Speech Outline

Topic: Suicide Specific

Purpose: To aware people about suicide and help them to find out if someone could be living this awful situation. By being aware all of us could save lives in danger.

Introduction: Attention

Getter: Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death in the U. S. surpassed by accidents and homicide. (According to Centers for Diseases Control and Prevention)

Statement of Significance: Suicide or “self-killing” or “an act of taking one’s own life” according to Robert M. Martin.

Now committing suicide is very common in nowadays anyone could be in danger of doing it, your mom, dad, brother, sister, uncle, and aunt could be going through this hard stage. I will tell you the main causes of suicide, the signs of a suicidal person, and how could you help someone on need.

Preview: Today I will be talking about why people commit suicide, the sings and methods and finally how we can help someone that wants to commit suicide.

Transition: Now that I covered the significance let’s see why people do it

Body: I. Why do people commit suicide?

A. They think it’s killing themselves is the only way of his/her problems.

1. Usually when someone takes over hi/her life they aren’t thinking straight because for example (when you were little and you went to the doctor and they wanted to give you an injection you would say no, because it would hurt. Now imagine wanting to end up with your own life)

2. Most of the times suicide is planned buy in other cases is not planned its just and instinct that people have and supposedly their way out of problems. Women attempt suicide more often than men, but men are 4 times more likely to commit suicide because men use more effective methods such as gun and hanging themselves.

B. Depression

1. Having some personal problems such as a breakup, a big fight with a loved one, parents getting a divorce, being an outcast in school or in other place, even an unwanted pregnancy could depress someone that much that suicide is their first thing in their heads and they end up doing it.

2. Having some personal issues is also a main cause of suicide such as being sexually abuse, homosexual preferences, and self- identity and a trauma (according to Edwin Shneidman) which includes poor health, example asthma, obesity, and multiple illness .

Transition: Now you know the main causes why do people commit suicide, now let’s see the sings of a suicidal person and methods of suicide. II. Sings of a suicidal person and methods

A. Signs

1. The suicidal signs are easy to identify, and if you identify them early enough you could save a person’s live that could be in danger.

2. According to the website kidshealth. org here are the signs of a suicidal person * talking about suicide or death in general * talking about “going away” * referring to things they “won’t be needing” or giving away possessions * talking about feeling hopeless or feeling guilty pulling away from friends or family and losing the desire to go out * having no desire to take part in favorite things or activities * having trouble concentrating or thinking clearly * experiencing changes in eating or sleeping habits * engaging in self-destructive behavior (for ex. drinking, drugs, or cutting)

B. Methods

1. Top 10 suicidal methods according to listverse. com 10. Drowning 5. Carbon Monoxide Inhalation 9. Electric shock 4.

Poison 8. Bleeding to death 3. Hanging 7. Jumping 2. Drug/ Alcohol Overdose 6. Suffocation 1. Gun Shot III. How could we help/ prevent suicide? A. If it’s someone you know? 1. Don’t leave a family, friend, or stranger alone trying to commit suicide. Try to help them in any kind of way you can by giving them advices and make the realize how suicide could affect everyone around them B. What if it’s you? 1.

If suicide has come across your mind, don’t just sit there get some help from a person you trust as soon as possible, or you could call the suicide line 24/7 1-800-SUICIDE or 1-800-999-9999. Remember that suicide is not the way out. Transition: So know you know if saving a live is in your hand do it right away and before it’s too late. Conclusion: Before I finish remember that Restatement of significance: It’s important that we take any sing in consideration because our loved ones could be thinking of a suicide and we must protect them.

Review: I have covered why people commit suicide, the sings and methods and finally how we can help someone that wants to commit suicide, so once again keep these in mind you could save a life.

Closing Device: Just remember that suicide is not the way out.

References: 1. Robert M.

Martin Suicide: The Philosophical Issues New York: 1980 48-54 2. Edwin S. Shneidman Suicidology: Contemporary Developments New York 1976 1-14 3. Methods of suicide http://listverse. com/health/top-10-ways-to-commit-suicide/ 24 June 2008 4. Suicide in general http://kidsheath. org/parent/emotions/behaviors/suicide. html 24 June 2008

Persuasive Speech Outline

Persuasive Speech Outline – Ghost I. Introduction: A. Attention-Getter: Do you believe in ghost or the existence of the afterlife? B. Link-to Audience: You may not even believe that actually ghosts are everywhere around us, but, they are. C. Speaker Credibility: I am here today to share with all of you my research on ghost. D. Thesis Sentence: I will convince you that the existence of ghost is real. E. Preview of Speech: Firstly, I would like to define ghost. Then I’ll begin with explaining some old folks’ “rumours” or “saying”.

Then I would like to share with you an article of a Doctor’s experience of the afterlife. Transition: Let’s begin with a question. II. Definition A. Ghost is defined as the spirit of a person that has died. Transition: Most of you heard of other people’s supernatural experiences such as a ghost possessed and near-dead experience but only few of you experienced on your own. So why and how it can happen? III. Explanation A. The existence of the human magnetic field B. The proximity of the magnetic oscillation frequency

C. Energy conversion Transition: You may think that what I’ve told you are just crapping. Believe it or not, now I’m going to tell you some true stories that happened from my friends. III. True story at: A. Amber Court, Genting Highland B. Ria, Genting Highland C. An abandoned hospital, in Selangor. Transition: Although currently we still cannot provide a scientific proof of the existence of ghost, sometimes things may happen magically without any reason. IV. Conclusion A.

Restate thesis: Remember, ghost exists around us. Most of us can’t see them because we are in different magnetic field. B. Restate main points: I have briefly explained what is ghost and how does ghost possession can happen and I have told you few true stories of my friend. C. Call-to-Action: Believe in the existence of ghost is not scary but more like a prevention. They exist because of us, dies. They make no harm to us if we don’t provoke them. D. Clincher: So, be careful guys. Those empty seats are occupied by “them”.

