Sociology

The book of Libby Brooks “The Story of Childhood – Growing Up in Modern Britain” relates to the children that represent the majority of today’s children in Great Britain. All the stories are real as well characters performed are real too. The book refers to the problem of modern attitudes to children and considers stereotypes related to this problem. Accordingly to the author, the stereotypes about childhood in Modern Britain relate to the whole course of human history. However, Libby Brooks attempted to provide a real image of childhood. She describes children that are vital, active, and highly motivated in all spheres of modern life (Brooks, 2006). Children are often accused of various faults by the grown-ups but it could be stated that children themselves are not quite guilty and that fact corresponds to the gap between grown-ups and children. Another reason is that adults usually do not realize the meaning of childhood. Libby Brooks claims that the main goal of the book lies in representing the real world of children (Brooks, 2006). As it was mentioned earlier she attempted to show the inner world of childhood. The book consists of several parts each of them showing a certain period of life of a separate child. These periods observe the real world of a child with all the problems, beliefs, worries, and attitudes. The participants of the stories highlight the stereotypes and concerns of the adult world concerning children. It should be stated again that childhood was described and discussed from the inside.

The author claims that while writing the book she was trying to cover two ideas related to childhood (Brooks, 2006).

The first idea refers to the author’s statement that she believes in the approach that it is difficult to be a child in the present time. The adult world became so distant from childhood that this results in adult attitudes to children and childhood (Deacon, 1997).

The second idea corresponds to the statement that the reality of modern childhood shows the ideological struggle.

The book put efforts into discovering the question of ideology and stereotyping. The author tries to show the problem of why adults and children despite the same clothes, food, books, and mass media opportunities do not share the same opinion about the same problems (Brooks, 2006). Also, she tries to argue the points adults should pay attention to and share with children. This type of ideological battle is continued due to the difference between the traditions and the reality of diversity.

The Review of the Chapter about Majid

Majid is a typical child of thirteen years old; his parents and he lives in the multicultural suburbs in the outskirts of the city (Brooks, 2006). Majid is not a native British, his family emigrated from Iraq during the war with Kuwait. Despite the age, Majid attempts to learn about his native country of Iraq and the Middle East in general. He even attended a number of lectures about the war in Iraq together with his father (Brooks, 2006). Majid shows concern about Iraq as it is his native country and he is deeply interested in all the facts about his native country. The age of the boy appears not to be an influential part of his considerations. He argues about the war in Iraq, the past of this country, and the present situation (Brooks, 2006). Different scientists claim that the children in modern Britain are socially constructed and tend to have their own opinion on the global questions that relate to the war and their social well-being. The question of social care attracts the attention of Majid as his family and he himself is really dependant on this type of activity. The boy is even interested in politics and discusses the issues not only about Saddam but also about Britain. He says that if he had a right to vote, he would have voted for the Labour party as he considers this party to represent his own views and the views of his family (Brooks, 2006). According to Majid other parties provide the statements in favor of the war in Iraq and will provide more rights for rich people, especially relating to the conservatives (Brooks, 2006). As well as his parent Majid is a Muslim, he prays regularly but it does not influence his going to school with the majority represented by Christians (Brooks, 2006). Majid adopts the fact that there are many religions in the world and anybody has a right to choose his own religion. Majid’s religion does not contradict his social behavior and of course, he is not an extremist.

Conclusion

Based on the book it could be stated that the anxiety of adults about children’s behavior and well-being is due to the approach which could be interpreted as child-panic. This concern nowadays became a certain kind of an adult complex. This complex or deep concern refers to every adult and relates to all fields of modern life: affairs, drugs, security, the attitude of other people, success, technology, and the appropriate way of life (Kuznesof, 2005). Grounding on the claims of the author these problems do really exist and the concern about a child is a principle aspect of human nature (Kuznesof, 2005). However, such a concern in modern times means only belonging to the adult community (Deacon, 1997). It could be stated that the process which children undergo when entering the adult world is both the cause and the main symptom, and that process itself is changing constantly. In the modern world, children are considered either corruptible or corrupted leaving little space for a normal child (Kuznesof, 2005). Brook’s claims that the decision of this problem does not corresponds exactly to the absolute freedom of children in society (Brooks, 2006). Children by their nature require certain limitations in order to gain knowledge about the modern world (Stormont, Espinosa, Knipping, and Mccathren, 2003). However, it could not be stated that these limitations should correspond to the age of a child. Also, the control of the adults should be confused and should not provide the limitations of children’s rights (Stormont, Espinosa, Knipping, and Mccathren, 2003). It is the duty of an adult to teach a child how to manage his freedom and opportunities. Libby Brooks states that she attempted to introduce the concept of a different approach to childhood and how that concept may influence an adult (Brooks, 2006). Anyhow the problem-solving leaves much space to put effort.

Works Cited

Brooks, L. 2006. The Story of Childhood: Growing up in Modern Britain. London: Bloomsbury Publishing Plc.

Deacon, Desley. 1997. Elsie Clews Parsons: Inventing Modern Life. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press.

Kuznesof, Elizabeth A. 2005. The House, the Street, Global Society: Latin American Families and Childhood in the Twenty-First Century. Journal of Social History 38, no. 4: 859+.

Stormont, Melissa, Linda Espinosa, Nancy Knipping, and Rebecca Mccathren. 2003. Supporting Vulnerable Learners in the Primary Grades: Strategies to Prevent Early School Failure. Early Childhood Research & Practice.

It is a fundamental duty to respond to appeal by a citizen of the State of Nebraska as an appointed Justice to serve on the United States Supreme Court. Nebraska has recently passed legislation related to each of the following rights and freedoms in form of a legislation that would deny a woman’s right of choice with regard to abortion. This in direct violation of human rights and the following argument would prove that. One important reason why women tend to be more sexually conservative than males is the possibility of pregnancy. Pregnancy and child-rearing require enormous resources; therefore, females do not want to risk unwanted pregnancies. This translates into a general reluctance to engage in casual sexual relationships because of the fear.

Western society has progressed in areas such as technology, medicine, and communication, understanding and acceptance have lagged behind. In some cases, the opinions of some smaller groups have had a major impact on political decisions, which can, in turn, affect the rights of citizens.

Debates rage about an abundance of social and international issues, but one, which has become an immensely serious threat to the rights of citizens, is abortion. Reproductive rights have been debated for centuries, but recently, the opinions of some have mutated into threatening and violent actions and backward-stepping legislation. In debates about reproduction, the female body has lost its autonomy and become a social, political and moral battleground.

When examining the issue of reproductive rights, an obvious first question is “Whose rights are to be protected”?

(Herring, 112) Different groups will give different answers. The pro-life groups will advocate for the fetus’ rights. Pro-choice groups will hail the rights of women. Still other groups will support the fathers, rights. What happens when these rights inevitably conflict?

The answer lies in a confusing web of politics, religion, and culture. In order to fully understand the current spectrum of reproductive rights and freedoms, one must first look at its history.

One of the first reproductive issues to affect society was that of birth control. Linda Gordon explains that the first uses of birth control arose from the necessity of the nomadic life. Clans moving from place to place so often had to travel lightly, so a large family was a hindrance to this lifestyle. As societies grew around agriculture, the shift towards large families became important for division of labor reasons. At this point, birth control was not an issue because, economically, more children meant more workers (Gordon, 37-38).

Unfortunately, early forms of birth control were largely the products of old wives tales and meticulous timing; they were not terrible effective. As a result, the desire to terminate pregnancies arose. According to Josephine, induced termination of pregnancy, otherwise known as abortion, has been practiced since the time of the early Greeks and recorded in historical documents. (Josephine, 18) Undeniably, abortion is an old societal issue.

