Sociology

Social stratification refers to the unequal distribution of income, power, and resources among members of the same community or nation so that some individuals or families enjoy better lives due to higher income and standards of living as compared to those who lead lives in poverty and do not have access to resources like education and food supplies.

Social class refers to a group of people sharing similarities in their social rank and status in society based on their educational qualifications, wealth, income, race, or even the ethnic or minority backgrounds to which they belong. Examples of the social class include segregation in society based on education which stratifies individuals as engineers, doctors, laborers, government officials, businessmen, etc. Similarly, the income levels of individuals also place them in distinct groups of the lower middle class, middle class, or higher middle-class citizens, which will be determined by the wealth and property owned by individuals and the salary or income of the individuals.

The class an individual belongs to socially determines, to a great extent the behaviors and attitudes of these individuals, for instance, their buying behaviors which would display distinct preferences including the types, quality, or quantity of goods they would prefer. While the higher classes with surplus amounts would engage in extravagant buying behaviors, the middle and lower classes would shop only for necessary goods required for daily living and existence.

Social mobility refers to the extent to which the income or occupation of an individual is determined by the background of the family and parents and their independent contribution to economic progress and development (Beller and Hout, 2006). Social mobility also determines the difference in income from one generation to another, for instance, the difference between the income or wealth of a father and his son. As such, social mobility determines the extent to which an individual has been raised in a society with regard to education, income, wealth, and all other factors which grant a social status in a social or community setting. Social mobility is a crucial measure of the openness of any stratification system and is also a vital aspect of the chances which an individual gets in life (Jones, 2007).

Social change is brought about in society by several factors such as materialistic factors including technology and economic production. Technological changes in society facilitate newer alternatives to society by creating novel opportunities for individuals who have access to greater and enhanced means of livelihood. Additionally, technology enhances the communication between individuals so that the interaction patterns also change and the entire structure of human groups is altered substantially. This change in technology results in a wider change in the materialistic culture of society in general. Social change also occurs in society through changes in the values, philosophy, and beliefs that constitute the idealistic perspectives of society.

There are several factors and determinants of social stratification in society and some of the important ones include the effects of race, gender, ethnicity, and class boundaries such as the business class, working class, and the middle classes (Reynolds, 2008). These classes are segregated or divided based on the total value of wealth, goods, and the lifestyle led by the people belonging to these distinct classes. The stratification of class in any community or country occurs primarily due to the unequal distribution of wealth or goods and property of value so that only a few privileged families or individuals enjoy the benefits of a good life while those who do not enjoy these benefits have to struggle for existence.

The changes which have occurred in my life due to technology have been highly positive. Through the overall social changes, I have experienced greater sensitivity and acceptance of migrant and ethnic groups, than were prevalent in previous society. Moreover, the prospects of success are now determined by the educational qualifications and skill levels of individuals as opposed to the race or background of individuals.

References

Beller, Emily, and Michael Hout (2006) Intergenerational social mobility: the United States in comparative perspective. The Future of Children 16.2: 19(18).

Jones, Marsha (2007) Whatever happened to social mobility? (synopsis) (Column). Sociology Review 16.4: 22(2).

Introduction

Working women are usually faced with a multitude of challenges. On top of balancing their duties and responsibilities as members of their families, they need to be efficient workers and competitive in their chosen professions.

One main challenge is the issue of proving themselves as worthy employees to gain equal opportunities with men. Some workplaces may not be too accepting of the empowerment of women in employment and may strip them of their dignity to make them realize that they do not belong there.

Many researchers have investigated the problem of equality rights and gender prejudices in the workplace. Many claims that because of the established dominance of males in the vast number of areas of public life, women are often placed in a disadvantaged position from the very beginning. Studies have revealed that such gender inequality has grave effects on women’s perceptions of their efficiency and motivation. Some women fall into the trap of giving in to bleak self-fulfilling prophecies that they are not as good as their male co-workers and eventually prove the expectations to be right.

Problem Statement

This research paper explores the perceptions of men and women workers of the realities in the workplace regarding gender equality. It will attempt to investigate the grievances and fulfillments of women regarding their current jobs, pay, and career advancement and probe the psychological and emotional effects these have on their job performance and motivation.

Hypotheses

It is hypothesized that gender inequality exists in workplaces, especially in bigger companies. This is exhibited by a large pay discrepancy between men and women who hold the same position and job descriptions. This study will investigate the workers’ perception of gender inequality across the board. The hypothesis will be: Women will perceive gender inequality within the organization while men will not perceive gender inequality.

(Independent variable shall be gender (male or female) and dependent variable shall be their perception of gender inequality in the workplace.)

Literature Review

Due to the significance of equal opportunities to citizens the world over, laws have been passed to ensure that they are available to everyone. These laws have been designed to protect anyone from being discriminated against by reason of sex, marital status, ethnic or national origin, color, race, nationality, age, disability, religion, and different terms of employment, including pay for jobs of equal value.

In the United States of America, the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission (EEOC) enforces all laws on employment opportunities. EEOC also provides oversight and coordination of all federal equal employment opportunities. One major kind of discrimination in the workplace is on the basis of gender. Sexual discrimination is a biased attitude towards a person because of his/her gender, pregnancy, marital status, etc. This is considered to be direct sexual discrimination^. An example is a company’s policy of not hiring married women because of possible restrictions their marriages can pose that may affect job performance.

Indirect discrimination happens when the requirements are equal for all people, but these result in an unfair disadvantage on certain groups due to their gender, marital status, or pregnancy. An example is a manager’s demand for overtime for the whole staff including pregnant workers.

The monumental worldwide response to the Platform for Action for the resolution of women’s issues delivered in the United Nations Fourth World Conference on Women still reverberates until the present time. Much of the initial initiatives regarding this Plan of Action include creating new mechanisms upgrading existing structures and energizing participatory processes. The movement against discrimination of women, particularly those who are disabled either temporarily (by pregnancy, illness, etc.) or permanently has likewise been strong. On October 15, 2003, the Honorable Stefania Prestigiacomo, Minister for Equal Opportunites of Italy read the Statement on the Advancement of Women to the Third Committee, on behalf of the European Union. She states that “The European Union appreciates the efforts by the Committee on the Elimination of Discrimination Against Women and urges States to accept the amendment to Article 20, paragraph 1, which would allow the Committee to enjoy greater flexibility. ” (Prestigiacomo, 2006).

Equality of gender rights is very controversial and highly disputable. Putting men and women in the same work conditions may be unacceptable, considering the physical strengths and limitations of each.

Many critics claim that is exerting all their efforts to advance themselves in the professional sphere, women become unable to perform successfully as mothers, wives, and life partners. However, the latter are among the primary duties of all women. The issue of equal rights and family priority indicates that without neglecting their basic duties to family, women can still get an education, which is equal to the education of men. The majority of job placements should be available to women.

Presently, women now can occupy positions even in professions considered male-dominated. Many researchers try to prove that women are more responsible and hard-working and can perform with more efficiency than their male counterparts.

A study by Kattara in 2005 of career challenges of female managers in Egyptian hotels found out that the majority of female managers were not in situations that would lead them to the positions of general managers. “The study detected several factors preventing female managers from reaching the glass ceiling. The stepwise multiple regression showed that 35.5 percent of the variance in the existence of challenges could be explained by four factors; gender discrimination, relationships at work, mentor support and lack of network access”. (Kattara, 2005).

In the hospitality sphere, there exists strong gender segregation in work. Burgess, in her research, claims that there exist considerable discrepancies between the career development and salaries of men and women in the hospitality industry. The most prestigious and, therefore, better-paid job positions are occupied by men (Burgess, 2003).

Female employees tend to work in housekeeping, the kitchen, or in the food and beverage departments. While there tends to be an equal amount of men and women in the front office, top managerial positions still tend to be held by men.

