosphere to be filled with a heightening, broadening, class struggle. Regarded as revolutionary or reformist, these philosophers were compelled to speak about this issue of struggle and to reflect on the responsibility of capitalism in bringing it about. Eventually Marx, Durkheim and Weber each give different theories of religious beliefs in achieving social change.

Karl Marx View on religion

Karl Marx, regarded by many as one of the most powerful thinkers in this modern period, attempted to scrutinize religious beliefs from an objective, scientific viewpoint in bringing societal development. He argued from an economic standpoint that religion serves to fulfill the purposes of the rich in oppressing the poor in the society. The affluent are deemed as the oppressors while the deprived as the oppressed. In his perspective, religion resembles other social institutions, and that it is focused on material and the economic status of the adherents. A society’s reality is being replicated by religion and how the oppressors use the dictates of religion to take advantage of the poor (Xie 2009, para.1-6)

Karl Marx believed that religion mainly functions to exploit the poor and not allow them to develop a collective consciousness. It is an illusion that prevents the poor from coming to terms with their major role in life and it strives to maintain the normal functions of the society. He views religion as a form of hypocrisy. It permits people to give reverence to appearances and forbids them from focusing on the reality underneath the surface. This makes the oppressed in the society to be compliant and accept their lot in life. Marx adds that their ready acceptance of the status quo lets them to be abused even further.

Karl Marx’s most memorable quote is his claim that “Religion is the opium of the poor.” In this quotation, he is saying that the objective of any religion is to form illusory fantasies for the oppressed. The economic actualities prohibits them from discovering true contentment in this life, therefore, religion okays their present state while promising them a better contentment in the subsequent life. Religion provides relief to the distressed, just as opiate-based drugs are given to the physically injured to relieve them of their pain. This drug of religion is being given by the affluent who are eventually responsibly for the harm and anguish that exists. Therefore, religious problems ultimately become societal problems (Marx & Raines 2002, p.167-187).

In advancing his materialistic view of history, Marx claimed that not every human is being aggravated by elusive ideas but by the aim to fulfill the material needs (Mehring 2003, p.121). In the beginning, everyone worked in one accord, which was good. However, the division of labour was created that led to the separation of the different classes based on power and wealth of individuals. He calls this the “class of consciousness.” What resulted is the creation of the social conflict that makes the society to move forward. Capitalism aggravates this situation in propelling the increase in disparity between the affluent and the poor. The emergence of exploitation of the poor roots from the forces of capitalism as it introduces a profit motive. Economics is what constitutes the foundation of human life and the past occurrences. This leads to labour divisions, fighting of the class, and the social organizations that are established to maintain the status quo, and built on the foundation of economics. Marx interpreted religion functionally. The comprehension of religion is not based on the substance of beliefs, but to what extent it serves its social purposes.

Karl Marx’s view on religion is mainly grounded on his capitalist economic theories, and he spent less time in scrutinizing religion on general. Instead, he placed more attention on the one religion he was conversant with, Christianity (Marx, Engels, and Jones 2002, p.82). Consequently, his position that religion plays a conservative role in modern society and is likely to impede social change cannot be accepted unconditionally.

Emile Durkheim view

Emile Durkheim sustained Karl Marx’s theory. As Marx had claimed that each class in the society possessed its unique conscious opinion on reality, Durkheim propagated this by showing that even the main social ideals such as time, space and God are regarded as the products of societal creation. Durkheim claimed that reality as a multiple context and that the reason for the existence of this reality is due to the figurative creations of humankind and their ritualistic activities.

In order to comprehend religion, Durkheim analyzed the Australian aboriginal tribes (Durkheim & Pickering 1975, p.102).

He drew a conclusion by suggesting that the dictates of religion encompasses a division between the things that are sacred and those that are profane. He used an example of the totem pole that served to as the mark of solidarity to the tribe. Durkheim believed that the totemic animal was the original centre of attention of the religious practice since it serves as the symbol for a social group, which was the clan. He established that the purpose of religion was to mold people who are ready to sacrifice their own interests in favour of those of the society (Mestrovic 1993).

The members of the aborigine tribe came together to carry out sporadic totem rituals, these ritualistic activities establish the laws for the social order. To these people, killing or in any way harming the totem animal is regarded as a taboo. Therefore, the killing or harming a fellow compatriot is treated on the same grounds. Durkheim puts the same argument in interpreting the principles of modern-day Christianity. He says that the moral obligations such as The Golden Rule and The Ten Commandments are social tenets. These laws serve to control the human actions toward one another and assist in consolidating social unity (Dunman 2003, para. 7).The religious adherents observes these rules not out of fear of what happens in the next life, but for their craving to fill part of the society. Participating in the religious practice enables them to have a sense of belonging whereas breaking these norms fills them with a sense of isolation. Durkheim perceives God as being an emblem of the society.