Tattoo Inform. Speech Outline

Artistic Freedom of Speech

1. Introduction

A. Attention-getter: One in five U. S. adults now has a tattoo. Tattoos have been around for centuries and have different purposes all around the world.

B. Significance: After my speech, the audience will have a better knowledge on why people get tattoos.

C. Credibility: I have researched information based on this topic.

D. Thesis Statement: To inform my audience on the reasons people get a tattoo and discuss some examples.

E. Preview: A. Honor B. Religion C. Obsession II. Body A.

The Samoan Islands have a long history of tattooing that dates back to encourages here the word tattoo is believed to have originated from. Hinduism tattooing and there is no prohibition. However, in Islam, tattoos are not only from being at peace with forbidden but they are believed to “prevent someone god. “

2. Some people get religious tattoos Just to snow out their beliefs.

These people were not forced by their religion to get a tattoo. Some examples include: Christianity- crosses, bibles verses, rosary, or images of God or other religious figures. Judaism- Star of David or hebrew writing, Buddhist- buddhas or lotus flowers.

Transition: We now know why people get tattoos for dedication or religious purposes. C. Finally, another reason why people get a tattoo is because of obsession.

1. People will become so obsessed with someone or something, that they will go as far as to get it tattooed on their skin. For example, someone obsessed with the zodiac might go get their zodiac symbol tattooed on them. Someone obsessed with Michael Jackson, might get his face or song with a cartoon or celebrity such as lyrics tattooed on themselves.

2. Tattoos are also favored for making a fashion statement. Someone obsessed with permanent makeup.

If you beauty might get cosmetic tattooing, also known as sing real tattoo ink. A lip tattoo make your lips look thicker. have faint eyebrows, you can get them filled in can add definition to the lip outline and your more. 3. Another form of obsession involving tattoos could be that once you get first tattoo, you want to go back to the tattoo shop and keep getting Transition: I have now informed you and on three reasons why people might get tattoos. As well as discuss some examples to help the audience understand.

Conclusion:

Many people get tattoos for different reasons.

General Purpose: I am giving this speech because this topic is very important to me and I want you to know about it as well. Specific Purpose: I am going to be informing my audience about Rachel’s Challenge in hopes of sharing Rachel’s story. I. Introduction 1. In the year 1999, a tragedy at Columbine High school occurred. This is what help start Rachel’s Challenge. 2. Bullying never leads to good out comes. Rachel’s story is proof of that. 3. Today I am here to inform you about Rachel’s Challenge, Rachel’s story, and what bullying can lead to.

First I am going to inform you about Rachel’s challenge and what it is exactly. II. Body A. Rachel’s Challenge 1. 160,000 students don’t go to school because they are bullied, teased, and harassed each day. Rachel’s Challenge is helping create safer and better learning environments and making a world wide impact because Rachel’s family decided to make the Columbine High School tragedy a mission for a change. 2. Rachel’s Challenge isn’t just meant to create change in schools around the world, it is to create change in businesses as well. It is to help create an environment of kindness, compassion, and safety.

This is all according to www. rachelschallenge. org. 3. Now that I have told you about Rachel’s Challenge,… …I will now inform you about Rachel’s story. B. Rachel’s Story 1. According to Craig Scott, a man I saw tell Rachel’s story, Rachel was the middle of five kids, but she handled that pretty well. She was very social and never passed up a sleep over at a friend’s house, a school event, or playing a board game with her family. Rachel loved being around people, it energized her. Her parents said that she could light up a room with her presence.

She loved music and photography as well. Rachel wasn’t worried about anything besides her profile. When she was 5, she fell on the side walk and broke her nose. The accident left a bump on the bridge of her nose which made her worry that people were staring at it when they spoke to her. 2. Rachel was very kind. She always felt sympathy for those who were less fortunate than she was. She tried to reach out to people who had social, mental, and/or physical handicaps. She was a kind girl, and she learned the power of compliments and acts of kindness at an early age.

This is all according to www. rachelschallenge. org. 3. Now that I have told you about Rachel’s Challenge and Rachel’s story,… …I will now inform you what bullying can lead to. C. What Bullying can Lead to 1. As I said before, bullying never leads to good outcomes. It can do horrible things to people. According to wiki. answers. com, when I asked the answer “What bullying can do to a person,” they said that bullying can lead a person into depression, and eventually that depression that a person is driven into will make them feel like they hate their life.

Also according to wiki. answers. com, a person who already feels like they hate their life will feel the need to commit suicide when what they should really do is go to someone. 2. So many deaths are caused by the person’s own hand because of bullying. This is why Rachel’s Challenge was started. III. Conclusion A. Now that you know what Rachel’s Challenge is, Rachel’s story, and what bullying can lead to, I hope you will follow Rachel in bringing kindness and compassion to the world. Works Cited www. rachelschallenge. org Wiki. answers. com Craig Scott

Suggestions for Beautifying the Pronunciation of EFL Learners in Higher Education Hasan Zainnuri, S. Pd. mawapres_uns@yahoo. com English Education Department of Postgraduate Sebelas Maret University, Surakarta Abstract This paper firstly stresses that the importance of the spoken form of the language and for that reason foreign language learners should have correct and accurate pronunciation. It summarizes the background of pronunciation teaching, emphasizes the need for incorporating pronunciation into foreign language classes owing to regarding pronunciation as a key to gaining full communicative competence.

Most of the people learning a foreign language encounter some problems of pronunciation of the new language, owing to some contributory factors. This paper consists of the presentation of the factors affecting the pronunciation of EFL learners in Indonesia in language learning and teaching process and also it suggests some necessary techniques for the solution of these factors. Some suggestions are also given for how these techniques should be applied for. Key words: foreign language, accurate pronunciation, EFL, higher education A.

Introduction One of the general objectives in the foreign language teaching, maybe the most important one, is to teach the learners to speak the target language accurately and intelligibly since to learn a language also means to produce the sounds, utterances, and the words properly and correctly rather than being able to communicate with the people in the target language community. To reach this goal, speaking activities should be done at every stage of the foreign language teaching process.