There appears to be a constant conflict between mutually beneficial relationships and contemporary situations, where males dominate the social, political, and professional spheres (Taylor, Kemeny, Reed, Bower, & Grunewald, 2000).. Many women claim that they have fewer opportunities to succeed in their work than men do and have to exert greater effort in order to be promoted in their jobs. Men are more readily employed and more supported by their employers than women (Bergman, 2003).

Within each occupation, a considerable hierarchy can be seen. Vertical segregation implies that women quite seldom occupy top posts in management in the European Union and in the rest of the countries (Equal Opportunities Policy and Statements).

The Career Development Group maintains that there is a social disadvantage due to the fact that there exist particular social roles which influence the public lives of both genders. These roles were established in patriarchal societies and are therefore strongly influenced by social power, which usually belongs to men. Being influenced by the rules of social conduct people yield to these stereotypes (Equal Opportunities Policy and Statements).

Title VII of the 1964 Civil Rights Act was a turning point. In barring most firms with at least 15 employees from assigning jobs based on sex, the act made it illegal for employers to impose segregation on workers. Amendments to Title VII and Presidential Executive Orders in the years that followed created a legal foundation for challenging sex segregation. (Reskin, 1993). The very existence of such laws serves as reminders to all that a person’s sex should not limit his or her opportunities, and are likewise deterrents of employers that they should provide equal opportunities due to their prospective and current employees.

The problem of the pay gap was well studied by the Women and Equality Unit and the Equal Opportunities Commission. These units aimed to improve the position of women in the workplace and to increase their wages (Advancing Women in the Workplace, 2004) They studied the employers’ actions and other factors which determine the lower payment of women’s wages.

Research funded by the European Commission showed that generally women who work full-time, receive only three-fourths of the hourly earnings of men. This holds true in the European Union in all professions with equal qualification levels and ages of men and women (Equal Opportunity, 2006).

The pay gap is partly explained by the fact that women are much more likely to be in lower-grade, lower-paid occupations than men. Another factor contributing to the pay gap is that women in management have less seniority and are rewarded at a lower rate. The paid survey of women in the City of London found a clear age-related factor in that salaries for men and women diverged during their mid-twenties and the gap increased with age (Wren, 1990).

One of the researches, conducted in 2002 in the USA studying 500 companies showed that women occupied not more than 15.7 % of corporate-officer positions and only 5.2 % of women were top earners. The other characteristic feature is that the greatest part of all women, who occupy top positions, take not line but staff positions (Hymowitz, 2003). Staff positions are less prominent and therefore women are less likely to receive promotions and attain the very top of the job hierarchy.

Studies have shown that workers’ job efficiency has much to do with how they perceive their responsibilities and significance in their particular job positions. Valentine (2001) indexed a variety of research studies on how perceptions of own jobs and expectations of other people in the workplace of one’s job efficiency may create self-fulfilling prophecies. Findings in these researches show that despite their managerial competencies, women must, unfortunately, deal with negative stereotypes that can impair their job mobility and advancement. As leaders, women may be viewed as passive, overly relationship-oriented, and emotionally unstable. The masculine task-oriented styles of leadership highly favored by management are not always exhibited by women. Many of the negative ideas about women in management may affect how they are treated and accepted at work.

Despite representing almost half of the workforce, women’s presence is much less noticeable in positions with executive responsibility. Even worse, women are frequently given assignments that are excluded from social and professional networking concluded that women reported greater career barriers and the greater importance of performing well on the job than did men using matched samples of male and female executives. These negative ideas, unfortunately, lead some women to question their own supervisory abilities, to evaluate themselves harshly on performance appraisals, and to set low-performance expectations. They experience more motivational problems and career uncertainties compared to men, and this could be attributed to their negative work experiences.

Objectives

The current research attempts to validate researches that may prove or disprove perceived gender inequality of women in the workplace. This study intends to hear women’s voices that bespeak their current status in their respective workplaces and the ways and means that could improve their work conditions to afford them fulfillment in their careers. It will also compare men’s and women workers’ perceptions of gender inequality in the workplace.

This paper will examine the research questions:

1. Do most workplaces give fair and equal pay and job descriptions to male and women workers?
2. Are sexual discrimination and sexual harassment prevalent in the workplace? If so, what could be the reasons behind it?
3. Do most workplaces conform to the legal bases of some employment practices protecting women workers?

Research Methodology

To pursue the objectives stated in this research, a qualitative type of methodology is proposed using interviews and questionnaire surveys (to be determined yet).

The questionnaire/ survey and interviews shall focus on women’s various issues on gender inequality in the workplace (pay gap; sexual discrimination; sexual harassment, etc.). An investigation if their employers are abiding by legal bases on equal opportunities shall informally be assessed during the interviews.

Final results shall be compared with historical literature to compare if there have been developments in equal opportunities afforded to women.

Subjects: One hundred workers whose ages range from 18 and above and whose positions range from rank and file to top management in 5 selected workplaces shall complete a questionnaire provided by the researcher. Follow-up interviews on these issues shall also be briefly conducted. Twenty respondents (10 males and 10 females) shall be randomly selected in each company. Their work experiences may vary in terms of duration, position, or industry.

Measurements and instruments: The questionnaire to be answered is in the form of a Likert scale. The respondents shall choose their responses to the questions by choosing a number from 1 to 5 depending on their agreement or disagreement. The reliability and validity of the questionnaire shall be tested with a pilot group of 30 respondents to check if all questions are clearly understood from the same perspective.

Design: To pursue the objectives stated in this research, a questionnaire will be distributed to five different companies. For each company, 20 respondents will be randomly chosen. Profile information (educational background, years of work experience, marital status, salary, etc.) shall be collected along with the questionnaires and shall be charted for comparison.

The questionnaire shall focus on various issues on gender inequality in the workplace (pay gap; sexual discrimination; sexual harassment, etc.) and the psychological and emotional effects these have on their job performance.

Data analysis plan: The total sample for this study is 100 and the data shall be entered and analyzed through the Statistical Program for the Social Science (SPSS). Frequency counts, percentage distributions, correlation, and ANOVA analysis will be used.

Qualitative analysis of the subjects’ responses in the interviews shall also be done by classifying responses by themes and plotting them in a grid. These responses shall be compared and analyzed across gender and position.

Informed voluntary consent: Consent shall be sought from the randomly selected subjects before beginning the questionnaire. If informed voluntary consent is not given, then another subject shall be approached to fulfill the required number of subjects that shall participate in the study.

Potential risks: It is possible that subjects will not give truthful answers to the questions and such behavior shall affect the validity and reliability of the results. To prevent or minimize the risks, the researcher shall brief the respondents on the importance of honesty and assure them of confidentiality. A common script shall be used for the briefing and debriefing of the respondents.

Time Schedule: Four Months

First Month:

• submission of research proposal
• search for prospective workplaces to conduct data gathering

Second Month:

• securing permission from prospective workplaces that will participate in the study
• random selection of respondents
• data gathering

Third Month:

• analysis of data
• presentation of results

Fourth Month:

• editing, completion, and submission of a research project

Resources Needed

Personnel

Apart from the researcher who will head the whole research project a number of staff will be necessary to carry out the necessary tasks for this research. The following will be the job descriptions of the personnel

Researcher

• Heads the research team
• Creates the research design
• Coordinates with the authorized persons in the workplaces selected
• Coordinates with the staff
• Does the final qualitative analysis
• Writes the full report
• Presents the finished research

Interviewers (1 assigned per workplace)

• Selects and handles the respondents per workplace
• Distributes the survey/questionnaires
• Conducts follow up interviews

Transcribers/ Coders

• Transcribes the interviews
• Classifies the responses according to the themes (specific issue on gender inequality)

Statistician

Does the quantitative analysis of the survey/ questionnaires.