Max Weber view

In utter rejection to Marx’s evolutionary theory of classes in the society or Durkheim’s continued theory of a good society, Max Weber established that religion provides a social group with a source of meaningful coherence for the actions that, under appropriate circumstances may actually promote social change (Gerth & Mills 1946).

He elaborated that the conversion of religion gave people the opportunity for social changes that enabled people to work coherently to achieve economic sustainability. People in the archaic society worshipped many gods. The level of trust amongst them depended on the level respect accorded to the gods. An alien could simply be disregarded because he or she is not part in adoring the gods. A major separation between the natural world and the spiritual world arose with the advent of the major religions of the world such as Islam, Buddhism, and Christianity. The long perceived notion of gods and spirits was forgotten as people embraced the idea of the existence of hell and heaven. Weber claimed that the notion of a universal God gave rise to obligations based on unswerving common moral principles. The development of religion can also witness in new courses. An example of the primitive religious beliefs would be to pray for the gods to sustain the crops in the dry season or win a war over the enemies. In situations whereby there was a natural calamity, the relatives attributed this to the fact that the gods were angry and needed to be appeased with sacrifices. This panic for the gods ensured that the primitive village men gave their trusts to no one but the gods. This contrasts the new spiritual realm, whereby the right individuals who adhere to all the commandments of their religion, still cling for the hope of salvation, despite their evil past actions.

In the book by Weber, The Protestant Ethic (p.134), he argues out the position that religion has in the advent of capitalism. He says that new religious atmosphere enabled much success in achieving the goals of industrialization. It laid the foundation for moral principles in the society. People developed trust with one another, inter-communal trade became fair, the legal structure became rationalized, and people were inspired to re-establish political, social, and economic ideologies to keep in tune with the transformation that was taking place. Previous enemy communities could now drink from the same well due to the transformation that happened in their lives. Weber was ready to admit that the doctrines of the Protestant ethics broke the long-term traditional ideologies and motivated people to validate themselves realistically to their work. Kessler (2001) comments that Weber discovered that the strict followers of Calvin had the faith that without practicing good works, one could not ensure his or her place in the heavenly paradise. It is either one had his or her place among the elect or not. On the other hand, wealth was attributed to belonging in the family of God’s elect. The Protestant ethic henceforth provided religious endorsements that propelled a spirit of thorough discipline that motivated people to apply themselves sensibly to acquire riches. The picture that religion was henceforth viewed with shifted due to the drastic turn to this naturalistic approach. Religion no longer required a priest to assist in understanding it, but verity, information and investigation.

The collective interest that Marx, Durkheim and Weber had in giving the reasons for the current misery lying in wait in our modern society is the common thread that unites these great thinkers. Even though everyone of them give a differing opinion to substantiate this boom of misery, they all sit in one table in agreeing that it is rooted in capitalism, religion, and the society as a whole. It eventually becomes clear that humankind is to take the blame for the suffering of his compatriots. This has persisted throughout historic times and it is still evident in our modern world. Humankind then looks at that which is superior to them: religion, capitalism, or society as a whole.

An important factor in social solidity and transformation is the social ideology of humankind. It determines how the entire groups of people act in responding to diverse social, political, and economic circumstances. Religion is one of the cornerstones of social ideologies that give rise to social steadiness and transformation. It serves as an impelling factor for maintaining order in addition to subverting power for revolution, and history has proved that it is able to affect this.

Conclusion

Marx argued that religion is compelling force for enslaving people, Durkheim articulated that it is the significant composite of social interaction, and Webster suggested that it is an initiative by a person to comprehend salvation. Which theory would you embrace? It is beyond doubt that religion served a vital role in societal development. How do we explain religion- its source, its advancement, and even its existence in the modern day society? Many people have sought for the answer to this question for a long time. Among them were three great thinkers of the 19^th century: Karl Marx, Emile Durkheim and Max Weber.

Reference

Dunman, J 2003. Emile Durkheim, Web. 

Durkheim, E, Pickering W 1975, Durkheim on religion: a selection of readings with bibliographies, Volume 1, Routledge & Kegan Ltd, London.

Gerth, H, & Mills, C 1946, From Max Weber: Essays in Sociology, Oxford University Press, New York.