The legality of abortion, however, is a different story. Abortion in any form was not legal in the United Kingdom in the 1800s (Josephine, 19). The Infant Life Preservation Act of 1929 was passed in May of that year, intending to protect children’s rights to life. It did have one small provision, though. It allowed a doctor to decide if the pregnant woman’s health were in danger. If it were, then the abortion could be performed (Herring, 161).

In the United States, the issue of abortion has fallen, somewhat, along party lines. George W. Bush has zealously declared that he will legislatively block any attempt at partial-birth abortion, and, now that the Republicans are in congressional and judicial control, the leanings toward limiting abortions has worried pro-choice advocates there (Herring, 182). An important issue such as the right of abortion is standing a sad case on the political peripheral zone. It should dealt with logical common sense and not translate it into a political agenda. Then, it can well be mentioned that most of our logical conclusions come from political doctrines.

Reproductive rights have come a long way, but still have a long way to go. Birth control and abortion are debates that have ravaged the moral, social, and political spectrum of many countries and the women who live there.

Violence, hatred and bloodshed punctuate this battle. Along with advancing medicine and technology came newer reproductive issues surrounding surrogacy and the use of aborted or abandoned embryos for stem cell research.

Newer and newer issues can arise at any time. All of these stem from early discrimination of women and children. Solve rights conflicts abound and will perhaps never.

Intelligent and educated conversation in peaceful forums is necessary for this debate to continually safely and productively. One thing is, discrimination against women must end, and in ending discrimination, women will be able to declare their autonomy and fully exercise their rights as world citizens. (Lamb, 288-9)

However, in the conclusion, it could be mentioned from the point of view of a young woman that is abortion is regarded as an evil by the church or the state then it should be mentioned that it is a necessary evil and it there should be full support for the act from the point of view of both law and moral as denying it would mean the denial of individual right and discrimination of women’s rights. Therefore, there should be a right for abortion, and it is justified on the logical ground.

Works Cited

Gordon, Linda; The Moral Property of Women: A History of Birth Control Politics in America; New York, Penguin Publishing; 1990.

Josephine, Sahaya; Abortion: A public health issue; Student BMJ; 2002.

Herring, Mark; The Pro-Life/Choice Debate. London, Greenhaven Press, 2003.

Lamb, Davis; Cult to Culture: The Development of Civilization; Wellington: National Book Trust; 2004.

Introduction

The term “doping” commonly refers to the practice of using prohibited drugs or methods in sports to gain an unfair athletic advantage. Since earliest times drugs of one sort or another have been used, and abused, to enhance performance. The word dope itself is likely derived from the Dutch word dop, an alcoholic beverage made from grape skins, used by traditional Zulu warriors to enhance their prowess in battle. The extent of doping in sports has increased greatly in modern times, particularly in recent decades, as new drugs are constantly being developed.

Detecting this abuse has never been an easy task. Scientists made a great leap forward in 1983 when, using new analytic technology, they identified 11 athletes from 9 countries involved in doping at the Pan Am Games in Caracas, Venezuela. Many other athletes, including 13 members of the U.S. track and field team, withdrew from the competition rather than submit to testing.³

As the tests have become more sophisticated, so have the efforts to subvert them. The year 2004 marked a watershed moment in the ongoing effort to catch athletes using anabolic-androgenic steroids. After a syringe containing an unknown clear liquid was presented to authorities in June 2003 by a disgruntled track and field coach (later identified as Trevor Graham), scientists at the UCLA’s Olympic Analytic Laboratory determined it to be a previously unknown anabolic steroid, tetrahydrogestrinone (THG), a “designer steroid” illicitly manufactured and undetectable utilizing standard methods because it disintegrated during traditional analysis.¹

Modifying the testing procedure to detect THG was promptly followed by indictments of the supplement distributor, BALCO (Bay Area Laboratory Co-operative) and its principals. Additionally, a vigorous investigation was undertaken by the U.S. Anti-Doping Agency. Fallout from the BALCO case affected the U.S. Olympic track and field team even before the 2004 Summer Games. Sprinter Toni Edwards, who qualified in the 100m and 200m, was given a 2-year ban. Calvin Harrison, who had been named to the pool for the 1,600-m relay, was also banned for 2 years.² Sprinter Kelli White, who swept the 100m and 200m at the World Championships in 2003, was stripped of her medals and banned for 2 years in May 2004; White was cooperating in the ongoing BALCO investigations. These investigations gave rise to speculations that BALCO might have ties to some world famous athletes such as Marion Jones, Tim Montgomery, and Barry Bonds.³

The identification of THG has raised concerns that some athletes may be using other yet-to-be identified anabolic-androgenic steroids and getting away with it. Their use may have serious short- and long-term effects on health, including masculinization of females, feminization of males, elevated cholesterol levels, damage to the heart and liver, and stunting of adolescent growth, as well as psychiatric disorders including severe mood swings and dependency, with depression upon withdrawal, possibly leading to suicide.

There is a wide range of performance-enhancing substances. Some you’ve heard of from their notorious backgrounds and some you would have never expected to be very dangerous. Ginseng, for example, is an herb that claims to improve overall energy and vitality, particularly during times of fatigue or stress. It comes form the root of the plant Panax ginseng, which takes about four to six years to plant and harvest. Ginseng can come in the form of powder, liquid, tablets, and capsules. The earliest description of Ginseng is found in ancient Chinese pharmacopoeia believed to date from the first century A.D. The Chinese and Native Americans have used it for centuries. It was used for its calming effect. The Ancient Chinese said it brightened the eyed, enlightened the mind, and increased wisdom. It was used to cure digestive disorders, cardiovascular illness, nervous system diseases, and pulmonary maladies.⁵ They used it also to travel for days without food only having a ginseng root in their mouth to give them energy. Manufacturers state that Ginseng will “energize, revitalize and restore health”.⁴ It is said that Ginseng has magical properties, being that is shows no evidence of its effectiveness. Many scientists have performed studies on this supplement to see whether or not in lives up to the hype. There were many results showing that ginseng had no effect on someone’s energy or mood whatsoever. Why would anyone sell a product that contains studies showing that they are ineffective? Simple, to earn money. Manufacturers could care less about what happens to the consumer as long as he or she can still purchase their items. This is why you find most items to be ineffective and costly.

Caffeine is another supplement although some people don’t realize it. It is generally regarded as the most widely consumed, behaviorally active food/drug in the world. It’s a substance that is extracted from plants or produced synthetically for use as an additive in certain food products. It is classified a stimulant that can be found in coffee, soda, tea, chocolate, and also can be found in individual packets at a gas station or your local convenience store. So what’s the big deal, people drink coffee and soda all the time.⁵ A stimulant is a substance that speeds up the body’s functions. Caffeine is rapidly absorbed by the digestive tract and distributed to all tissues. After a person ingests caffeine his or her metabolism increases, blood pressure climbs, and heart rate accelerates which aren’t very good side effects for adults. It also causes difficulty sleeping, irritability, and nervousness. Less sleep can cause many more problems to occur. If an athlete loses sleep then he/she will not have very much muscle recovery, which will slow his/her exercise gains. However, at the cost of these harmful side effects a user has a sense of more mental awareness that athletes feel give them an advantage.