Budget

The budget will be determined by the following:

• Cost of documentation: questionnaires and survey forms; office supplies for writing the research paper, correspondences and analysis of data; printing costs & bookbinding of copies of the final research paper
• Honoraria of personnel
• Food and transportation allowances of personnel
• Tokens for the participation of the respondents
• Tokens of gratitude for the 5 workplaces

Needed assurances/clearances

• Letters of intent to the authorized personnel in the 5 workplaces
• The informed voluntary consent of the participants
• Questionnaires/ Survey forms

References

Advancing women in the workplace. Labour Market Trends. 2004.

Aherne, A. M.(2003) Women and Workplace Discrimination Trial. Web.

Armstrong, D.,(2006) ‘Cracks in glass ceiling Hotels are opening doors for women in management’ Chronicle.

Bergman, B. (2003) The validation of the women workplace culture questionnaire: gender-related stress and health for Swedish working women. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research.

Beyond Promises: Governments in Motion One Year After the Beijing Women’s Conference, 1996.

Burgess, C. (2003) Gender and salaries in hotel financial management: it’s still a man’s world. Women in Management Review.

Doherty, L. (2004) Work-life balance initiatives: implications for women.

Employee Relations. Equal Opportunities Policy and Statements. 2008. Web.

Equal Opportunities Management Guidelines, 2008. Web.

Farrar, A., Hardigree, C.E. & Sammons, G.(2003) Demographic Differences In Perceptions Of Sexual Harassment Among Hospitality Management.

Hsueh, C. (2001) Hospitality students’ understanding of and attitudes toward sexual harassment in the workplace. 2008. Web.

Hymowitz, C. (2003) Why Women Professionals Miss Great Opportunities. The Wall Street Journal Investigation: Free to Choose – tackling gender barriers to better jobs.(2005)

Ismail, A.(2002) Pay and conditions. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research.

Ismail, A., (n.d.) Women In The Workplace, 2008. Web.

Kattara, H.,(2005) Career challenges for female managers in Egyptian hotels. International Journal of Contemporary Hospitality Management.

Prestigiacomo, S, (2003)EU Presidency Statement – Advancement of Women, 2008. Web.

Purcell, K. (1996) The relationship between career and job opportunities: women’s employment in the hospitality industry as a microcosm of women’s employment. Women in Management Review Recruitment and Career Development. 2008. Web.

Schultz, V., (2003) ‘The Sanitized Workplace.’ Yale Law Journal. Volume: 112. Issue: 8.

Taylor, S. E., Kemeny, M. E., Reed, G. M., Bower J. E., & Grunewald, T. L. (2000)Psychological resources, positive illusions, and health. American Psychologist.

The U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, 2008. Web.

Valentine, S., (2001)‘Men and Women Supervisors’ Job Responsibility, Job Satisfaction and Employee Monitoring’. Sex Roles: A Journal of Research. Plenum Publishing Corporation.

Verkaik, R. (2005) Thirty years on, women still face harassment in the workplace: Equal Independent. The (London).

Wren, J. (1990) Women’s Pay in the City. London: Jonathan Wren Executive.

Abstract

Racial discrimination is a major issue that segregates people socially depending on one’s skin color or place of origin. Discrimination according to race is not something that started yesterday but has existed since the colonial period. America is one of the countries with the high levels of racial discrimination (Brooks, 1990, p 12). Culmination of racial discrimination was realized in America at that time when Africans settled in the country. The Africans had settled as slaves who were working especially for the colonialists in their lands. Predominantly, the Africans were discriminated because of their black skin color and so they were not allowed to associate with the whites. They were made to work for long hours without payment. White collar jobs were only meant for the white people while the Africans were forced to do physical jobs.

In America Africans were treated with too much hatred that made the whites to isolate themselves from them. The whites isolated themselves by having their own schools, churches and houses and other social places. Today racism still exists although its level has reduced compared to the colonial period. Africans alongside other races are continuously facing discrimination which is realized within social set ups. An example is where white Americans segregate themselves into their own churches, residential areas, schools and hospitals. Other races are therefore not expected to go to these areas which are only meant for a particular group (Brooks, 1990, p 102). Racism has adverse negative effects that it can cause to those who are discriminated. Principally, race discrimination should be eradicated completely in societies as it affects people negatively. In order to get rid of this discrimination, people need to embrace the spirit of sisterhood and brotherhood.

Introduction

Perhaps race discrimination still exists in most societies because it is an issue that started very many years ago. Historically, white people have always treated Africans with so much contempt and mistreatment. However there are other races which also face racial discrimination from white Americans like the Asians. Even with a new generation, race discrimination has never stopped although it has dropped compared to the earlier days. Racial discrimination is a factor that exists in many countries across the world as people segregate themselves from one another. Basically cases of race discrimination are rampant in places where there are Africans and the white. Ideally racism is a major tool of discrimination which affects many people. Racism is one of the major tools of discrimination that affects people especially those in foreign countries. Minority groups have always been segregated from the majority who belong to a particular race. Race discrimination is characterized by too much hatred that people have towards others. Africans are the major victims of race discrimination because they have black skin color that is treated with contempt by the whites. The core objective of this paper is to address the issue of race discrimination which should be eradicated by embracing thee spirit of sisterhood and brotherhood. The paper will mainly focus on race discrimination in America. In order to achieve this goal, the paper will discuss the aspects of race discrimination, the effects of race discrimination and ways of getting rid of the issue (Brooks, 1990, p.122)

Aspects of Race Discrimination

In America, African Americans need equal rights just like the whites although this is yet to be fully achieved. Most white people in America do not appreciate foreigners and treat them differently. Apart from Africans there are also other races which include Asians, Native Hawaiian, Hispanics and American Indians. Racial segregation denies foreigners opportunities to explore greener pastures like the job market. Aspects of race discrimination is realized in America as the white segregates themselves in terms of education, religion, residence, health care and many more social places. As a way of isolation, there are schools in America which are specifically for the whites. In this case, children grow up with the knowledge that race discrimination exists. Children are not allowed to interact with other children of other races. Because of this reason it may be difficult to completely eradicate racism since it starts when a person is young and gradually develops into adult age. Admission to certain learning institutions like universities has become difficult as students are admitted according to their ethnicity. Race discrimination has denied people employment opportunities which are granted to particular races. When it comes to getting a job, it does not matter what experience a person has but what ethnic background he/she belongs. Employment discrimination also denies people the chance of getting promotions. Religion should be a unifying factor to solve the discrimination although people of diverse race do not worship together. Thus there are states in America which have churches meant for particular race. Because of race discrimination, most whites in America prefer living in houses or homes far away from other races (Brooks, 1990, p 135).

Effects of Race Discrimination

Primarily, race discrimination has negative effects to an individual as it lowers self esteem and can cause health problems. Racism can lead to lack of confidence in a person since a one may feel less important than others. This can be accompanied by intense fear that prevents a person from pursuing certain goals. On the other hand, discrimination can lead to conflicts between people of diverse races. Legal cases are always bound to occur as there are people who sue others for race discrimination. Such cases can be so costly because one has to empty the pocket in order to get justice. Race discrimination can cause health complications to a person as a result of too much stress that can lead to depression. There are people who can not contain any kind of discrimination and so they can spend much of their time recalling how they were mistreated. Because of too much accumulation of stress, one can develop high blood pressure or heart attacks. Another effect of racism is that it destroys national unity of a country where people can not work together as one entity (Brooks, 1990, p 201)

Conclusion

Fundamentally, people need to embrace the spirit of sisterhood and brotherhood in order to solve race discrimination. People of varied races should think beyond ethnic backgrounds and skin color. By doing this, people will be able to treat each other equally without judging others according to their race. Political leaders need to show a good example to citizens by preaching equality to them. In so doing, avenues for different opportunities should be opened to everyone regardless of ethnic backgrounds.

Segregation is one aspect that fuels race discrimination as it denies people the opportunity to interact together. Owing to this reason, institutions and social gathering should be open for everyone regardless of race or ethnic background.

Reference

Brooks ,R. (1990). Rethinking The American Race Problem. Los Angeles: University of California.Web.