Kessler, A 2001, Marx and Weber on Religion, Sociology Department, Grinnell College, Web.

Marx, K, Engels, F, Jones, G 2002, The Communist manifesto, Penguin Books, London.

Marx, K, Raines, JC 2002, Marx on religion, Temple University Press, Philadelphia.

Mehring, F 2003, Karl Marx: The Story of His life, Routledge, London.

Mestrovic, G 1993, Emile Durkheim and the reformation of sociology, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Maryland.

Weber, M, Parsons, T 2003, The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism, Dover Publications, New York.

Xie, J 2009, Karl Marx on religion, Helium, Web.

Introduction

The problem of abortion is far discussed in the contemporary society. This issue considers men and women as well, because of the global character of the problem for the drive of population. In particular, the society is unofficially divided into opponents and proponents of this feature of life, pro-lifers and pro-choicers, to be precise. However, the statements of both groups of people face problematic evaluation of the abortion due to the values and harms which can be designated out of this procedure. I feel personal responsibility to think that abortion is needful for the society. The paper is dedicated toward the critical discussion of the proponent view of this phenomenon in the contemporary society. The life of a man is precious, and one should be accurate in making assumptions of whether to stop it or not.

Evaluation

First of all, it is necessary to provide a wide scope on the problem with particular attention on the reasons causing abortion. The development of the society does not exclude the provision of sexual relations. The thing is that the sexual life in most cases begins among youngsters in the teen age. Experiencing something new in the sphere of feelings they are not possibly aware of the means for safety in sexual affairs being naïve and indifferent to this. In turn it may result than in the early pregnancy. This event props up against particular case of abortion.

Among adults abortion is supposed to be the effect of incoherent sexual activity of men and women due to some negative factors as alcohol or strong desire to ignore contraceptive means. Thus, the result may lead to abortion. In this respect bilateral opinion may arise as of whose life and destiny to save: unborn baby’s or mother’s. At this point moral, ethical, social, economic, and political controversies confront in order to find out the best decision for the decrease of the problem.

Proponent View

The abortion in this respect is thought to be the matter of own choice. Women risk by their well-being, so that not to bear possible burden of their motherhood. This simple assumption is similar to the choice on mutual agreement. First of all, doctors still provide operations in abortion, and in most countries, unless saying that in all, this procedure is legal. The thing is that a doctor should ask about real intentions a woman has while committing such deed. Afterwards the abortion is possible to be done. All in all hot discussions about this theme are based on the categorical assertions implied in each party struggling over the issue. The proponents’ “pro-choice” position is evaluated to have more rationality on the current events in lives of people and women, in particular (Code 166). Also human inadvertency may serve as the reason for pregnancy and need for abortion, as a result.

As for me, the proponent view on the problem of abortion is not amoral and needs more discussion in the society. The facts say that most of women are left in cases when they become pregnant from a strange man. Another case is that women become pregnant from a man they dislike. So there should be no pressure on women’s choice, because it is the matter of their life and their health as well. Alien opinions of some figures in the society or the public opinion on the whole provide more dissatisfaction among women. Here appears sexual inequality between men and women. It is appropriate for people to make mistakes. However, men have more rights in this aspect of life peculiarities.

On the other hand, there are cases when women occasionally appeared pregnant. In this situation there is a human approach of having no children, because of possible defects in appearance or in the entire health of a baby. Cases of amoral behavior may serve as the ground for this, when women and men are intended to feel no responsibility for their actions and try to feel pleasure only. One more supposition comprises cases of violence which may cause pregnancy. In this respect it seems even more amoral to give birth to a baby from a criminal or psychopath with disordered mental activity. This in turn violates a woman’s right for abortion. Hence, there should a definite amendment in the particular law base in order to take into consideration above mentioned facts. All in all, anti-abortion manifests and law acts may also serve as a case of violence toward unwillingness of women to procreate children (Rapoport & Weinberg 337). In this way it is even more inhumane to stay against abortion for the purpose to bear a defected and concretely unwilling baby by a supposed mother. In this respect the world would appear to be full of defected people.

Conclusion

The opponent and proponent sides for cases of abortion still remain most discussable in the society. Thus, the main conflict touches upon the woman’s right to choose to seek abortion services against the right of the unborn to continue life (Tolleson-Rinehart and Josephson 124). As far as I am concerned, abortion should be legal in terms when it is not on the late stage. This would possibly make women in their choices and rights equal with men.