Ephedrine is another popular supplement and, like ginseng, has been used for thousands of years as a medicinal herb. It’s currently used by doctors to treat asthma and the common cold. It has been reported to accelerate metabolism and improve athletic performance. For that reason it is mostly used in weight-loss products along with caffeine. Manufacturers claimed that when taking ephedrine a person could lounge in a chair and still burn as much fat as if you were a long-distance runner. However, of these positive benefits are hard to come by with no harmful effects. Which is why ephedrine has many harmful effects like heart problems? Ephedrine includes chemical and functional similarities with amphetamines, also called speed. In spite of the scientific and legal classification of ephedrine’s active components as potent drugs, ephedrine can be legally sold in the United States as a dietary supplement.⁹ Ephedrine has been one of the most controversial substances because of its harmful effects on numerous organ systems, including the cardiovascular system, pulmonary and kidney functions, and also the central nervous system.⁶ The Manufacturers neglect to tell the consumer that he or she might be endangering their health by taking an ephedrine-based product for fear that they might lose a sale.

As a child, mostly everyone enjoyed playing games and sports. Unless of course someone else had cheated so they would have an advantage. This analogy is very similar to sports today. Taking dietary supplements is basically another form of cheating and is contrary to the nature of sport and competition. It violates the virtues of honesty and trustworthiness, which go to the heart of the fairness and integrity of competitive sport. We should all play by the same rules and start from the same level. No one should have to feel that they need to take a performance-enhancing substance just to keep up with someone else who is also taking enhancers. Why should someone be allowed to take legal steroids, ephedrine, creatine, and other enhancers in order to give them somewhat of an advantage over their competitors? It is said that in professional baseball, where there is very little regulation on supplements that should be banned, that at least 50% of baseball players take some form of steroids. Although drug use by competitive athletes isn’t a new phenomenon. The players who are taking these supplements have tainted whatever they have achieved in the sport. For Example, Barry Bonds who is considered to be one of baseball’s greatest hitters is being questioned and tested for possible use of a steroid. Even though he states that he has never taken steroids in his entire life, the fact that he might have taints all his accomplishments including his record-breaking 73 homeruns in one season.² This is why the baseball audience in America has diminished over the years. If they don’t regulate steroid use fans will continue to lose interest in the sport because not too many people enjoy watching players who got to where they are just by taking the right supplements.⁷ Although sometimes the blame shouldn’t be put on the athlete. They could be moral, perhaps to the detriment of their career, or disregard ethics and ensure their future.

Athletes receive all kind of pressure from every which way. It could be from their parents who push them too hard and demand success. It also could be from a coach who rewards a player for doing well, which will give him or her a free pass to either start or continue to use performance-enhancers so they can please their coach and get more playing time. The biggest form of pressure a player could get is from all of the media exposure. A high level of exposure creates much pressure for an athlete to do well so he or she might be inclined to take a substance that may be very harmful to there health. Football, on the other hand, began regulating performance-enhancing supplements long ago. This strict regulation has made the sport more enjoyable for the players and the fans watching.⁸

Some athletes aren’t even really aware of what they are taking. They simply just want to reap the benefits without ever realizing the consequences. Even though the short-term effects may be prosperous, the long-term are questionable. It could lead to all types of harmful problems. There could be many different types of mental effects produced by the use of these supplements. Although there isn’t usually any long-term mental effects from these substances there have been some episodes where the users experienced anxiety, jitteriness, palpitations, and mood changes. This is a very large price to pay just to improve upon oneself.

So why should someone take supplements if they are not sure what effect it may have on them? The easiest and best way to get what the body needs is by eating food. But, still about 70% of Americans use supplements. Some of the users are really sure what they are taking. They could be confused or mislead by the manufacturers who just want to make a quick buck. Manufacturers are not required to show a products safety or effectiveness prior to marketing. The companies that produce the supplements will also attempt to trick a consumer into buying their product with different tactics. They’ll use medical terms like ‘detoxify’, ‘purify’, ‘energize’, and also claim that their product is ‘breakthrough’, ‘magical’, or a ‘new discovery’.⁵ Just because a product has an antioxidant doesn’t mean a person should buy it. If it states that it has “high potency” that doesn’t mean it’s effective. Also if the product has a label on it that does not mean that the FDA endorses it.⁸ Another red flag is if a supplement only shows benefits and no side effects. Consumers are often left confused by these false claims made by manufacturers. Now, consumers have no idea whether a product is pure, effective or even safe. Supplements are watched over that well. They are regulated more as foods rather than drugs. Under Federal Law, a Manufacturer can decide whether or not he or she wants to test a supplement before marketing it. Continuous control of the manufacturing process would guarantee good, quality products.

One of the most noticeable effects from the use of the substances is seen physically. The body can have many unusual reactions from these supplements. Ephedrine, for example can inhibit the body from cooling itself, which can lead to rising temperature and maybe serious damage. You also may experience high blood pressure, increased heart rate, and suppressed appetite. Depending on the chemistry of the person using a product the outcome may be positive or negative. Some athletes would say, “that can never happen to me, I’m in good shape and I take care of myself.” Korey Stringer, former Defensive End for the Minnesota Vikings, also was an athlete who took care of himself. One day the Vikings were practicing in the offseason and Korey had collapsed on the football field. He later died from a heat stroke. There was no ephedrine found in his body, however, there was a product in his licker that contained ephedrine.⁹ The NFL later banned the substance, ephedrine. This proves that no one is immune to negative reactions might come from the use of performance-enhancing supplements. Is it really worth a life to enhance your ability to lose weight, get stronger, or be more energetic.

Historically, most drugs that have been abused in sports, except for designer drugs such as THG, were developed for their therapeutic potential. Detecting instances of doping is likely to become increasingly complex as new therapeutic drugs and drug delivery systems are developed and are abused by those determined to cheat.

The findings of the Human Genome Project present daunting new challenges as gene therapy evolves as an integral part of medicine’s therapeutic armamentarium in the years ahead. Unethical athletes and those around them are already reaching out to scientists working to develop therapeutic gene delivery systems for insulin-like growth factor (IGF-1) for patients afflicted with muscle wasting disorders, recognizing this technology’s performance-enhancing potential. In the final analysis, the principle that sport is a contest of character, skill, and disciplined hard work, not a contest in pharmacology, must be inculcated in all athletes. Although certain supplements provide good short-term effects, they usually aren’t worth taking in the long run. People using enhancers could get very sick, damage their body permanently or even get themselves killed. Supplements need to strictly regulate by the FDA. ¹⁰ All possibly harmful supplements should be banned from public use. This would keep everyone safe and everything fair.

Conclusion

In this chapter, the traditional arguments against doping have been submitted to scrutiny. I could summaries my conclusion by saying that the ban on performance-enhancing methods constrains the professional activities of athletes, and that the reasons often advanced to support that constraint do not stand criticism. The prohibition rests either on arbitrary delimitations or on ungrounded prejudices, or both. But, it could then be asked, why does it enjoy so much support amongst the general public? In my opinion, different reasons could be advanced to account for such support. One reason could be that the public still associates doping with a drug liberal society. This is a misconception. I have already argued for the plausibility of being restrictive on recreational drugs, while at the same time advocating lifting the ban on doping. The amount of aggregated social harm originated by these two practices will probably differ. From the assertion that sport has to be clean, another usual misconception consists in concluding that doping is against the ?nature? of sport. At least in one sense of the term clean, the above standpoint no doubt expresses a valuable insight.