It must be borne in mind that listening and speaking go hand-in-hand in foreign language teaching because speech is very important medium through which communication is achieved. That’s to say, language is primarily speech and it is more basic to language than the written form (Larsen-Freeman, 2000: 44). According to Knowles (1987: 1) written language has the advantage that it is permanent so that it can be studied conveniently and at leisure, but spoken language is more ‘elusive’. In other words, written language looks like an imperfect version of the poken language. As individuals, we all learn to speak before we learn to read and write; that is to say, people learn the language by hearing the sounds spoken in their environment. Unlimited numbers of sounds, especially speech sounds, in the language help the learner to understand and to produce the language. In addition, in the world there are still languages which have never been written down and also societies have had speech before written forms of their languages. Needless to say, human talk is the oldest form all of the societies.

It should be noted here that language learners always encounter some difficulties and problems while learning a foreign language. One of the most significant difficulties seen in this process happens to be in the pronunciation of the foreign language vocabulary. So, foreign language learners have lots of problems with pronunciation because of some factors such as native language factor (mother tongue interference), age, environment, personality, etc. affect their motivation in learning.

Rivers (1986: 125) urges that all persons had experience when listening to a foreigners’ speaking language, of having great difficulty in understanding what they are trying to say, not because of their lack of knowledge of 1 vocabulary and language structure, but because the sounds they produce seemed strange and the voice rose and fell in unexpected places. This sentence emphasizes a well-known fact that most of the people learning a foreign language encounter some problems of pronunciation of the new language, owing to some contributory factors.

Therefore, they fail in oral communication although they are sufficient enough in other skills of the language. B. Factors Affecting the Pronunciation of EFL Learners 1. The Native Language Factor Needless to say, learners of a language speak the target language in a different way: sometimes slightly different and sometimes highly different than the native speakers’ do, which we call “foreign accent”, the nature of which is determined to a large extend by a learner’s native language (Avery and Ehrlich, 1987: 9).

This is known as mother tongue interference. That is to say, every language in the world has different 112 varieties and different accents. Therefore, the way we speak is a part of our identity, that is, phonemic differences between languages causes a target language which will be spoken with a foreign accent. As a result, there may not be any difference in the pronunciation of [? ] and [i], and then a foreign accent carries the sound characteristics of the learners’ native language.

As known, a language is a part of a culture, thus it is unavoidable that there must be mother tongue interference, which is native language influence, in the pronunciation of the target language. This view had been recognized by Whorfian Hypothesis. According to Sapir and Whorf, peoples’ view of world influences their language and also people adopt the view of the world around them through the experience and categories of their language.

As a user of Indonesian language, we have difficulty in some English words and sounds which are not found in our native language. For example, /? /, /? /, /? /, /? / sounds do not exist in Indonesian and that is why Indonesian learners encounter pronunciation difficulties with the words that include those sounds and thus never obtain a native-like accent, so they produce those sound under the influence of their mother tongue.

Since English is not a tonic language, Indonesian students have also some problems with stress, intonation, and rhythm which determine the overall rhythm and melody of a language can be transferred from the native language into the target language (Avery and Ehrlich, 1987: 10) because Indonesian learners think that if they speak or pronounce the words with a strong stress, they will be better understood. The other problem occurs when the rules for combining the sounds in forms of syllables are different in two languages.

In foreign language learning, the influence of the native language is unavoidable; this happens to be problem of language teachers. A welltrained English teacher in phonetics and phonology can diminish the negative transfers of sounds to a greater extent. So, he should use specially prepared pronunciation teaching techniques. Then, the non-native English teachers are struggling with the negative interference from the mother tongue of the students in all their teaching lives, and they should do so for a decent teaching practice. 2. The Age Factor This is one of the most important factors in the learning of the ronunciation of a foreign language. We can say that if someone pronounces a second language with a nativelike accent, s/he must have probably started to learn it during their childhood. For instance, children of immigrants may be given as an example. Since these children start their second language learning process in target language speaking people environment, they have more advantages than the children who try to learn the target language in their motherlands because there are indispensable differences between the language a group uses and the language of mainstream classrooms and workplaces.

At the same time, if young children are exposed to 2 more than one language before the age of puberty, they seem to acquire all languages equally well since it has been claimed that children are better at learning than adults. As Krashen (1988: 43) mentioned acquirers who begin to exposure to a second language during childhood generally achieve higher second language proficiency than those beginning as adults. He also stated that lateralization may even be complete by age 4, not by puberty. Some researchers and neurolinguists have claimed that there is a strong connection between language learning and lateralization.

Lenneberg hypothesized that lateralization is a slow process that begins around the age of 2 and is completed around puberty. He had also added that right hemisphere in children is more active in the language function but as child develops the two sides of the brain become specialized for different functions and thus lateralization takes place. The critical age hypothesis claims that there is such a biological timetable (Brown, 1987: 42). It has been claimed that there is a critical age period for language learning, but it is widely discussed whether there is a critical period for language or not.

Evidently, foreign language teaching researchers have outlined many views about the critical age hypothesis. Generally speaking, it coincides with the period when lateralization is taking place and ends when it is complete. This was hypothesized by Lenneberg who was one of the wholehearted supporters of critical age hypothesis. In sum, since children are better in learning the language in short run, teaching pronunciation process should be started in puberty because it has been claimed that beyond puberty it is quite difficult to teach the learners to acquire a native-speakers like language accent.

As a result, the age of the learner is highly important in the pronunciation learning of a foreign language due to the factors mentioned above. The aged learners pick up the correct pronunciation a little bit late, so the foreign language teachers must be very patient in this sense, and must prepare special pronunciation drills and have the students repeat. They will obtain an acceptable level of good articulation in the long term. 3. The Amount of Exposure Another factor is the amount of exposure to the practice of English. English is not only used in the classroom environment.