Works cited

Code, Lorraine. Feminist interpretations of Hans-Georg Gadamer. Cambridge: Penn State Press, 2003.

Rapoport, David C. and Weinberg, Leonard. The democratic experience and political violence. London: Routledge, 2001.

Tolleson-Rinehart, Sue and Josephson, Jyl J. Gender and American politics: women, men, and the political process. San Jose, CA: M.E. Sharpe, 2000.

Drug and alcohol abuse is one of the main problems that affected modern society. This problem becomes a real burden for many families living in low-class environments. Drug and alcohol abuse is not an individual problem but a social one caused by poverty and the inability to find a well-paid job (Wilke 29). Drug and alcohol abuse hurts productivity and employee relations, health and safety conditions. To solve the problem of substance abuse, political and social leaders develop a complex approach including laws and regulations, strict organizational policies and provide workers with social and economic support. Thesis The causes of drug and alcohol abuse are a desire to gain popularity among peers, media and family influence, and a need to mind off psychological problems.

Drug and alcohol abuse is the nation’s number one health problem and the biggest detriment to productivity levels. Substance abuse is detrimental to both the family and the individual. Following DSM: “Substance abuse is defined as a maladaptive pattern of substance use leading to clinically significant impairment or distress as manifested by one (or more) of the following, occurring within 12 months” (DSM-IV Substance Abuse Criteria n.d.). The direct result and cost of drug and alcohol abuse to the state and business have been well documented. Drug and alcohol abuse is costing American businesses $39.1 billion annually in lost productivity; the human economic cost may well exceed $100 billion a year. The individual pays with the loss of his or her health, increased financial and family problems, loss of respect, and often his or her job (Ammerman 51).

Media and family influence behavior of an individual and develop his/her preferences. Underreporting also misrepresents the relationship between substance abuse and criminal aggression, especially when the aggression involves acquaintances or is relatively minor. Also, since numerous psychological and sociodemographic factors contribute to violent behavior, it is not possible to definitively determine alcohol’s role (Goodlett et al 87). Yet alcohol’s involvement in antisocial aggression is obvious and extends beyond mere barroom brawling. The main risk factors associated with substance abuse are health and safety concerns. On the one hand, alcohol abuse increases the risk of cancer at several sites. Most notably, abuse is responsible for 75 percent of the deaths from cancer of the esophagus and 50 percent of those from cancer of the larynx and the lip/oral cavity/pharynx. It also contributes to cardiovascular, respiratory and digestive system diseases and fatal mental disorders. Not all alcohol-related injury deaths involve alcohol abusers; simple misuse is sometimes the culprit. Reviewing accidental deaths in New Jersey (Ammerman 65).

Some people use alcohol because they try to eliminate psychological problems and feel better when taking some illicit drugs and other substances (Kelly and Edwards 47). Psychiatric morbidity and mortality explicitly recorded as due to alcohol are unlikely to be an adequate representation of the contribution of alcohol to such conditions. Admissions to mental hospitals for alcoholism, alcohol dependence syndrome, or related conditions in different regions of the country have been found to reflect medical policy rather than real differences. Their physical and psychological characteristics, such as hangovers, seizures, visual disturbances, impulsiveness, distractibility, and aggressiveness, possibly make alcoholics more accident-prone even when sober (Hanson 51).

In sum, alcohol and drug abuse are caused by social and personal problems of an individual: gain popularity among peers, media and family influence, and a need to mind off psychological problems. Their treatment is comprehensive and excellent in many respects, yet it appears to greatly underestimate the cost of alcohol-related motor vehicle accidents. The cost of substance abuse crashes is disproportionately large. Although they comprise only 10 percent of police-reported crashes, they account for a third of all crash costs chance of survival.

Works Cited

Ammerman, R.T. Prevention and Societal Impact of Drug and Alcohol Abuse. Mahwah, New Jersey London, 1999.

DSM-IV Substance Abuse Criteria. 2009. Web.

Goodlett, Ch. R., Hannigan, J. H., Spear, L. P. Alcohol and Alcoholism: Effects on Brain and Development, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, 1999.

Hanson, D.J. Alcohol Education What We Must Do. Praeger Publishers, 2002.

Kelly, K. J. Edwards, R.W. Image Advertisements for Alcohol Products: Is Their Appeal Associated with Adolescents’ Intention to Consume Alcohol? Adolescence, 33 (1998), 47-51.

Wilke, D. Women and Alcoholism: How a Male-as-Norm Bias Affects Research, Assessment, and Treatment. Health and Social Work, 19 (1994), 29.