Whether we practice sport as a leisure activity or as a profession, our lifestyle should be a healthy one. Alcohol and drug intake are counterproductive to any kind of sport activity, no matter how intense it is. From this, however, it does not follow that doping also is incompatible with any kind of sport practices. To grasp this argument properly, we need to concentrate on the distinction (still unobserved by some people, and unduly neglected by most) between recreational and professional sports. This leads us into the next reason lying (in my opinion) behind public support for the ban on doping. The primary goal of recreational sports is to promote health and enjoyment for its practitioners. To dope within such a context will no doubt be counterproductive. The athlete who dopes will probably ruin her health and will not experience any amusement.

Professional sport, instead, is ruled by different goals. A professional athlete aims to become excellent in her discipline and to achieve the external goals mainly prestige and money that usually follow such victory. Given the hard competition that characterizes professional sports, doping is not only rational, but even necessary, for securing those goals. Although they have a common origin, recreational and professional sports have evolved in different ways and today constitute two very distinct social practices. And different social practices should reasonably be guided by different rules. Professional sport, then, goes free from the accusation of promoting unsound strategies to victory. If my arguments in this chapter are correct, all kinds of performance-enhancing methods should be allowed in professional sports. Certain doping damages will then be unavoidable. This is a regrettable effect of my proposal. These damages, however, are not essentially different from the injuries that affect other professional categories. We should do everything we can to minimize them, as we do in other professions, short of implementing paternalistic restraints in the activity. A condition for reducing doping injuries, I have argued, is lifting the ban. But we will not be able to prevent all doping injuries fully. We should not be surprised. Working always breaks down workers. Health, so why should sports jobs be different.

Footnotes

1. Abbe Research Division. Doping of Athletes and Sports Medicine: Index of New Information. (Abbe Pub Assn of Washington Dc: 2004), 144-153
2. Christopher N. Burns. Doping in Sports. (Nova Science Pub Inc.:2005), 59
3. D. R. Mottram. Drugs in Sport. (Routledge Publishers: 2005), 326-33
4. Fred C. Pampel Drugs And Sports. (Facts on File: 2007), 156-160
5. Jason Porterfield, Doping: Athletes and Drugs. (Rosen Publishing Group: 2007), 121-127
6. John, M Hoberman. Mortal Engines: The Science of Performance and Dehumanization of Sport. (The Blackburn Press: 2002) 254-68
7. Julian Bailes. When Winning Costs Too Much: Steroids, Supplements, and Scandal in Today’s Sports World. (Taylor Trade Publishing: 2005) 200-12
8. Mark S. Gold. Performance Enhancing Medications and Drugs of Abuse. (Haworth Medical Press: 2007) 34-36
9. Michael S. Bahrke, Charles E. Yesalis. Performance-Enhancing Substances in Sport and Exercise. (Human Kinetics Publishers: 2002) 273-85
10. Nathan Jendrick. Dunks, Doubles, Doping: How Steroids are Killing American Athletics. (The Lyons Press: 2006) 210-6
11. Schneider A. Doping in Sport: Global Ethical Issues. (Routledge: 2007), 27-32

Introduction

In 1906, towards the end of President Theodore Roosevelt’s first term, he invited Washington T. Booker in white house for a meal. As leading African American, Booker-Roosevelt meeting was expected to address the plight of many African Americans against a worsening conditions of racial segregations while at the same time generate agreement that would contribute toward the victory of republicans in the election that was coming a head. Booker saw that it was sufficient for African Americans to accept the president’s offer to give more opportunities to African Americans to represent their people in the national Congress. The grievances of African Americans were motivated by various forms of slavery as they were brought in the country through slave trade in 19^th century. In the beginning of 21^st century, the socialization of African America had developed as their numbers. They needed to vote, adequate health care and supply of essential services by the government. In the American passages, these episodes take us through a time in American history when white prejudice dominated U.S.A. particularly the north. In contrast racial discrimination and wide spread bias in wealth allocation faced foreigners living in US. Of particular attention were the Asians and Americans of African origin. As Debois puts it, Africans were not to inferior to deserve such hash treatment. Neither were they to offensive that race discrimination and rights violation were the best options to keep them from participating in the country’s development affairs and still be appreciated.

William Edward Burgardt Du Bois

“The Negro’s status in Southern Politics is dark as Hell and smells like cheese”. Despite the fact that African American were discriminated against because of their color and race, they continued to remain relevant as important delegates that would guarantee republicans victory in elections should they vote as a team by rallying behind Washington Booker. Majority of the Africans were not for the ideas of Booker as he chose to work with Roosevelt to consolidate the African American political support. In as much as Roosevelt remained relatively obstinate about deteriorating race relations between the whites in the north and black Americans in the south, Bookers association with Roosevelt was considered by African Americans more of a betrayal rather than “white house promise” in the views of Booker who joined Roosevelt following his declaration in Atlanta, Georgia in 1895. They thought that Booker supported racism-the very form of oppression that they faced at the time and was perpetuated by white republicans in government (Du Bois 17).

Given this state of affairs, William Edward Burgardt Du Bois emerged as the key leader in African American social political leadership as the person who would guarantee them leadership as they fend for their fate. Therefore, WEB Dubois leadership gained fast prominence and popularity amongst black soldiers both in the army and in the navy. This discussion derives from the African American struggle against racial segregation which was the sole mission of Dubois-to rally African Americans behind an uprising that would see them conquer racial bias among other basis and styles of discrimination, to explain how his character and action mixed in his leadership those impacts on modern American Politics. Whether Dubois had any great influences on the American social, political and economics is the issue of discussion in the first part of this essay. The discussion seeks to evaluate the contribution of Dubois in towards the various transformations in its society that have effects to the modern day US (Anderson 118).

Dubois goes into the annals of America’s history as the first social and political leader to lead a direct confrontation against the government. On this account, he is credited by the majority for leading twenty nine black delegates to Niagara Falls in New York where they demanded for both political and social rights of the Negros. Dubois believed that the countries regime is subjecting the Negro American to racial discrimination that is surmountable to inferiority as opposed the whites’ views which suggested that African Americans were naturally submissive to discrimination since they were brought in America as slaves. From this convention henceforth, the Negros in the south and every American of black descendent would yield to intense opposition against Booker Washington as widespread protests about deplorable conditions of African Americans begin to grip the US (Du Bois 71).

Roosevelt resumed presidency for his second term amidst growing concern about the worsening economic and social situation of Negros. Besides racial segregation, African Americans lost their jobs, lacked proper housing and were not granted basic human rights comparable to their whites’ counterparts. Unfortunately, he became insensitive and less concerned with the need to address their plight. After all he had succeeded in winning the election and was not going to vie in the next elections. The epitome of racial discrimination is probably the whites’ demonstration in Springfield, Illinois. In their protest against possible equal treatment of blacks and whites, two Negros were brutally murdered. Further unrest in the country prompted major white reformers to team up with Dubois in the formation of National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) (Ayers, Edward, Gould, Lewis and Shinseki, David 582).

The primary objective of this association was to lead struggles aimed at making the government and the whites who reserved racial prejudice against African Americans to restore human dignity for their African fellows. in his observation, the Niggers were not just being segregated, they were denied also basic human rights such as freedom of speech and movement in certain locations. They lacked education and primary health care was non existent in most areas in the south where they were concentrated. Since the leadership of Roosevelt now ignored them, Du Bois sow that they could if they could only learn of the degree of deprivation that they faced and its full consequences on their future in America, their unity could stand all efforts aimed at calming them from advancing their demands from the government (Juguo 8).