We can handle this subject from the point of view whether the learner has been living in a country where English has been spoken or not. If the learners have been living in an English-speaking country or community, or a country where English is the second language, then the learners will have many opportunities to listen to and to use the target language; that is they will be surrounded by the target language. But, on the contrary, if the learners have been living in a non-English speaking country, like Indonesia, there will be no advantage for them.

So these learners will only be exposed to focusedlistening, so they will have no chance or opportunity to use the target language in a real environment. This means that there will be no communication and if there is no communication, there won’t be language learning. Since those learners won’t have any English-speaking environment except their classrooms, they will have to be satisfied with listening, but it is clear that you cannot teach correct and accurate pronunciation by just asking students to listen to artificial listening courses carried out in the classrooms.

Krashen in Celce-Murcia (1996: 16-17) states that learners acquire language primarily from the input they receive, and they must receive large amounts of comprrehensible input before they are required to speak. It must not be forgotten that there are many people who live in an English speaking country, but spend much of their time in a non-English speaking environment, maybe any other language is spoken at home or outside. For this reason, it is not merely exposure that matters, but how the learners respond to the opportunities.

Briefly, Kenworthy (1987: 6) mentions that exposure can be a contributory factor, but it cannot be a whole and necessary factor for the development of pronunciation. If a learner is aware of the necessity of being exposed to the target language, s/he should make use of its opportunities. 3 If the learner does that, s/he will be more successful in case of improving his/her pronunciation. The best ways of being exposed would be native speakers, videos shows, films, cds, radio or TV programs, computer assisted language teaching programs, and etc.

Also, the amount of exposure is crucial and it must make the students creative and active, not passive and dull. Therefore, the quantity of exposure must be adjusted with caution. 4. Phonetic Ability There is a common view that some people have a better ear capacity for foreign language than some other people. So, they are able to discriminate between the two sounds more accurately than the others and able to imitate sounds better. We can accept these people as those with phonetic abilities.

Also, this phonetic ability of the learner affects the development of his/her pronunciation. But it does not mean that people who have a better phonetic ability will be successful but the others won’t be successful. Accordingly language aptitude ability exists in many people, but its degree is variable, therefore some people have more ability but some have less. Besides the factors mentioned above, the influence of age must be stated as an efficient factor for phonetic ability because the beginners start to learn a language, the more they become successful.

It is clear that learners may lose some of their abilities when they become older, so it can be difficult for them to pronounce the target language with a native or near native-like accent. At the same time, immigrants, especially their children, have more chance in learning the target language since they have started to their learning process in a target language speaking environment. The poor phonetic ability can be cured again by the foreign language teachers’ patient attempts. There are several devices to motivate the poor pronunciation of the learners such as the phonetic labs and remedial pronunciation teaching techniques.

Those learners must not be discoursed but must be treated meticulously. 5. Personality and Attitude This is also another important factor affects the pronunciation of EFL learners in a bad way if the learners have negative attitudes for the target language community or they are introvert learners. For instance, shy or introvert students do not want to take part in classroom activities, so they cannot find any opportunities to make practice and to make use of phonological and/or phonetic activities.

Besides, courageous or extrovert students have more chance to improve their pronunciation. On the other hand, attitude of the learners toward the new language has an effective role in pronunciation learning. If the learner has good attitudes for the target culture, s/he can easily develop more accurate, native-like accents. If the learners have some prejudices on the target language and its society, this event will influence his/her approach to the language.

For example, some people do not believe in the necessity of learning a second language, and they think that foreign language will influence the learners’ cultural development in a negative way, that is to say, their culture will be imposed on the target language community. In this case, it will not be reasonable to teach or try to teach these learners a foreign language. Thus, personal features and attitudes of the learners are also decisive in the learning of pronunciation. The educational pedagogues may be of great help on this issue.

They could give some guidelines to the foreign language teachers. 6. Motivation If the learners are highly motivated to have a better pronunciation, they can develop a concern for pronunciation, and become more eager to take part in the activities and pay more attention to discriminate the sounds of the target language, and they try to produce better utterances. Motivation can be the key to learn the target language, and they try to produce 4 better sounds. Here it must be pointed out what the motivation is and how the learners will be motivated.

According to Brown (1997: 114-115) the motivation is thought of as an inner drive, impulse, emotion, or desire that moves one to a particular action. He also stated that learning a foreign language requires some of all three levels of motivation which can be global, situational, or task-oriented. For example, a learner may possess high global motivation but low task motivation on the written mode of the language. On the one hand, some factors such as intelligence, aptitude, and self-confidence have much contribution to the formation of motivation.

For example, to motivate the less intelligent people will be more difficult than the intelligent ones because these people cannot appeal to their needs. Motivation, of course, is a number of different kinds of attitudes and can be divided into two basic types: instrumental and integrative motivation (Brown, 1997: 115-117). First one refers to the instrumental goals such as furthering a career, reading some kinds of materials, translation, etc. An integrative motivation is the one which is employed when the learners want themselves to be in the culture of the second language group, to identify themselves with and become part of the society.

Needless to say, teachers may need to discern the source of a student motivation in order to meet particular needs. That is, pronunciation teaching must be directed according to the needs, expectations, attitudes, intelligence, etc. of the learners. If the learners’ main goals are to make translation from the native language to the target language, less time may be needed for pronunciation activities, and therefore teachers will spend less time for motivating them.

If the learners are highly motivated to have a better pronunciation, they can develop a concern for pronunciation, and become more eager to take part in the activities, and pay more attention to discriminate the sounds of the target language, so they try to produce better sounds and utterances. At the same time, motivation can be achieved by paying attention to the learners’ concern for pronunciation because learners generally are not aware of that the way they speech is full of irritation and misunderstanding for the hearer. Consequently, some factors that are effective in pronunciation accuracy are examined here.