Introduction

From the module on diversity management, I have been able to learn some of the things that were not clear to me and also got an in depth understanding of some issues that I have considered as stereotype since I was young. I thought things such as female feminism are history but from what I have understood such things still happen in our society and people are still discriminated ethnically and on race basis.

Equality and diversity issues

Most of these issues revolve around gender and opportunities related to different genders. Human beings are characterized as either male or female by their biological sexes. Human beings have been discriminated on grounds of sex, race, age, religion, disability, among others (Collinson et al.1990). This discrimination is mostly on issues related to employment where one is denied his/her right to employment simply because of the above grounds. There are some legislation which has been put forward to address issues such as sex discrimination, race relation, equal pay, disability rights and others. If such legislation is taken into consideration then the rate of discrimination will reduce (although it can not be eliminated completely).

Gender, organizations, and management

Naturally women are perceived as being inferior to men thus denying them equal opportunities as the once given to men. This leads to the theory of feminization where by some jobs are categorized as being men’s jobs and others to be women’s. Socially a woman’s work is perceived to be domestic (such as looking after children) and is seen as incapable of performing the duties that men perform (Lewis, 1997). Feminism extends even to work places whereby for the same kind of job done women receive a lesser pay compared to their male counter parts.

In organizations, women are usually seen as the problem and the allowances made do not accommodate them (Carby, 1982). Such allowances may include: training, medical, and traveling. Although women might prove to be better leaders than men due to their compassionate hearts, they are not given leadership roles as they are considered to be male roles (Liff and Dale, 1994). They have also been hindered from forming networks that could assist in job search and open them up to fight for their rights.

Work life balance and Family Friendly Policies

One should take responsibilities of balancing personal life and work life and make sure that they do not conflict. Many are the times when people tend to use working hours to do their personal responsibilities (Lewis, 1997). There are some friendly policies laid down for the benefit of disabled people and parents with young children as early as six years in order to make sure that they have a work life balance.

In order to ensure that work is done effectively and that employees do not neglect some of their duties, every organization is supposed to give all staffs one month paid annual leave and a maximum of 48 working hours per week. Women are entitled to 26 weeks paid maternity and men 2 weeks paid paternity leave, either party may choose to extend this time but further time off is unpaid.

Ethnicity, race, and religion

Race and ethnicity are different in that race distinguishes people on the basis of skin color while ethnicity is based on social construction. People are discriminated ethically in terms of employment, salaries, and job promotion (Afshar and Maynard, 1994). For example it has been found that the level of unemployment among the ethnic minority is twice that of the whites (Anthias and Yuval, 1992). However, this rate is not the same for all ethnic minority groups i.e. there are some with higher rates than others. Bangladeshi and Pakistani happen to be the most disadvantaged in terms of employment. Majority ethnic group does not have complete power and minority groups can resist discrimination.

In the United States black people have been discriminated on education basis. Only a few universities in U.S admitted black students and those who were lucky to secure places at these universities were regularly isolated from the white students and could not be allowed to participate in some activities of campus life. I have witnessed some black people being denied positions for admission in these universities. This led to the need of forming black fraternities which have helped these black people fight for their right of education and most people have been able to study as a result of the fraternities. They have been able to network within themselves and now securing a job is not a major problem for them.

Human Resource Management (HRM) and Equality

This focuses on gender related issues excluding race and ethic differences. People are the most productive assets in any organization and must be treated fairly for the production to be effective. In the past women have been discriminated against their male counter parts in terms of pay and work positions. With the current fight for gender equality, we have seen an increasing number of women in work places although they still earn less compared to men.

One of the goals of HRM is to provide equal opportunities to both genders in terms of selection, appraisal, reward, and management roles (Dickens, 1998). As HRM tries to eliminate these inequalities, it cannot completely do away with some labor market inequalities because stereotypes are still persistence.

Conclusion

A lot have been done to fight against gender inequality and ethic discrimination. The number of women in work places has increased drastically although they still earn less. Human resource management has helped in providing equal opportunities for both genders and women are getting more information concerning their legal rights. However, racial discrimination remains a major problem which will be difficult to fight with.

Reference

Afshar, H. and Maynard, M. (1994) (eds.). The Dynamics of Race and Gender. London: Taylor and Francis.

Anthias, F. and Yuval-Davis, N. (1992) Racialized Boundaries: race, nation, gender, color and class and the anti-racist struggle. London: Routledge.

Carby, H., V. (1982) ‘White Women Listen! Black Feminism and the Boundaries of Sisterhood’, In Centre for Contemporary Cultural Studies, The Empire Strikes Back. London: Hutchinson.

Collinson, D. and Knights, D. et al. (1990) Managing to Discriminate, UK: Routledge.

Dickens, L. (1998) ‘What HRM means for gender equality’. Human Resource Management Journal, Vol. 8 (1), pp. 23-40.

Lewis, S. (1997) Family friendly employment policies: a route to changing organizational culture or playing about at the margins? Gender, Work, and Organization, 4 (1), 13-23, p.16.

Liff, S. and Dale, K. (1994) Formal Opportunity, Informal Barriers: Black women managers within a Local Authority, Work, Employment and Society, 8, 2, 177-198.

Introduction

It is also known as the Baribal bear.According to Youth (1999), “Every year or two, a few wandering bears, mostly young males, reach the Washington, D.C., area which lies some 60 miles from the nearest bear enclaves!” if this is not a pleasant sight considering they can only be found in the extreme North then nothing suffices.

This paper gives facts about the North American Black Bear and all other extra information regarding its history and its existence. It also seeks to inform on the values of this particular bear, and how the government has put measures in place to ensure it does not become extinct.

Brief history

In the northern region of America, it is the least in rank with regards to size and most tolerant of human presence and activities so they are commonly seen walking around. They frequent the all parts of the provinces except the busy urban centers.

Ursidae, which is the bear family, consists of exactly eight species distributed over Asia, America, South America, Europe and Australia. The giant panda is part of the family alongside the brown bear (grizzly), the polar bear and lastly the black bear. The black bear is only found in North America unlike the rest, which are found elsewhere in the world. Further, down in South America there is another species known as the spectacled bear and in Asia, there are the Sloth, Sun and the Asiatic black bear. Many years ago about 18,000 years, the only places the bears occupied were the Queen Charlotte Islands and what is known as the U.S presently. This was because the rest of the area in the north was covered in snow. As years went by and the snow melted, the bears started moving back north and settled at the coast of British Columbia. Those that moved back were confirmed by scientists to be bigger in size due to the isolation during the glaciation period (Schwartz & Franzmann, 1982). The British Columbia has a variety of black bears than the rest of Canada; this is also because of the moving back of bears that had been isolated during the ice age (Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks, 2001, p.2).

According to the Ministry of Environment, Lands and Parks (2001, p.3), the population of these black bears in British Columbia as of 2001 was 120,000 to 160,000. The figure is a quarter of all the black bears found in the province (Canada).

Physical attributes

Among the North American bears, it is considered the smallest. Adult bears measure approximately 60 inches from the nose to the tail and are 28-32 inches wide (between shoulders). Their tails range at around 4 meters in length. Males are bigger in size than the females, age being a constant. On the average, a male black bear weighs 180-350 pounds during summer and the same weighs 20% heavier or even 30% on the higher side in fall. This is because they tend to store fat for the winter season. After denning, they weigh way less when they come out (Pederson, n.d, p.1). The females to could weigh up to 175 pounds or even less while males can even burst to 650 pounds (Youth, 1999).

Despite the name black bear, they are in different colors like blue gray, cinnamon apart from the black ones. Some females and males have a mark on their chest area in the form of a white star. In Alaska specifically, the Kermode bears have white fur covering which gives them the names “Ghost/spirit” bears (The Animal planet, 2006). All of them possess a muzzle that is light brown in color. Their facial structure is straight and has large ears in comparison to grizzly bears and long noses that are straight and long. Grizzly bears also have claws that are 4 inches in length compared to those of the black bears, which are a mere 1and a half inches lengthwise. They have long tongues, which help in getting the berries and insects to a central place for eating after digging them up from logs of wood and the likes (the insects).