This development is considered the turning point for Dubois efforts to create a lasting impact on the country’s social and political aspects. Acting under the under the umbrella of NAACP, he proceeded to step up their efforts to end racial discrimination, and call on the government to grant voting rights to African Americans and further provide essential services and basic education to all children. It would take Du bois more effort to push through their reform in the country because it was equally dealing with aftermath of colonialism at this time. Through his literary writing titled “the souls of Black folk”, Du Bois stirred up reactions amongst the African America by inspiring them to rise against racial oppression and fight for their rights. During the First World War, he used his authority in Peace information center to demand the illegalization of atomic weapons. Much of these weapons had been used in highly destructive wars against the Asian nations. Despite his refusal to withdraw his demands for making the use of nuclear weapons illegal, Dubois was acquitted from charges leveled against him on the claims that he acted as foreigner meddling in the US affairs (Schmidt, Steffen, Shelley, Mack and Bardes, Barbara 255).

Du Bois debut in America’s social and political arena is probably timely as it is important. He rose to beacon the hopes of many African Americans who for the first time having tasted freedom from slavery sought to express their sorrows about discrimination. Perhaps, Du Bois contribution of greater impact to the history of Americans is the blacks’ disappointment with the government for failing to cause fair treatment of African Americans. It must be admitted that Du Bois valued education; in one of his literary writings aimed at agitating Americans of black descendents to pursue education tailored toward white collar jobs, he attacked the views of Booker Washington in the “talented tenth”. While booker maintained that African Americans should train themselves to be better farmers and farm workers, Du bois was for the opinion that they should find formal education and seek to offer products and services as professionals. To this day, this contribution has a lasting impact in modern America civilization in that, Americans of African descendents make a significant proportion of professionals in various field of their expertise including office jobs(Bell, Benard, Grosholz, Emily and Stewart, James 448).

Du Bois supported black capitalism till the concept was tainted by white who made inroads to corrupt NAACP.As the American economic system adopted more capitalism ideologies, Du Bois’ social activism lead him to follow communism in various respects since he associated capitalism with the oppressive whites’ politics. On his migration to Africa he joined the communist party in Ghana where he became a citizen. Here as well, he maintained serious challenge to imperialism in the continent (Wintz 43).

Conclusion

Much of his public life was spent in social political activities aimed at integrating the Negros and the white American citizens. In all of his political efforts, Du Bois fought for equal rights for all Americans without discriminating against African Americans at all levels. He is forever remembered as one of the leading African American scholars who used his literary skills to educate and agitate the black American citizens to struggle for their rights. His main contribution in modern America includes the freedom of African Americans to vote and the abolition of slave trade. His undying determination to look for the truth especially after his doctorate degree also led to great contributions in the way social life of America’s citizens could be understood. In sociology and philosophy, Du bois formulated many bases upon which various aspects of human relations could be defined. This left a remarkable contribution to America’s classical literature as well as history that are useful for people for all generations. Through his highly influential approach to confront the status quo during his time, Du Bois impacted particularly on the lives of African Americans thereby leading to much memorable impressions on average civilized Americans.

References

Anderson, Malcolm. States and nationalism in Europe since 1945. 2000. New York: Routledge, 2000. Print.

Ayers, Edward, Gould, Lewis and Oshinsky, David. American Passages: A History of the United States. Volume 2: Since 1985. 4^th Edition. Boston, MA: Wadsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009. Print. Pp. 583

Bell, Benard, Grosholz, Emily and Stewart, James. (eds.), W.E.B. Du Bois on race and culture: philosophy, politics, and poetics. New York: Routledge. 1996. Print.

Du Bois, William E. B., The Souls of Black Folk. San Diego: Filiquarian, 2007. Print.

Schmidt, Steffen, Shelley, Mack and Bardes, Barbara. American Government & Politics Today. Boston, MA: Wordsworth, Cengage Learning, 2009. Print.

Wintz, Cary. African American political thought, 1890-1930: Washington, Du Bois, Garvey and Randolph. New York: M.E. Sharpe. 1999. Print

Juguo Zhang. (ed.), W., E. B. Du Bois: the quest for the abolition of the color line. New York: Routledge. 2001. Print.

Introduction

Education is a basic human right protected and outlined by articles 13 and 14 of the United Nations of 1989. Education is both a human right and indispensable in realizing other human rights. In emerging economies and countries, from emergencies education is vital. Gender is important in the acquisition of education. It remains a pervasive influence on any issue whether we like it or not. Gender inequalities and sexism in education play a very important role in the healing and developments of economies emerging from civil strive. Kosovo has experienced both developing economies and emerging from civil strive.

In 1979-1994 during my time in education, political policymakers had come up with methods of reducing gender disparity in education. Girls’ enrollments in schools are started increasing in my country. Unfortunately, Kosovo entered into war, which destroyed all the achievements of gender equality that had been achieved.

Main body

There need to be reformed in education so that female-focused and top-town efforts programs are implemented. A gender equity focus program will allow even teachers to have gender dynamics as opposed to parity. Girls’ education is normally reflected by the needs of society. For the future for all societies to be certain, avoid and correct an intended consequences education on the girl child should be met the priority by policymakers. In the long run girl, child education should be of paramount importance.

Education remains the most important factor in empowering women and girls at the same time it lifts economically and socially. People who are social, marginalized if provided with education will be easier to get out of poverty, therefore education plays an important role. It is said that every woman educated is educating their own family as compared to a man educated meaning that providing education to women is developing a country.

Emergencies have serious impacts on the life of women, girls, boys without forgetting men. At this point, education needs such a society under such emergencies change. This is because during the conflict, boys’ and girls’ ability to attend school is hampered and their security becomes in question. In emergencies, also teachers find it difficult to attend school. In the period of crisis, the right to gender-sensitive education becomes critical as at this time women are normally used as caregivers to the injured and the remaining children during conflict. This was observed very well during the conflict period in my country Kosovo after 1995.

Education in emergencies becomes very important in short-term and long-term issues. It is important as it provides both girls and boys safety, during civil strife in Kosovo, both the fighting armies protected schools where people gathered from war, and teachers who were there provided education. This shows that schools sheltered children from violence.

Gender perspectives and gender equality principles are critical to ensuring that all boys and girls are able to benefit equally from education in emergencies and that “windows of opportunity” to promote more gender-responsive and gender-equitable educational systems and structures are exploited. Yet the gender challenges are great; boys and girls, men and women experience shifts in gender roles, relations, and identities in emergencies, creating new educational needs.

Male and female teachers also have different experiences and different priorities that need to be addressed. (Inter-Agency Network On education in Emergencies, 2007);

Most critically, there are often large gender disparities in both the supply and demand of education, usually to the disadvantage of girls. On the supply side, schools are often at a distance and not easily accessible for girls, especially disabled girls; they are often staffed exclusively by male teachers, with only minimal sanitation facilities. In some instances, being in school, and the journey to and from school places girls at considerable risk of sexual violence, abuse, and exploitation. Going to school may place boys at risk from different dangers, such as forced recruitment. On the demand side, impoverished families may prioritize boys’ education and not have the money to pay for girls’ school fees, uniforms, and other supplies.