All of these factors exert much influence on the learners. We cannot change and affect some of these factors, for example, it is impossible for us to change the age and phonetic ability of the learners. It is clear that the influence of age is undeniable in language learning process. Children are more successful than the adults. When we take into consideration the children of immigrants, we see the difference between their counterparts. Since they start their learning process in their early ages in the target language spoken country, they can be able to speak the target language with a native like accent. So, f a learner starts his/her foreign language learning period abroad, in other words, in a place where the target language has been spoken, s/he will get a better pronunciation because there are differences between the language learning environments, that is to say, to learn a foreign language in classrooms is different than to learn it abroad. So, if we don’t have any chance to change the conditions mentioned above, cannot we do anything to train our learners with a near-native like pronunciation? Is it impossible to help them to well-trained learners having good pronunciation? Of course the answers of these questions are “No”.

For that reason, here we will state some useful techniques to eliminate these negative factors over the pronunciation of EFL learners in our country and suggest some possible solutions. C. Techniques for Eliminating Pronunciation Problems of EFL Learners It is important for the learners to acquire an accurate pronunciation. According to Baker and Sharon (1990), pronunciation is very important and learners should pay close attention to pronunciation as early as possible. Scarcella and Oxford (1994) similarly assume that pronunciation should be taught in all second/foreign language classes through a variety of activities.

The obvious argument in favor of pronunciation teaching branches from the 5 techniques adopted by linguists in making a phonological analysis. When we look at the contrast between a minimal pair like bit and beat, we can see that mastery of the difference between the phonemes /? / and /i/ is necessary if the two words are to be adequately differentiated. Thus, the learner must learn the differences in the pronunciation of these two sounds because if he does not learn, he will be misunderstood. For example, ‘Hit the ball! ’ or ‘Heat the ball! ’. We can increase the number of this type of example.

Teaching of pronunciation should be an integral part of an English teaching program from the early stages, and it must not be a luxury to be left to the advanced level studies of the language. It must be borne in mind that during pronunciation teaching, some certain methods or techniques should be applied because teaching of pronunciation is not a simple task, on the contrary it must be the essential part of language teaching program. Here, some methods and types of teaching pronunciation will be handled to determine its importance in language teaching process. 1.

Initial Teaching Technique This technique focuses on areas which are the essential to basic communications such as introducing stress and intonation, the fall or rise as the difference between spoken questions and answers, the development of a polite and interested way of speaking. Hubbard et al. (1983: 209) explain this: ‘It is a PEN’ always precedes ‘It is a BLUE PEN’ and initial presentation of the present continuous tense is often with intransitive verbs, therefore, there is no object, which would mean a second stress (i. e. He’s running / She’s sleeping, etc. ).

This example shows this method fits well with a structural syllabus (Demirezen, 1986: 108-125) symbolizes the sustained, rising, and falling intonation with the following signs: > , ^ , v, and give some examples and activities for classroom application. He uses [>] for incomplete sentences and statements wherein the speaker intends to say something. [^] is used for yes/no questions in statement forms, yes/no questions in interrogative forms, when phrases or clauses precede the main clause as a breath-group often heard in lectures and speeches, special calls for children, and stressed word, phrase or clause in a series.

Lastly [v] is used for questions with ‘or’, asking questions with question words, declarative statements, in giving commands, and some emphatic statements. Here are some examples and activities. > In sum Since 1999 If you wait She is a nice girl It is doubtful ^ v What I am trying to say I don’t understand you Mary Who is it? Are you interested in Do you want an apple or music? orange? Do you love her? He looked under the desk in the kitchen and in the closet I am crazy She fell into the lake 2. Remedial Teaching Technique This is a systematic approach and deals with the problems of individual sounds (Hubbard et al. 1983: 209-210). It can be considered as consisting of two separate approaches – Instant Remedial and Planned Remedial. For Instant Remedial, the strategy will divide into four parts: (1) imitation, (2) demonstration, (3) association, and (4) explanation. For example, teacher first of all draws attention to the ‘offending’ sound and pronounces it in isolation to be imitated by the learners. If this becomes inefficient, then teacher shows the students how the sound is formed by putting his tongue between his teeth to produce /? / or /d/ by using demonstration part.

However, certain sounds are not easily made visible, so the 6 teacher may adopt the process of association. In this process, sounds must be isolated and attention must be drawn to the similarities between two sounds in terms of whether they are voiced, lateral, and dental, etc. Finally, explanation may help as the teacher explains in the mother tongue if necessary, how the sound is formed and gives instruction to the students to move their tongue forward, round their lips, etc. If, despite instant remedial works, the ‘offending’ sound still causes problems for the learners, then Planned Remedial work is needed.

In this section, teacher should not insist, but make a note of the problem and plan a short remedial drill for the lesson. (Some of these drills will be explained in the following sections). Remedial teaching can easily be applied to individual sounds by using a similar technique used by the TPR Method. Teacher may use a board and colored board-marker to indicate a sound which is represented by different spelling. For example, the three possible pronunciation of the regular [-ed] ending /t/ and /d/ and /? / can be represented by different colorful board-marker, and words can be written in three columns on the white board: blue is for /-t/, red is for /-d/, and green is for /-id/. The [-ed] ending is the item written in the appropriate color while everything else is written in normal black. For example, BLUE RED GREEN jumped saved waited washed begged folded That is to say, the color coding can be used over and over as the teacher can indicate the pronunciation of the [-ed] ending by writing it in appropriate color. 3. Drilling Technique

For drilling technique there are many useful drills for purifying and teaching the correct and accurate pronunciation of the utterances and words. Here we will handle some of the common ones. a. Word – association Drill This is one of the easiest ways to give the students practice on specific problem sounds while the manifest purpose of the drill appears to be vocabulary study. Concentrating on the phonemes /? / and /e/, teacher may ask the students for antonyms of the following words: sick, sit, thin, and more. The students would respons with well, stand, fat, and less.