They walk using the whole surface of the lower side of the foot, which is a similarity with humans. They have short legs with five toes each. The claws cannot be retracted and are all curved. The legs are very powerful and help them cover long distances while running up to 30 miles an hour. They also can climb trees very well and are good at swimming (BBC, n.d.). They shuffle their feet when walking. They also considered the most peaceful of all the species of bears.

Denning

In the late fall the bears take off from their habitats in search of proteins like acorns (Nelson, et al., 1983). They do this in November when they cannot find much to eat. They go into the state of deep sleep or torpor during winter. When in this state they neither eat nor excrete. Their temperatures fall by about 8-10 degrees and their rate of body metabolism is generally lowered. They stay in the sleep for approximately six months. During this period, the body uses the fat that is stored during fall. It also serves to keep them warm. They never come out during winter but if they do on rare occasions, they do it briefly. They come out of the sleep totally in the months of March or even April when they are late. The bears with cubs take a longer time to come out than the lone bears (Pederson, n.d., p.2). This is a habit dominated by the pregnant bears and the bears in the cold habitats. Studies have shown that the bears only lose less than 23% of their body strength when they go into deep sleep, while if a normal human being were to take the same nap for five months or so, they would lose almost 90% of their strength because of immobility (Wong, 2001). According to the researchers, a deep investigation into the phenomenon might assist in the problems that humans experience in muscular fatigue after travelling.

Feeding habits

Bears are omnivores they feed largely on vegetation though. Almost 80% of their diet is made of roots, succulent leafy parts of grass and nuts or berries. Roughly twenty percent is what they have of amphibians and small mammals, fish and reptiles or other insects and ants. They like to feed on dead rotting carcasses (carrion). They like to feed on foods that can be digested rapidly and that are low in fiber content. Their diets change according to the seasons. In summer and spring their meals are more of vegetation, in the fall it is more of carnivorous consisting of insects, carrion and some berries on the side. In autumn, they feed on berries and fruits mostly and spawning fish. All through the year, once in a while, they feed on some small mammals. They mostly feed at sunrise or dusk since they are most active during the night. Under rare circumstances, they feed during the day as they move (Ministry of Environment, lands and Parks, 2001, p. 4)

Habitat

They like do not like to occupy regions with vast amounts of land that are wide open. They like places with vegetation and caves especially for the reason of their denning period. They look for places they can dig out and improvise for dens in case they cannot find caves like under large trees or heaps of large stones. They like to graze at meadows and like the bottoms of moist creeks. They wonder within territories that are familiar to them or rather fixed ones.

Reproduction

The black bears reproduce at a lower rate in comparison to the rest of the mammals. They mate between the June and mid July there about. Males have the liberty to fertilize more than one female.Delayed implantation occurs in females and so it takes place in November or even early December in some cases. This coincides with the deep sleep period, so the cubs that are brought forth in January of February during winter are forced to feed on their mothers when they are in torpor. They in most cases give birth to only two cubs though they have potential for four. The cubs when born weigh 300 grams each (Hriestienko, et al., 2004). The cubs stay and are nursed by their mothers for the first summer and the consequent first winter after that , at four years or even five and half years, a female is ready to breed. When they do not get enough sources of food, they could take longer maybe at seven years (McLaughlin, 1998). On the contrary, some males are ready to males at one year and a half. In majority of cases though, the males may not be mature enough until five or six years of age. Black bears are solitary animals the only things that gets in the way of this state are: the birth of young ones and mating season. To this effect, males are never involved in the upbringing of the cubs. The females are tolerant to other females that they are related to unlike the males, which are not tolerant to any. They may be slow in breeding but they reproduce at a faster rate than the brown bears, this aspect helps them in handling pressure from hunting and other sources (Youth, 1999).

Geographical location

They are spread about Alaska and much of Canada. They even spread further south to the mountains to the North of Mexico. In the books of history, they are not known to transcend the southern zones of the dessert but recently they are even found in the central and eastern parts of the U.S.

Status

Their populations have not been termed endangered or anything near that which means they exist in good numbers. The threatened populations are the isolated ones in Mississippi and the states of Louisiana and Texas are victims. The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service (Youth, 1999) declared this. There are populations that are not recognized by the concerned bodies since they have not been documented that have been exposed to poaching(Florida) and deaths by accidents on roads by reckless drivers or even losing their habitats to other massive populations of animals. The black bear population is approximated at 500,000 worldwide.

Life span

They live for about 32 years in their habitats some less and some more depending on the conditions and quality of life they are exposed to. ‘Smokey the bear’, which belonged to the Smithsonian National Zoological Park, died at 27(Youth, 1999). When they live in the wild, there is a reduction in the number of years they exist.

Ecological Relationships

A home range is defined as the physical space or radius of a habitat that a particular bear utilizes be it to sleep, mate or eat all through a year. Males especially adults have a wider range because they move more and are more solitary. Their figure stands at 25 square kilometers to around 150 of the same. The females only utilize like five to around 25km² (MacKenzie, 2003). The ranges consist of places that the bear gets its food and the courses that connect these feeding places. The home ranges are mostly found in places with thick vegetation for the purpose of cover especially for nursing bears. Females with cubs are also at caution when moving and tend to avoid routes that are vast and open. They prefer to take the long but secure courses if they have to.

The home ranges of different black bears may actually coincide with other bears. Females that are related can survive with sharing but males no matter the connection choose to remain solitary. The ranges shift due to change of weather and seasons of different foods in the feeding area. The bears cannot socialize even during meals at streams that is how much they are cannot be in cohesion.

They are an important constituent in of the food chain in their respective habitats. In many of the ecosystems, they serve chiefly as herbivores then subsequently as carnivores. However because they feed on rotting animal flesh they are also classified as scavengers in some capacity. They aid in dispersal of a variety of berry seeds through their droppings.

Uses and values

The Indians included the black bears in their ceremonies that were majorly traditional and in the community myths. They ate the meat either fresh from slaughter or thy dried it for some time before consuming. Bear fat was used as a cosmetic and was sometimes mixed in proportions with other pigments to produce paint. The black bear skin is improvised to make hats, blankets and even robes for various occasions. Until presently, some of these practices are still in progress among some First nation cultures. The Buckingham palace in Britain has hats that are made of fur from American Black bears (Ministry of Environment, lands and Parks, 2001, p. 5).

In British Columbia, they serve as a tourist attraction among other beasts of the field like cougars and the grizzly bears. This is because they are more interactive with humans than the rest. They provide the best opportunities for photography by tourists. In addition to the visit and photography, the park is open to tourists for hiking so they can observe some of the tree climbing marks on trees and even their prints. They could also see the territory marking signs that the bears make after mating or when travelling. Due to increase in interest many hunting license have been issued and the governments have accrued revenues that go back to the conservation of wildlife and other habitat programs dealing in protecting wildlife (Ministry of Environment, lands and Parks, 2001, p. 5; Hriestienko McDonald, 2007, p.8).

Conservation

In ensuring that the North American black bear is not extinct, the following measures have been put forward. There are efforts to reduce the level of conflict between man and bear (Peine, 2001). Garbage attracts bears so the locals have been advice to try and ensure proper management of this waste to the best of their abilities (McCullough, 1982). The government of British Columbia also kills 1000 bears every year to aid in this goal (Herrero, 1985).

The second precaution that is majorly the responsibility of the governments is putting measures in place to ensure the habitats of the black bears are safe (Brown and Hamr,1999). This safety is from logging and encroachment of humans on the bears’ habitat. Due to civilization, many developments are taking place and if the government does not plan and protect these habitats, there might end up being a sad black bear extinction story (Ellington, 2003).