Girls are also often relied on to do household chores, care for siblings and generate family income. Early marriage and pregnancy are additional barriers to girls taking up or continuing their schooling. Where girls are enrolled in high numbers, drop out rates towards the end of primary school are usually high (Inter-Agency Network On education in Emergencies, 2007)

Channels health and survival messages: education in emergencies provides a channel for conveying health and survival messages; for teaching new skills and values, such as peace, tolerance, conflict resolution, democracy, human rights, and environmental conversation. An emergency can be a time to show and teach the value of respecting women, girls, boys, and men equally in society. (Kirk, Jackie, 2004);

Builds the future: at the same time, ensuring children and youth access to education during times of humanitarian emergencies provides the essential foundation for successful economic, social and political systems upon returning home. It is vital to the reconstruction of the economic basis of family, local and national life and for sustainable development and peacebuilding. Ensuring girls access to quality education prepares them to play significant roles in reconstruction efforts in their communities and beyond. (Kirk, Jackie, 2004);

Builds community capacity: community participation is critical, it can be enhanced through capacity-building activities with youth leaders and school management committees, teacher training and capacity-building support for education officials are also important, especially in chronic crisis and early reconstruction contexts. These activities must engage women, girls, boys, and men, and be mindful of a venue to highlight issues of gender inequality in education so that trainees are more sensitive to the issues and are assisted in trying to overcome them. (Kirk, Jackie, 2004);

In order for these to succeed in both developing countries and in cases of emergencies, the case of Kosovo should be adopted. After the civil strive of Kosovo, communities have been sensitized to the importance of the girl’s and women’s access to education. Non-governmental organizations have developed strategies to ensure that there is equal distribution of women girls and men and boys. There has been improvement in access to the learning environment by internally displaced individuals and this provides quality and relevant educational opportunities to all of them. Policymakers have not been left behind in this race for finding a lasting solution to this problem.

There is a need for policy makers’ researchers to bear in mind the notion that gender is socially construed not naturally or invalid. In order to deal with these

1. cultural identities should be considered such thing as a woman is place is at home should be discarded to give a girl child an opportunity to intermix and intermingle.
2. interpersonal relationship there is some cultural beliefs that dictates that women should not mix with men. This culture should also be discarded

Actions that need to be taken to ensure gender equality during emergencies include

1. Sensitize communities of the importance of girl education
2. Develop strategies to ensure that women and girls, as well as men and boys, actively participate in educational meetings and in training. For example, pay attention to appropriate meetings timings, locations provided childcare facilities, consider single-sex meetings.
3. Include women and men on community education committees and provide gender training if necessary to ensure their voices are heard and taken seriously.
4. Engage women and men in school-related activities such as school feeding, arranging escorts to school parents mobilization.
5. Engage local community, especially women and girls in the design and location of schools’ sanitation facilities.
6. Include gender as an important dimension of the initial assessment and ongoing monitoring and evaluation.
7. Develop[p project indicators to reflect progress towards gender equality.
8. Design initial assessment, and monitoring and evaluation tools to gain gender-related insights.
9. Consult regularly with women and girls, men and boys as part of monitoring and evaluation activities.
10. In refugees and Internally Displaced person contexts, provide, to the extent possible to education for girls and boys.
11. Create access for all to quality and relevant education opportunities, pay particular attention to marginalized girls, for example, adolescent girls, girl mothers, and provide flexibility and “open” programs, with early childhood education programs if needed.
12. Set the hours for classes at convenient times for those children involved with household and fieldwork and clothes.
13. Ensure that learning environments are secure and promote the protection, physical, mental, and emotional well-being of learners. Pay particular attention to disproportionate impacts of insecurity on girls and women and vulnerability to GBV e.g. provide escorts to and from school for girls, employee classroom assistants, provide girls with reporting guidelines and follow-up procedures, establish codes of conduct for teachers.
14. Monitor sexual harassment provide confidential complainant reporting mechanisms and follow-up with clear procedures.
15. Provide training for teachers to enable them to create gender sensitivity learning environments.
16. Where single-sex classes are preferred, provide separate classrooms/locations or timings for girls and boys.
17. Provide separate male and female latrines in safe places.
18. Provide appropriate clothing and sanitary provision for girls to attend school and fully participate.
19. Promote learner-centered, participatory, and inclusive instruction, reaching to and engaging girls actively in class.
20. Develop gender-sensitive curricular addressing the specific needs, perspectives, and experiences of girls and boys, including reproductive health and HIV/AIDS content.
21. Include gender equality and gender-sensitive teaching strategies in teacher training courses.
22. Establish ethical assessment and examination processes, which protect girls and women.
23. Develop and implement a code of conduct for teachers that address sexual harassment, abuse, and exploitation. Ensure that it is consistently applied.
24. Use creative strategies to proactively recruit and retain women. ( Kirk, Jackie, 2004);

Education for girls and women both disabled and normal in Kosovo is grounded in the ideology of equality. Policymakers believe that it is a means of promoting equity between men and women who decide in rural and urban areas, hailing from different social classes and even in different cultural beliefs. This ideology has been possible through putting it into practice by parliamentary registration relating to education for all including disabled individuals in the society and gender equality.

Based on fundamental rights and human rights a person should contribute to the development of society according to their abilities and needs. It has become necessary for society to develop a mechanism, which will work against conditions that hamper quality education and gender equality. In my country gender, equality has been existing since time immemorial but society is moving forward towards reducing the gap of gender disparity.

Conclusion

To avoid and correct unintended consequences—including perceived attacks on local cultures and entrenched values systems—all stakeholders must have some ability to determine the shape, scope, and projected outcomes of reform activities. Maintaining one set of clear, population-wide guidelines for change and growth in Malawi proved more successful than simultaneously implementing several new activities or concurrently working toward all gender and education goals.

GABLE found that impact and sustainability called for diverse and holistic thematic emphasis, awareness of far-reaching expectations, complex and collaborative policy activities, constant communication, and flexibility to compromise. In the long run, collaborative approaches swiftly address negative and unintended consequences, build upon positive outcomes, and sustain change in gender and education (USAID; 2006);

References

Bensalah, Kacem, ed. (2003) Guidelines for Education in Situations of Emergency and Crisis: EFA strategic planning. UNESCO, Paris. Web.

Fox, M.F. 1995. “Women and Scientific Careers,” in S. Jasanoff et al., ed., Handbook of Science and Technology Studies. Sage.

Fox, M.F. 1996. “Women, Academia, and Careers in Science and Engineering,” in C.S. Davis et.al.

Fox, M.F. 1999. “ Gender, Hierarchy, and Science.” In Handbook of the Sociology of Gender, J. S. Chafetz, ed. Kluwer Academic/Plenum Publishers.

Fox, M.F. 2001. “Women, Science, and Academia: Graduate Education and Careers.” Gender & Society 15.

Fox, M.F. 2002. ” Gender, Faculty, and Doctoral Education in Science and Engineering.” In Equal Rites, Unequal Outcomes: Women in American Research Universities, L. Hornig, ed. Kluwer Academic/Plenum.

Franz, J.R. 1995. “Improving the Climate for Women in Physics,” APS & AAPT Department Chairs Conference. Web.

Jones, A. T. and C. M. Kirk. 1990. ” Gender differences in students’ interests in applications of school physics,” Physics Education.

Jones, M. G. and J. Wheatley. 1990. ” Gender differences in teacher-student interactions in science classrooms.” J. Res. Science Teaching .

Inter Agency Network On education in Emergencies. Web.

Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. Web.

Howgego, Mugisha, C. (2004). Gender Imbalance in Secondary Schools. Forced Migration Review 22. Web.

Inter Agency Network On education in Emergencies; Good Practice Guide: Towards gender equality/girls and women’s education. Web.

International Institute for Educational Planning The Guidebook for Planning Education in Emergencies and Reconstruction (Chapter on Gender). Web.

Kirk, Jackie, (2004); Teachers Creating Change: Working for Girls’ education and Gender Equity in South Sudan. Equals, Beyond Access: Gender, education and Development. Web.