In this type of drill it is useful to call the students’ attention to the fact that the words they will select all contain /? / or /e/. For example, 1. In which of the following word, do we have /? / sound? a. bed b. bad c. but d. bear e. beer 2. In which of the following word, do we have /e/ sound? a. bag b. mail c. get d. lake e. feet 3. In of the following words do we have two /? / sounds? a. handicap b. butterfly c. breakfast d. bankrupt e. walkman b. Saturation Drill This type of drill is suitable for all positions of the problematic sound. For example, let’s take / s / sound as a problem sound.

It can be drilled in its three positions by means of saturation drill. Initial see seep seem seed Medial leasing pistol classic faucet 7 Final peace niece purse curse c. Illustrating A Learned Sound In this type of drill, students give examples of the sound being studied. For example, to practice the diphthong /? / first, students listen to the sound pronounced by the therapist. Then, they are challenged to listen discriminatingly by indicating whether the sound pronounced by the therapist as ‘ right ’ or ‘ wrong ’ in a series of correct and incorrect pronunciations such as /a? , /a? / , /o? / , /e? / , etc. When the sound has been set, the first student starts a chain with a phrase ‘I try ’. The second student repeats the phrase, and adds his own, ‘I try but I cry’. The third one picks up the last part and says ‘I cry but I sigh ’, and goes on. d. Mobility Drill As Rochmis and Doob mentioned (1970: 29), achieving lightness of utterance and mobility of the tongue at conversational speech is a very important aspect of drilling. It is often neglected on the general belief that a student can make and hear the sound at the conversational speech.

The following drill is an example for flexibility of the /? / sound. Step 1: Ask your students to suggest 5 simple words beginning with /b/ such as: bat – boat – bike – ball – boy Step 2: Encourage them to pronounce these words with a strong emphasis, and then add the word ‘the’, maintaining the pattern of stress. the bat – the boat – the bike – the ball – the boy Step 3: Substitute the words ‘to the …. ’ maintaining the pattern. to the bat…… , to the boat……. , etc. Step 4: Continue to amplify the phrase, holding the pattern, but changing its drill. rom the………………………… there is the…………………….. with and without the………. because of the………………… e. Comparative Drill In this type of drill, words almost similar in every respect except the one element to be drilled are placed in juxtaposition. Since we tend to confuse sounds that are similar these drills with stimulate accuracy in hearing, performance, and judgment. Most standard texts in voice and diction are excellent sources of such drill material. For example, this drill may be effective if two sounds are confused such as /f-v/, /p-b/, /? ? /, /? -e/, etc. For example, 1 . A sample comparative drill for /f-v/ and /p-b/ sounds fee – bee feat – peat freeze – visa – pisa breeze freed – breed fly – ply fled – bled fact – pact 2. A sample comparative drill for /? -e/ sounds sat – set band – bend sand – send bad – bed fig – pig fester – pester pan – pen It will readily be seen that above drills have certain fringe benefits in that the words are arranged according to the vowel scale. Vowels that are commonly confused are best drilled in this type of drill.

The students’ own participation in composing such drills is worth the time it takes because he will drill more intelligently and therefore establish new patterns more firmly and quickly. At the same time, it will give him/her a technique to apply to other areas where drill may be needed (Rochmis and Doob, 1970: 27-28). 8 f. Substitution Drill This type of drilling may be applied by substituting any sound instead of the other sound. For example, /t/ instead of /? / or /d/ instead of /? /, etc. Here are some exercises for classroom application. 1. This is thin / tin. . Did you see her lunge / lunch? 3. Was it a brand / bland reporting? 4. He is our king / kin. 5. It is cheap / chip. 6. Don’t tape / tap. Number of these activities may be increased and it is also possible to apply ‘practicesounds’ and ‘contrast-sounds’ exercises such as, 1. Exercises to practice /?? / sound a. The dog gave a sharp bark. b. The argument started when the guard refused them entrance c. The yard was so dark. 2. Exercise to contrast /?? / and /? / sounds. a. That hut was certainly hot. b. Did he rub or rob? c. Hand this cup to the cop. . Tongue Twisters This type of activity is known as a word or phrase which is difficult to say quickly. In the literature there are different ideas about the applicability and the usability of this activity. Celce-Murcia (1996: 5) states that there is a little transfer from practice to natural communication. But, if it is needed and necessary, they can be used. Here are some sample of tongue twisters taken from Dalton and Seidlhofer (1994: 132-133). 1. Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers. 2. Did peter Piper pick a peck of pickled peppers? . If Peter picked a peck of pickled peppers 4. Where’s the peck of pickled peppers Peter Piper picked? 4. Computer Aided Pronunciation Teaching (CAPT) As stated by Park in Hasan (2011: 45), that the extreme assumptions embedded in Computer Aided Pronunciation Teaching (CAPT): “technology can solve the educational problems”, speech technology brings forward to EFL. With proper adaptation, speech technology allows beginning language students to practice speaking the langu age outside the classroom. TELL ME MORE Communication® by

Auralog is one of the speech recognition software, which uses speech recognition to provide conversational practice, visual feedback on prosody, and scoring of pronunciation. It contains dialogue-based software using fixedresponse Automatic Speech Recognition (ASR) which lets learners have a simulated conversation with a computer. Practicing with such programs should help students improve fluency and confidence in pronouncing English words. Using phonetic exercise, included in the TELL ME MORE Communication®, is a great way to learn how to pronounce words.

Furthermore, the software can provide individual feedback on pronunciation, which is something that is often lacking in the language classroom. Related to the statement above, learning pronunciation using TELL ME MORE Communication® offers some advantages compared with conventional media being used nowadays. It also offers interesting activities when learning process as follows: (1) role play, (2) dialogue, (3) video and questions, (4) sentence pronunciation, (5) word pronunciation, (6) phonetics exercise, (7) picture/word association, (8) word searches, (9) crossword puzzles, 9 10) word order, and (11) dictation. Hasan (2011: 50-52) states that tips for improving learner’s pronunciation offered by TELL ME MORE Communication® are as follows: 1) Imitation of teacher or recorded model of sounds, words, and sentences 2) Recording of learner speech, contrasted with native model 3) Systematic explanation and instruction (including details of the structure and movement of parts of the mouth) 4) Immitation drills: repetition of sounds, words, and sentences 5) Varied repetition of drills (varied speed, volume, mood) ) Learning and performing dialogues (as with drills, using choral work, and varied speed, volume, mood) 7) Self-correction through listening to recordings of own speech. D. Conclusion and Suggestions We can say that the techniques mentioned above may be used to ensure that the EFL learners in higher education will be able to pronounce the target language accurately. As mentioned before, teaching pronunciation is one of the significant aspects of foreign language teaching and at the same it is a very serious task.