The government should also be stern in enforcing rules regarding the trading of bear parts (Cowan,1972). They also need to make sure they monitor hunting activities like what has been done in Canada (Animal Alliance of Canada, 1999). Hunting is restricted in the parks and game reserves. The government also dictates the hunting seasons to the locals. Those found on the wrong side are punished after investigation.

The North American black bear is only found in North America and specifically in British Columbia and for that, it is a marvel to many. People travel many miles just to have the experience.

Reference

Animal Alliance of Canada, (1999). Overview of bear hunting in Canada. Bear Alliance.

Toronto, Ontario, Canada. 2010. Web.

BBC, (n.d.). Black bear(Ursus Americanus). 2010. Web.

Brown, D. & Hamr, J., (1999). Ontario nuisance black bear study. Cambrian College. Sudbury, Ontario, Canada.

Cowan, I.M., (1972). The status and conservation of bears (Ursidae) of the world —1970. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 2:343–367

Ellingwood, M. R., (2003). Nuisance black bear habitat use and activity patterns. New Hampshire Federal Aid Grant W-89-R-3, Project VI, Job 5, Final Report, Concord, New Hampshire, USA.

Herrero, S., (1985). Bear attacks: their causes and avoidance. New Jersey: Winchester Press.

Hristienko, H., & McDonald, J.E., (2007). Going into the 21st century: a perspective on trends and controversies in the management of the American black bear. Management trends and controversies, 72-87. Web.

Hristienko, H., D. Pastuck, K. J. Rebizant, B. Knudsen, and M. L. Conner. (2004). Using reproductive data to model cub orphaning in Manitoba due to spring harvest of females. Ursus 15:23–34. BioOne

McLaughlin, C. R., (1998). Modeling effects of food and harvests on female black bear populations. Dissertation,. University of Maine. Orono, Maine, USA.

McCullough, D.A. (1982). Behavior, bears, and humans. Wildlife Society Bulletin 10:27–33.

MacKenzie, K. G., ( 2003). Nuisance vs. non-nuisance bears: seasonal movement and home range utilization of female New Jersey black bears (Ursus americanus). Thesis,. East Stroudsburg State University. East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania, USA.

Nelson, R.A., Folk, G.E., Pfeiffer, E.W. ,Craighead, J.J., Jonkel, C.J and Steiger, D.J., (1983). Behavior, biochemistry, and hibernation in black, grizzly, and polar bears. International Conference on Bear Research and Management 5:284–290.

Pederson, J., (n.d.). American Black Bear (Ursus americanus). Wildlife Notebook Series, 1, 1-4. 2010.

Peine, J.D., (2001). Nuisance bears in communities: strategies to reduce conflict. Human Dimensions of Wildlife.6, 223–237.

Schwartz, C. C. & Franzmann., A. W., (1992). Dispersal and survival of subadult black bears from the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management 56:426–431.

The Animal Planet, (2006). The great bears: the North American Black bear. Web.

Wong, K.,(2001). Scientific American: How bears Power-Nap. Web. 

Youth, H.,(1999). American Black bear. The Smithsonian Zoogoer, 28(2). Web.

Many non-communist countries are poor, but so are most of the communist countries. Thus, if poverty and economic backwardness are to define the third world, much of the second word would have to be included. International analysts are inconsistent in their use of the term third world. For most business purposes, it is better to treat all communist countries as members of the second world because of their entirely different economic systems and decision criteria. Business analysts therefore, limit the third world to noncommunist developing nations.

The unifying force for the third world has been absolute poverty. To break its grip, these countries have sought to internationalize and modernize their economies. This common commitment to economic progress has welded these diverse cultures and political systems into a global coalition to facilitate mutual assistance activities and to form a common front vis-à-vis the first and the second world nations.

Third world attitudes toward business still remain warped by colonial legacies. Tribalism, distrust of central authority and top-heavy income distribution are common. Much of the economy is landbound. Dependence on agriculture and other extractive industries dominates. Land use is often governed by tribal traditions rather than agronomic considerations, and the productivity of land is generally lower than in the developed countries. The traditional patterns of land use limit the demand for agricultural machinery and technical services. The best developed manufacturing sectors produce light consumer goods, with durables on a rapid upswing in the more advanced LDCs.

Despite a borderless world that is a consequence of the internationalization of the economy due to globalization, nation-states still reserve the right to implement their own policies and economic decisions. The author mentions about the role of nation-states and governments in implementing national security policies and economic measures that will either make their territories an ideal place for investments or a non-conducive place for investments. In the conclusion of the section in the demise of nation-states, the author emphasizes that the “demise of nation-states” concept is premature, although globalization as a process leads to a difficulty among state governments to practice their conventional or traditional functions.

There is rhetoric in this stance. The political power of nation-states over their territories has economic implications. This means that we cannot just separate the economy of a nation from its politics as economic policies are also political decisions. If nation-states or governments are to make new policies, are these decisions internally influenced or influenced by external forces? By internal influences, I meant that these policies are based on innate sentiments of their own people and citizens. Governments just become implementing arms of international trade organizations and agreements to uphold the policies of liberalization and deregulation because a consequence of the latter is that they will just become mere implementers of globalization policies? If the decisions are internally influenced, we have to examine the ideological stance of these nation-states to conclude that they do reserve their conventional political powers because mere subservience to the same international policies will lead to but only one face in the world.

Third world countries to site as an example are making their political and economic decisions based on explicitly-pronounced treatises like the General Agreement on Tariffs and Trades (GATT) and World Trade Organization (WTO). Although there are patriotic and indigenous resistances from the inside against liberalization and deregulation policies as a result of globalization, the ruling elite of these countries have already committed to other countries who are also signatories to the GATT and WTO international agreements, and the voice of resistance is just but a small act to be taken significantly. In this sense, the internal influence has become less powerful to influence the decisions of the nation-states or governments, who are composed of little elements: “politicians” and statesmen exposed to the trend and idea of globalization. Although there is a part of the bureaucracy in these member countries that provide benchmark data on economic decisions, these bureaucracies are just following what politicians and statesmen uphold. It will just take a mere indoctrination to become part of the borderless world economy (Naidu, 1999).

In reality, globalization is a “democratic” invention. It is about the clashing of the east and the west; a constant battle between socialist and democratic ideologies. Depending on which perspectives these nation-states or governments side, economies of these nation-states or governments will have to be either “democratic” or “socialistic.” The demise of nation-states is premature, but more or less, their direction is committed to international economic agreements that are predictable.

Accordingly, as globalization advocate Jeffrey Sachs claimed, nations which strongly adopted the scheme experienced greater effects such as above-average drop in poverty rates as the case of China compared to some areas in Africa, which did not embrace the concept thus poverty rates have remained stagnant.3 With globalization, policies are geared towards a free-market economic systems thus, greater opportunities for promoting trades of goods, services and investments are just at hand. Through these, businesses, finances and economies are indeed growing and continuously prospering. Consequently, the major problem of unemployment faced by these small countries, particularly belonging to the third world, are indeed addressed upon. The concept entails rational allocation of resources, both human and financial.

Meanwhile, people of large and developed countries see globalization as a threat to world peace and their economies. As reported by United Nations Development Program, critics contended that global interconnectivity of nations and knowledge empowerment may help breed terrorism.

Economically speaking, major and high paying jobs these rich countries can offer are taken by skilled immigrants.

This causes negative effects to the local residents, such as insecurity. Relatively, this is the result of the massive global migration for the purpose of providing services. Free movement of people from one country to another is encouraged in globalization.

The ideas presented above help us conclude that globalization can be both beneficial and a threat to people. The term can still be used in more contexts by many people for different purposes. In fact, the word has become the subject of research and further studies which tried to look at all its angles. Indeed, greater implications in all aspects of governance and areas of development have yet to be thought of. The essence of globalization as one sees it should not be disassociated with change – change for the good of mankind.