Kirk, Jackie (2004); Promoting a Gender -Just Peace: the Roles of Women Teachers in Peace building and Reconstruction. Gender and Development. Web.

Sinclair, Margaret. Planning education In and After Emergencies.( 2002). Web.

Sommers, Marc, (2004) Coordinating education during Emergencies and Reconstruction: Challenges and Responsibilities. Web.

UNHCR. (2004); Learning for a Future: Refugee education in Developing Countries. Web.

Women’s Commission for Refugee Women and Children. (2005); Don’t Forget Us: The education and Gender -Based Violence Protection Needs of Adolescent Girls from Darfur in Chad. Web.

Inter Agency Network On education in Emergencies, (2007); Ensuring a Gender Perspective in education in Emergencies available at. Web.

USAID; (2006); Why Gender Equity in education Reform? Web.

Most people think living in a wheelchair is a terrible thing.  They don’t talk about someone being wheelchair mobile, but instead it is ‘wheelchair bound’. People are confined by their wheelchairs, not liberated.  I think this should change.  This type of language doesn’t acknowledge where these people would be without the use of the wheelchair. Before I got my wheelchair, I had to wait until someone I called for help could come in from the other room to take me to the bathroom, or perhaps wet the bed if no one was around.

Talk about embarrassing. While my wheelchair was a lifesaver, enabling me to get around from place to place somewhat easier, it wasn’t until I got my electric wheelchair that life really opened up for me.  Considering what life would be like if you couldn’t walk sometimes helps in understanding just how liberating having a wheelchair available can be, especially when the wheelchair is electric powered and you don’t require the help of someone else to get you around.

First, imagine yourself without the use of your legs. Not only would you need help to go to the bathroom in the middle of the night, but there would be numerous activities unavailable to you.  You wouldn’t be able to just go over to a friend’s house without first making sure there are no steps and the doors are wider than normal so that you could get in. You can’t just run out to the store in any old car because you have to be sure you can haul your wheelchair along with you.

Activities that most kids do are unavailable, like running track, playing basketball or just play outdoors. This is even harder when you are ‘confined’ to a regular wheelchair that either requires you to have strong arms or to have someone around all the time to push you. People often pity those in wheelchairs for all of these reasons. Jerry Lewis, for example, has been consistently criticized for hawking on the pitiful aspects of children in wheelchairs as a means of raising money for his famous MDA research programs which, of course, continue to put out the message that people in wheelchairs are living less fulfilling lives as a result of their handicap.

While it is true that there are many things I cannot do that my friends can do, it’s also true that with my responsive and automatic wheelchair, I can live a much more complete life without being so dependent on others.

Before the wheelchair, it was difficult for me to do anything.  Going to school was a trial and doing anything else usually seemed too big of a hassle to deal with.  As a result, I spent a lot of my time at home doing nothing but watching TV. When I got my electric wheelchair, though, it was as if someone had just handed me wings.  With automatic lifts on buses and wheelchair access at malls and movie theaters, it was easy to join my friends for an afternoon out without depending on a parent or strong friend to pick me up and push me around.

Finally, I began to understand how someone as brilliant as Stephen Hawking was able to overcome the anger and resentment I felt at my limitations. “One has to get on with life and I haven’t done badly. People won’t have time for you if you are always angry or complaining,” he said. With the electric wheelchair, I felt much more capable of getting on with my own life.  Because I could do so much more on my own, it was much easier to ask for help when I needed it without feeling resentful about having to ask.

Taking a look at influential people like Stephen Hawking, who travels the world giving speeches and working as a high level university professor at the same time, also reveals the importance of the automatic wheelchair. Without a wheelchair capable of running on its own power, quadriplegics would be entirely dependent upon others to do anything.  With them, they are able to accomplish things that those with no physical limitations have difficulty doing.

Christopher Reeve, for instance, managed to found an entire organization dedicated to help further new research for spinal cord injury victims and bring assistance to the victims themselves.  He also managed to star in a film and direct a film as well as write a book and go on speaking tours before he died.  He said, “I refuse to allow a disability to determine how I live my life. I don’t mean to be reckless, but setting a goal that seems a bit daunting actually is very helpful toward recovery.” Each of these men were able to accomplish things not because they had the use of their legs, but because they had a degree of mobility and a reason to hope.  With this kind of inspiration and the ability to control my own path, it’s easier to feel like I can accomplish something.

Of course, as Reeves said, it’s important not to take things too far or to hope for the impossible dream. Stephen Hawking literally jumped at the chance to go into zero gravity when he left his wheelchair and moved in independently of external devices. I’m sure he’d love the opportunity to walk again and to have full control of his body. But his disability is the result of a degenerative disease that was only ever going to get worse. It would be unproductive for him to dream of accomplishing a marathon on his own two feet someday. On the other hand, Christopher Reeve had been involved in an accident that left him paralyzed.

There was nothing otherwise wrong with his body so, presumably, if his single injury could be repaired or circumvented, he could teach his body to walk again.  He was showing some signs of improvement when he learned how to move one of his fingers in 2000, but died in 2004 without ever having walked again. Therefore, it was not such a stretch to think that he might eventually have better control of his body, or portions of it, than he did. As George Carlin points out, “You never see a wheelchair with a roll-bar.”  Even with a powered wheelchair, it is still necessary to ask for help sometimes and I do need to realize my limits; however, my life has been radically changed.

Faced with a debilitating disease of his own, cyclist Lance Armstrong says “Winning is about heart, not just legs.  It’s got to be in the right place.”  To some degree I agree with him.  You have to be right inside before you can travel far outside, but at the same time, you have to be able to travel outside if you expect to continue building on the inside. For people who are physically limited, this outer travel is often impossible or so intensely burdensome on their loved ones, already working hard to take care of them, that it is not worth the trouble.

Even with manual wheelchairs, mobility is increased but only to the extent that the individual in the chair is able to manipulate it and typically only for a short while.  Powered wheelchairs, on the other hand, provide even quadriplegics with the ability to control some of their own motions and pathways, giving them a degree of independence and a sense that they can make something happen on their own. It may not seem like much to a person who has always had full function of their legs, but for someone ‘confined’ to a wheelchair, this small ability is more than they’ve ever had. For me, it’s represented a transcendence to a new future full of possibilities and hopes.

Works Cited

Armstrong, Lance. ThinkExist.  (2007). Web.

Carlin, George. “I’m a Modern Man, a Man for the Millennium.”  Grow a Brain.  (2006). Web.

Hawking, Stephen. A Complaint Free World. (2007). Web.

Reeve, Christopher. Cited in “Christopher Reeve, ‘Superman’ and Crusader for Stem Cells, Dies.”  The New York Times.  2004.  The Associated Press. Web.

Illegal immigration is a hot issue in the United States. There are approximately 12 million illegal aliens in the country, and their number is growing. Illegal immigration is a problem; therefore, it has to be solved. Some policymakers advocate a mass amnesty and support of legal immigration, others stress the need for mass deportations, while third propose attrition by enforcement. Illegal immigrants do not bring any benefits to the American national economy and society.

On the contrary, most of the illegal immigrants have no education, no professional skills, and are able to do manual work only. Illegal immigration raises welfare costs and increases poverty. Even though Americans are a welcoming nation, illegal immigration laws have to be changed to minimize the inflow of illegal immigrants to the country.