Therefore, it should be studied in the early stages of the language teaching program in order to eliminate the factors affecting the pronunciation of the learners in a negative way and also to overcome the negative influence of mother tongue interference, fear, making mistakes, etc. While doing this, the techniques mentioned above may be applied to language teaching program in higher education during the teaching process. As a result, language teachers must be aware of these techniques or methods and should apply any of them while teaching pronunciation.

It must be borne in mind that teachers are the models for their learners, so first of all they should have good pronunciation; otherwise, they can harm their students. References Avery, P. and Susan Ehrlich. 1987. Preliminary Considerations in the Teaching of Pronunciation. London: TESL Center. Avery, P. and Susan Ehrlich. 1992. The Teaching American English Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Baker, Ann and Goldstein, Sharon. 1990. Pronunciation Pairs. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. Brown, D. H. 997. Principles of Language Learning and Teaching. (3rd ed. ) New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents. Celce-Murcia, Donald M. Brinton & Janet M. Goodwin. 1996. Teaching Pronunciation: A Reference for Teachers of English to Speakers of Other Languages. New York: Cambridge University Press. Dalton, C. and Barbara Seidlhofer. 1994. Pronunciation. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Demirezen, M. 1986. Phonemics and Phonology. Ankara: Bizim Buro. Hubbard et al. 1983. A Training Course for TEFL. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Krashen, S. D. 1988. Second Language Acquisition and Second Language Learning. New York: Prentice Hall Regents. Krashen, S. D. 1988. Principles and Practice in Second Language Acquisition. New York: Prentice Hall Regents. Kenworthy, J. 1987. Teaching English Pronunciation. London: Longman. Knowles, G. 1987. Patterns of Spoken English: An Introduction to English Phonetics. London: Longman. Larsen-Freeman, D. 2000. Techniques and Principles in Language Teaching. Oxford: Oxford University Press. 10 Rivers, W. M. 1968.

Teaching Foreign Language Skills. (2nd ed. ) Chicago: Chicago University Press. Rochmis, L. and D. Doob. 1970. Speech Therapy. New York: The John Day Company. Scarcella, R. & Oxford, R. L. 1994. Second Language Pronunciation: State of the Art in Instruction. Oxford: Oxford University Press. Zainnuri, Hasan. 2011. A Thesis: The Effectiveness of Using TELL ME MORE Communication® to Improve Students’ Pronunciation Skill (An Experimental Study on The Tenth Grade Students at SMA Negeri 7 Surakarta in The Academic Year of 20102011). 11

Freedom of speech For the freedom of speech in specific jurisdictions, see Freedom of speech by country. “Freedom of expression” redirects here. For other uses, see Freedom of expression (disambiguation). For other uses, see Freedom of speech (disambiguation). Freedom of speech is the political right to communicate one’s opinions and ideas. The term freedom of expression is sometimes used synonymously, but includes any act of seeking, receiving and imparting information or ideas, regardless of the medium used.

In practice, the right to freedom of speech is not absolute in any country and the right is commonly subject to limitations, as with libel, slander, obscenity, sedition (including, for example inciting ethnic hatred), copyright violation, revelation of information that is classified or otherwise. The right to freedom of expression is recognized as a human right under Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights and recognized in international human rights law in the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights (ICCPR).

Article 19 of the ICCPR states that “[e]veryone shall have the right to hold opinions without interference” and “everyone shall have the right to freedom of expression; this right shall include freedom to seek, receive and impart information and ideas of all kinds, regardless of frontiers, either orally, in writing or in print, in the form of art, or through any other media of his choice”.

Article 19 goes on to say that the exercise of these rights carries “special duties and responsibilities” and may “therefore be subject to certain restrictions” when necessary “[f]or respect of the rights or reputation of others” or “[f]or the protection of national security or of public order (order public), or of public health or morals”. Freedom of speech may be legally curtailed in some religious legal systems and in secular jurisdictions where it is found to cause religious offense, such as the British Racial and Religious Hatred Act 2006.

The right to freedom of speech and expression Concepts of freedom of speech can be found in early human rights documents. [3] England’s Bill of Rights 1689 granted ‘freedom of speech in Parliament’ and the Declaration of the Rights of Man and of the Citizen, adopted during the French Revolution in 1789, specifically affirmed freedom of speech as an inalienable right. [4] The Declaration provides for freedom of expression in Article 11, which states that: “The free communication of ideas and opinions is one of the most precious of the rights of man.

Every citizen may, accordingly, speak, write, and print with freedom, but shall be responsible for such abuses of this freedom as shall be defined by law. “[5] Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, states that: “Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. “[6] Today freedom of speech, or the freedom of expression, is recognized in international and regional human rights law.

The right is enshrined in Article 19 of the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights, Article 10 of the European Convention on Human Rights, Article 13 of the American Convention on Human Rights and Article 9 of the African Charter on Human and Peoples’ Rights. [7] Based on John Milton’s arguments, freedom of speech is understood as a multi-faceted right that includes not only the right to express, or disseminate, information and ideas, but three further distinct aspects: * the right to seek information and ideas; the right to receive information and ideas; * the right to impart information and ideas International, regional and national standards also recognize that freedom of speech, as the freedom of expression, includes any medium, be it orally, in written, in print, through the Internet or through art forms. This means that the protection of freedom of speech as a right includes not only the content, but also the means of expression. [7] Relationship to other rights

The right to freedom of speech and expression is closely related to other rights, and may be limited when conflicting with other rights (see Limitations on freedom of speech). [7] The right to freedom of expression is also related to the right to a fair trial and court proceeding which may limit access to the search for information or determine the opportunity and means in which freedom of expression is manifested within court proceedings. [8] As a general principle freedom of expression may not limit the right to privacy, as well as the honor and reputation of others.