The Economist, a leading international news magazine asked if inequality matters. The magazine argued that in good economic times, even the poor feel better off. Meanwhile, during the bad times, the rich may lose the most money, but the poor lose their jobs, their houses, and even their families. The editorial furthers that helping the truly poor is a better objective than merely narrowing the inequalities. The contention that it posed is that if the rich get poorer, some people may feel pleased, but few are better off. Finally, it states that helping the poor is not just a humanitarian move but is also something that should be done to ensure stability and continued economic growth of the society.

Seen from the humanists’ theory, there is an ethical concept of equity as a synonym for social justice and fairness. Inequities are inequalities that are seen as unfair and are both unacceptable and avoidable. For instance, equity in health care means that health care resources are allocated according to need, health services are received according to need, and payment for health services is made according to ability to pay. There is a commitment to ensure high standards of real access, quality, and acceptability in health services for all. (Does inequality matter?).

In the 1990s, there was growing concern that the efficiency-driven health reforms implemented in poor countries, utilizing instruments such as direct user-payments, exemption mechanisms, various insurance schemes, privatization, decentralization, might can lead to decreased social justice and fairness as well as add to instability. It was also seen to slow down of economic growth in the poorest countries. Davidson R Gwatkin of the World Bank asks for new health sector reforms that are equity-oriented. He also urges that these be executed with even more determination than the efficiency-directed reforms of the 1990s.

Gwatkin further states that there must be an identification of measures that can deal effectively with the inequalities that have been uncovered. (Does inequality matter?). The political consequences of globalization presents the sides of “hyperglobalizers” who advocate the concept of a “borderless world” and assert that political power rests on “global social formations” rather than geographically-based power. Globalization skeptics are believers of the conventional power of nation-states in regulating their own policies and economic decisions.

“Political globalization refers to the intensification and expansion of political interrelations across the global” (Steger 56). The effect of globalization upon the political dimension of an individual state threatens the national sovereignty with its insistence of a borderless world. In the progression of economic system within the borders of nation-states, there needs to exist a “gradual extension of political activities across national boundaries” (Steger 57). With the political concessions obtained in exchange for financial loans, International Monetary Fund, for example, can coerce the borrower state to lower the tariff rate of certain commodity goods. Eroding political power, the domestic industries of that particular commodity will likewise suffer.

Tagged as a new form of imperialism, globalisation is seen by many, especially by the anti-globalist, as equivalent to international aggression of the ruling industrialist countries over the weaker countries (Machan 2002). It is also the term used in mass media, by leftists (or activists), and by politicians, although discussion of its exact and accurate description was confined to circles of academe, economists, and international relation students (Petras & Veltmeyer 2001).

Globalisation is perceived to provide promising outcomes to stop wars and international violence, to save the global environment, and to alleviate, if not totally eradicate, third world poverty (Naidu 1999). For Petras and Veltmeyer (2001), globalisation engages a “widening and deepening of the international flows of trade, capital, technology, and information within a single integrated market.”

Apart from conventional beliefs, a nation with less wealth is not necessarily a nation of deprived individuals. Conversely, having more wealth expressed in terms of income and property (i.e., GDP and GNP) does not translate to greater well-being of the populace. Poverty is affected not merely by economic factors but also of social and cultural environment, affecting the general quality of people’s life.

Another way of defining poverty is to look into its antithesis. Anup Shah (2006) of Global Issues has the following views with regards to successful development: it means access to basic needs, an environment of overall stability, and an equal chance to owning land and property. An ideal, poverty-free society encourages democratic participation and does not hamper the right to make educated decisions that are free from oppression and harassment. It also adheres to the United Nation’s guidelines to Human Development.

World poverty has its roots in the socio-cultural structures of nations that date back to the age of colonization and imperialism. Thus, one of the myths that surround poverty is that poor, developing countries are caught in the ‘vicious trap’ with no chance of liberation. Walter B. Williams (2003) of the George Mason University asserts that this is one of the greatest lies, as rich nations surely are not born rich. As a teacher of economics, he states that this belief enslaves poor nations to the foreign aids extended by industrialized ones, making them even more dependent and indebted. These development funds, from the viewpoints of analysts, are just means to protect existing corrupt systems and to preserve tyrants and crooks in their positions.

Williams (2003) and Lappé with her colleagues (1998) dispute the correlation made between population and poverty. Hunger is a result of inequities in societies where “land ownership, jobs, education, health care, and old age security are beyond the reach of most people” (Lappé, Collins, Rosset & Esparza, 1998). Williams stressed that the citizens are a nation’s ultimate wealth, but only with proper investments. He cited Hong Kong and Taiwan as ideal examples. They have higher population densities than China but are more progressive than the latter because of their economic policies and more educated populace.

Being poor, far from the sentiments of the upper and the middle classes, does not happen by choice or is a product of a person’s sheer laziness. This is one of the common misconceptions because poverty occurs from the lack of opportunities and tools for success, not because the individual is a failure. The world’s current production of food and resources is actually enough to feed the whole planet and to make everyone live comfortably. The problem is that these wealth are concentrated among the powerful few.

Inequality cannot be separated from the concept of poverty, and with other societal issues. There are different kinds of inequality, but one of the most prevalent, besides the ones previously mentioned economic disparity, is that of racial and ethnic origin. Racial and ethnic inequalities result from the recognition of physical or cultural differences between groups and attaching social definitions to them. For instance, black and Hispanic students are usually stigmatized as poor in class relative to their Asian and White counterparts. Richard Anderson (2000) from the University of Colorado at Denver confirmed that African American Air Force trainees fare not quite as good with the other students because of the (white) instructors’ alleged lack of faith in their capacities. They are not given as much opportunity to take risks, which is an integral part in their course.

Another form of inequality is one inflicted among women. Although prevalent in the Third Worlds of Africa and Asia, gender inequality is definitely a worldwide phenomenon. Nobel laureate Amartya Sen (2001) presented the “many faces of gender inequality” in his works. The seven types are mortality inequality, natality inequality, basic facility inequality, special opportunity inequality, professional inequality, ownership inequality and household inequality. For modern societies, women’s oppressions typically include the burden of maintaining career and home at the same, as well as roadblocks to occupational or educational success. However, in traditional cultures where women are viewed as mere second-class citizens, domestic abuse, abortion of female babies and foetal-sex change becomes the problem.

Poverty and inequality are two of the greatest problems afflicting the world today. They bore the greatest effect on human lives and cannot be separated from other ails afflicting society. Once the public collectively attach labels to the traits distinctive of a particular group or gender, behaviour towards this group is altered. This will eventually shape their roles in the community. The adverse affect of this may range from overt, like a denied admission to a good university, or subtle, like slower customer services. Generally, their parity right to resources and opportunities is breached, and due to the differential treatment, they are involuntarily segregated as unwanted members of the population.

Apart from conventional beliefs, a nation with less wealth is not necessarily a nation of deprived individuals. Conversely, having more wealth expressed in terms of income and property (i.e., GDP and GNP) does not translate to greater well being of the populace. Poverty is affected not merely by economic factors but also of social and cultural environment, affecting the general quality of people’s life.

Another way of defining poverty is to look into its antithesis. Anup Shah (2006) of Global Issues has the following views with regards to successful development: it means access to basic needs, an environment of overall stability, and an equal chance to owning land and property. An ideal, poverty-free society encourages democratic participation and does not hamper the right to make educated decisions that are free from oppression and harassment. It also adheres to the United Nation’s guidelines to Human Development.

Williams (2003) and Lappé with her colleagues (1998) dispute the correlation made between population and poverty. Hunger is a result of inequities in societies where “land ownership, jobs, education, health care, and old age security are beyond the reach of most people” (Lappé, Collins, Rosset & Esparza, 1998). Williams stressed that the citizens are a nation’s ultimate wealth, but only with proper investments. He cited Hong Kong and Taiwan as ideal examples. They have higher population densities than China but are more progressive than the latter because of their economic policies and more educated populace.