Background Information

Individuals entering the country in violation of immigration law are not immigrants. These people are aliens who violate American law. The difference between illegal immigrants and aliens is crucial to the debate over immigration reforms. Lawfully admitted immigrant goes through health screening and investigation of his criminal background. While in the case of illegal aliens, they are not checked for communicable diseases as well as for their criminal involvement[1]. Illegal aliens bypass rules and regulations. Legal immigrants may become illegal if they violate the terms of their stay in the country. For example, the person who overstayed his visa or violated the terms of permanent residency automatically becomes an illegal immigrant.

The United States is the global leader in terms of attractiveness for illegal immigrants. People leave their countries with the hope for a better life, and they choose a country that is technologically advanced and can offer more employment opportunities.

Illegal immigrants are aware of the risk they undertake when they enter the country, bypassing the immigration laws; however, it does not stop them. Illegal immigrants can take on low-skilled jobs only, and they are often paid less than minimum wage. The major reasons why illegal immigration should be stopped are the low education level of immigrants, their dependence on welfare programs, the absence of professional skills, and their contribution to poverty and crime.

Immigration and Poverty

The majority of illegal immigrants come to the United States from Mexico, and it is good for neither of the two countries.

Mexican immigrants see the United States as the country with more opportunities; however, they forget that these opportunities are offered to legal immigrants only. Interestingly, “Mexican migrant workers are viewed by many lawmakers and officials as an economic boon.[2]” At the same time, the census confirms that illegal immigrants are importing poverty.

Moreover, the increasing inflow of illegal immigrants leads to the United States fracturing. As polls suggest, Americans do not see how immigration policy is serving their needs, and they demand the policy changes.

Currently, most of the illegal immigrants are poorly educated (legal immigration is tied to skills and education), and they are forbidden to be legally employed. Illegal immigrants lack even a high school education, and they contribute to the poverty and government expenditures increases. Some of the results of illegal immigration include[3]: 1) one-third of illegal immigrants live in families in which members have no higher education, 2) first-generation immigrants (one-sixth of the whole American population) represent the one-fourth of all poor people in the country, 3) children of illegal immigrants compromise 26 percent of all poor children in the United States.

Immigration and Crime

Many of the illegal immigrants get involved into criminal activities. Crime involvement is closely related to low educational level and lack of professional skills. Thus, when an illegal immigrant tries to find a job, he cannot be hired legally, and if he is eventually employed, he is paid less than an American or legal immigrant.

As a result, an illegal alien cannot satisfy his basic needs because of insufficient income and sees criminal activity as the only way to survive. Historically, the crime rate among illegal immigrants has been higher than among native-born Americans. For example, incarceration rates among Hispanics in federal and state prisons are twice higher than among non-Hispanic whites[4].

As research indicates, many of the most violent criminals are illegal immigrants. However, immigration status is not used as a tool for apprehending the high crime level in the United States[5]. Illegal immigrants who were deported for committing murders, drug trafficking, and assaults with weapons can freely return to the United States again. At the same time, illegal immigrants cannot be treated as criminals in the United States because it is in violation of the law! In Los Angeles alone, 95 percent of all warrants for homicide are targeted at illegal immigrants, and 33 percent of all fugitive felony warrants are issued to aliens.

Why Stop Illegal Immigration

The number of illegal immigrants is increasing: in the year 2000, there were approximately 8 million illegal immigrants living in the United States, while in the year 2005, their number has increased to 12 million[6]. This number would be much higher if the government did not give amnesty to illegal immigrants granting them the status of legal citizen. Moreover, illegal immigration undermines the policies of legal immigration. There are millions of educated and experienced people waiting for legal admission while illegal immigrants make a mockery of them. Illegal immigrants are a cheap workforce, but they harm the American economy. According to the statistics, illegal aliens displace more than 1 million American workers[7]. A cheap labor force leads to the decreased wages and poor working conditions.

Illegal immigration puts an additional burden on the taxpayers. In particular, these costs include emergency medical care, children’s education, and incarceration of criminals. Some of the illegal immigrants get welfare benefits using false documents and receive welfare assistance for U.S.-born children. The deportation rate is rather low, taking into account the continuous increase in illegal immigrants’ inflow. Amnesty is not an answer to the illegal immigration problem because illegal aliens should not be allowed to remain in the country. It is the same as pardoning criminals because it is easier than arresting them. Amnesty encourages the growth of illegal immigration, adds costs to the taxpayers, and contributes to the poverty increase.

Immigration Policies

According to the reports, 170,000 illegal immigrants return home each year, 50,000 are deported, half of them die[8]. However, many more illegal immigrants come to the United States, and if the country adopts less hospitable laws, many of them will decide to go home. This can be achieved through enforcing new laws barring illegal immigrants from being hired. The role of local law enforcement is of primary importance. For example, if an illegal alien is encountered by police, he should be picked up by the immigration service and be deported. In addition, more fencing and more agents are needed to prevent an illegal crossing of the border. Implementation of stricter immigration laws and policies for deporting illegal immigrants will save the taxpayers’ money and restore the rule of law.

As Bush has offered, granting citizenship to undocumented workers is not a solution to illegal immigration; it will not stop the inflow of illegal aliens but rather motivate more people to enter the United States illegally[9]. In the current situation, granting citizenship to illegal immigrants is like giving a reward for violating American laws. Mass deportations will not help to solve the problem as well.

The illegal population is big in size, and massive relocation will have a negative impact on economy because many businesses use illegal labor. The best way to discourage illegal immigration is to withdraw benefits and entitlements granted to immigrants by national and state governments.

In conclusion, illegal immigration is the real threat to development of American nation. Illegal immigrants spread poverty, contribute to criminal activity increase, negatively influence American economy, take away the money of taxpayers, and undermine the national laws. If illegal immigration is not stopped, the United States will be at risk of transforming into lawless poor society. Mass deportations and amnesty as the solutions to illegal immigration have failed and there is an urgent need to develop the strict policies minimizing the benefits granted to illegal immigrants. Illegal immigration threatens the national security and if it is not stopped, the outcomes can be devastating for the American community.

Works Cited

Haerens, Margaret. Illegal Immigration (Opposing Viewpoints). Greenhaven Press, 2006.

Mac Donald, Heather. “The Illegal-Alien Crime Wave.” City Journal 2004. Web.

Moore, Art. “Is Mexico reconquering U.S. Southwest? Illegal immigration fueling aims of Hispanic radicals.” WorldNetDaily.com. 2002.

Rector (A), Robert. “Amnesty and Continued Low Skill Immigration Will Substantially Raise Welfare Costs and Poverty.” The Heritage Foundation, 2006.

Rector (B), Robert. “Importing Poverty: Immigration and Poverty in the United States: A Book of Chart.” The Heritage Foundation, 2006.

Swain, Carol. Debating Immigration. Cambridge University Press, 2007.

Weissinger, George. “The Illegal Alien Problem: Enforcing the Immigration Laws.” New York Institute of Technology,, 2003. Web.

[1] George Weissinger, “The Illegal Alien Problem: Enforcing the Immigration Laws”

[2] Art Moore, “Is Mexico reconquering U.S. Southwest? Illegal immigration fueling aims of Hispanic radicals”

[3] Robert Rector (B), “Importing Poverty: Immigration and Poverty in the United States: A Book of Chart”

[4] Robert Rector (A), “Amnesty and Continued Low Skill Immigration Will Substantially Raise Welfare Costs and Poverty”

[5] Heather Mac Donald, “The Illegal-Alien Crime Wave”

[6] Margaret Haerens, Illegal Immigration (Opposing Viewpoints), 114

[7] Ibid 118

[8] Carol Swain, Debating Immigration, 70

[9] ibid 87