Being poor, far from the sentiments of the upper and the middle classes, does not happen by choice or is a product of a person’s sheer laziness. This is one of the common misconceptions because poverty occurs from the lack of opportunities and tools for success, not because the individual is a failure. The world’s current production of food and resources is actually enough to feed the whole planet and to make everyone live comfortably. The problem is that these wealth are concentrated among the powerful few.

Inequality cannot be separated from the concept of poverty, and with other societal issues. There are different kinds of inequality, but one of the most prevalent, besides the ones previously mentioned economic disparity, is that of racial and ethnic origin. Racial and ethnic inequalities result from the recognition of physical or cultural differences between groups and attaching social definitions to them. For instance, black and Hispanic students are usually stigmatized as poor in class relative to their Asian and White counterparts. Richard Anderson (2000) from the University of Colorado at Denver confirmed that African American Air Force trainees fare not quite as good with the other students because of the (white) instructors’ alleged lack of faith in their capacities. They are not given as much opportunity to take risks, which is an integral part in their course.

In sum, world poverty has its roots in the socio-cultural structures of nations that date back to the age of colonization and imperialism. Thus, one of the myths that surround poverty is that poor, developing countries are caught in the ‘vicious trap’ with no chance of liberation. Walter B. Williams (2003) of the George Mason University asserts that this is one of the greatest lies, as rich nations surely are not born rich. As a teacher of economics, he states that this belief enslaves poor nations to the foreign aids extended by industrialized ones, making them even more dependent and indebted. These development funds, from the viewpoints of analysts, are just means to protect existing corrupt systems and to preserve tyrants and crooks in their positions.

References

Anderson, R.H. (2000). Racial and Ethnic Inequality. 2008. Web.

Does inequality matter? The Economist, London UK, 2001, Web.

Gwatkin DR. The need for equity-oriented health sector reforms. International Journal of Epidemiology, 2001, 30:720-723.

Lappé, F.M., Collins, J., Rosset, P., & Esparza, L., (1998). World Hunger:12 Myths. 2008. Web. 

Naidu, M.V. 1999, Globalization: Threat or Promise?, 2008. Web.

Patterson, James 2005-2006 OAH Distinguished Lectureship Program. 2008.

Patterson, James. America’s Struggle Against Poverty in the Twentieth Century.

Petras, J. & Veltmeyer H. Globalization Unmasked: Imperialism in the 21st century. 2008. Web. 

Shah, A. (2006). Poverty Around the World. Web.

Sen, A. (2001). Many Faces of Gender Inequality. Frontline 18(22). Web.

Williams, W.E. (2003). Poverty Myths. Web.

Noise pollution

The urban environment is n area of increased noise pollution caused by traffic and other mechanisms located in cities. Pollutants may harm the senses of sight, taste, and smell and may also cause health hazards. Noise factors are widely used as a term for several areas of research which consist of human performance, technology design, and human-computer interaction. In general, noise pollution is related to human factors which mean physical or cognitive property of a certain person. It can also mean some kind of social behavior of people which is peculiar to human beings and which may have any influence on functioning of any technological system and also balance between the human beings and environment (McKee, 2003).

The social aspect of noise indicates certain and peculiar properties of the humans. There is no reason to doubt that all people make mistakes that can lead to serious accidents and it often refers to human factor. Nowadays there is a great variety of different technologies, the aim of which is to prevent even the slightest probability of accidents or to minimize any possible risks of faults made by the humans. Even experienced professionals are only ordinary people and for that reason the human factors should always be remembered. It is generally known that any future is impossible without the past; that is why people have to remember all shocking accidents and great faults in order to take all necessary actions for preventing them in the future (McKee, 2003).

Regeneration of the urban environment is a major component of strategic vision of the future. Plan should identify three areas of the city for efficient urban planning. The “consolidated town” comprises the urban areas that are already well developed with extensive road networks. The “out-of-town” area, comprising the network of large parks will be preserved. And the “town-to-be-completed” area, basically alternating full and empty urban space, will be improved with new residential units. These last two areas, comprising about 70% of the total municipal land, are now territorially defined and new normative instruments apply. Policies for the consolidated area will be the focus of subsequent town planning (Kinder, 2007).

In addition to the “urban protection strategy for local authorities”, the local authorities themselves should take their own initiative for collective redemption. They must develop city strategies for commensurate action to improve their sustainability. It should focus on four areas: sustainable development, democratization, decentralization, and local empowerment. It is based on the premise that governmental decisions should be taken at the level closest to the citizens, with other levels of government undertaking only those matters which local governments cannot carry out alone. It is difficult to give them a precise ranking. But an interrelated package of problems has to be addressed: transportation with its associated noise and air pollution, waste management, energy supply, water management, urban regeneration, land conservation and protection. This involves improvements to public transport, especially rail, trams, and the underground; a new priority extended to cyclists and pedestrians; and better traffic management. Stronger and more strictly implemented traffic and parking regulations, and new controls over traffic circulation are also aimed at mitigating the adverse impact which the city’s transportation activity has on human health, especially of course on its residents (Kinder, 2007).

Territoriality, privacy, and personal space

In modern urban settings, the concepts of territoriality, privacy and personal space are changed. For a modern man, territoriality means a socio-geographic area of living. It may involve city, state, province, or even a climate zone. Landscapes and different geographical places have a great impact on cultural values and identity of populations. They respond to the immediate demands of the most powerful voices in the community and have one eye on the more popular policy direction. There is little doubt that in modern society it is difficult for the government to advocate policy from an international perspective.

The concept of privacy and personal space lacks its original meaning and can be interpreted as an individual areole of living. The slogan “think globally, act locally” may well be adopted by those who are well informed and committed to their role as global citizens, but the majority of Australians are more restricted in their focus. Recent opinion polls cite immigration and unemployment as the major causes of national insecurity. The agenda of the new millennium must set down the principles of global citizenship and the social obligations we have for each other. This will not be an easy task in affluent nations such as mine where we so readily rely on our current level of resource consumption and privileged lifestyle. Nor will it be easy to communicate to the people in the South where basic human survival preoccupies the lives of so many. But a strategy must be formulated in the planetary interest. If a country such as the USA cannot grasp the urgency of this imperative then it may be necessary to develop both moral and actual international sanctions to persuade and directly enforce governmental implementation of its obligations to all of humanity (McKee, 2003).

Population density influences the concepts of territoriality, privacy, and personal space. For modern citizens, there is little space for personal living and freedoms. Once that base of global values is secured, nation-states will fundamentally alter their perception of international affairs, and their own national conduct will change. It is made and maintained by its members. National behavior is a product of national perception of the world, of international cooperation, and its relevance to the national interest (McKee, 2003). That perception informs national decision-making and shapes national policy. It is here, on the threshold of values, that enhancing global security through strengthening the United Nations must begin. The concept underpinning such a qualitative change in human outlook is a rather stark one-survival. The fact of demonstrable threats to our collective survival, and a species responsibility for securing it, is new. Perhaps that is why the notion of survival, with its eschatological connotations, tends to invite dismissal by some as hyperbole. In the commission, we saw it differently. Unprecedented increases in human activity and human numbers, we observed, have reached the point where their impacts are impinging on the basic conditions on which life depends. With the proviso that such legitimacy is based on a proper consent of all peoples of the world, speaking transparently through a global civil society and thereby directing their governments. The dictate of collective survival will distinguish, in the future, what is in the vital planetary interest, and what legitimate global powers need to be recognized. In urban areas, overpopulation causes water and air pollution People who resided at the edge of cities observed cherished farmlands and wildlands vanishing before their eyes. Many of the earlier urban émigrés observed that the open spaces they had come to enjoy had disappeared (Lomborg, 2001).

References

Lomborg, B. (2001). The Skeptical Environmentalist, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Kinder, C. (2007). The Population Explosion: Causes and Consequences. Web.

McKee, J. K. (2003). Sparing Nature: The Conflict Between Human Population Growth and Earth’s Biodiverstiy. Rutgers University Press.