However greater latitude is given when criticism of public figures is involved. [8] The right to freedom of expression is particularly important for media, which plays a special role as the bearer of the general right to freedom of expression for all. [7] However, freedom of the press is not necessarily enabling freedom of speech. Judith Lichtenberg has outlined conditions in which freedom of the press may constrain freedom of speech, for example where the media suppresses information or stifles the diversity of voices inherent in freedom of speech.

Lichtenberg argues that freedom of the press is simply a form of property right summed up by the principle “no money, no voice”. [9] Origins Freedom of speech and expression has a long history that predates modern international human rights instruments. [10] It is thought that ancient Athens’ democratic ideology of free speech may have emerged in the late 6th or early 5th century BC. [11] Two of the most cherished values of the Roman Republic were freedom of religion and freedom of speech. 12] Freedom of speech, dissent and truth Before the invention of the printing press a writing, once created, could only be physically multiplied by the highly laborious and error-prone process of manual copying out. No elaborate system of censorship and control over scribes existed, who until the 14th century were restricted to religious institutions, and their works rarely caused wider controversy. In response to the printing press, and the heresies it allowed to spread, the Roman Catholic Church moved to impose censorship. 14] Printing allowed for multiple exact copies of a work, leading to a more rapid and widespread circulation of ideas and information (see print culture). [15] The origins of copyright law in most European countries lie in efforts by the Roman Catholic Church and governments to regulate and control the output of printers. [15] In 1501 Pope Alexander VI issued a Bill against the unlicensed printing of books and in 1559 the Index Expurgatorius, or List of Prohibited Books, was issued for the first time. [14] The Index Expurgatorius is the ost famous and long lasting example of “bad books” catalogues issued by the Roman Catholic Church, which assumed responsibility to control thoughts and opinions, and suppressed views that went against its doctrines. The Index Expurgatorius was administered by the Roman Inquisition, but enforced by local government authorities, and went through 300 editions. Amongst others it banned or censored books written by Rene Descartes, Giordano Bruno, Galileo Galilei, David Hume, John Locke, Daniel Defoe, Jean-Jacques Rousseau and Voltaire. 16] While governments and church encouraged printing in many ways because it allowed for the dissemination of Bibles and government information, works of dissent and criticism could also circulate rapidly. As a consequence, governments established controls over printers across Europe, requiring them to have official licenses to trade and produce books. [15] The notion that the expression of dissent or subversive views should be tolerated, not censured or punished by law, developed alongside the rise of printing and the press.

Areopagitica, published in 1644, was John Milton’s response to the Parliament of England’s re-introduction of government licensing of printers, hence publishers. [19] Church authorities had previously ensured that Milton’s essay on the right to divorce was refused a license for publication. In Areopagitica, published without a license,[20] Milton made an impassioned plea for freedom of expression and toleration of falsehood,[19] stating: “Give me the liberty to know, to utter, and to argue freely according to conscience, above all liberties. [19] Milton’s defense of freedom of expression was grounded in a Protestant worldview and he thought that the English people had the mission to work out the truth of the Reformation, which would lead to the enlightenment of all people. But Milton also articulated the main strands of future discussions about freedom of expression. By defining the scope of freedom of expression and of “harmful” speech Milton argued against the principle of pre-censorship and in favor of tolerance for a wide range of views. [19] As the “menace” of printing spread, governments established centralized control mechanism. 21] The French crown repressed printing and the printer Etienne Dolet was burned at the stake in 1546. In 1557 the British Crown thought to stem the flow of seditious and heretical books by chartering the Stationers’ Company. The right to print was limited to the members of that guild, and thirty years later the Star Chamber was chartered to curtail the “greate enormities and abuses” of “dyvers contentyous and disorderlye persons professinge the arte or mystere of pryntinge or selling of books. ” The right to print was restricted to two universities and to the 21 existing printers in the city of London, which had 53 printing presses.

As the British crown took control of type founding in 1637 printers fled to the Netherlands. Confrontation with authority made printers radical and rebellious, with 800 authors, printers and book dealers being incarcerated in the Bastille in Paris before it was stormed in 1789. [21] A succession of English thinkers was at the forefront of early discussion on a right to freedom of expression, among them John Milton (1608–74) and John Locke (1632–1704). Locke established the individual as the unit of value and the bearer of rights to life, liberty, property and the pursuit of happiness.

However Lockes ideas evolved primarily around the concept of the right to seek salvation for one’s soul, and was thus primarily concerned with theological matters. Locke did not support a universal toleration and freedom of speech, some groups, like atheists, should not be allowed according to his ideas. [22] By the second half of the 17th century philosophers on the European continent like Baruch Spinoza and Pierre Bayle developed ideas encompassing a more universal aspect freedom of speech and toleration than the early English philosophers. 23] By the 18th century the idea of freedom of speech was being discussed by thinkers all over the Western world, especially by French philosophes like Denis Diderot, Baron d’Holbach and Claude Adrien Helvetius[24] The idea began to be incorporated in political theory both in theory as well as practice; the first state edict in history proclaiming complete freedom of speech was the one issued December 4, 1770 in Denmark-Norway during the regency of Johann Friedrich Struensee. 25] However Struensee himself imposed some minor limitations to this edict in October 7, 1771, and it was even further limited after the fall of Struensee with legislation introduced in 1773, although censorship was not reintroduced. [26] John Stuart Mill (1806–1873) argued that without human freedom there can be no progress in science, law or politics, which according to Mill required free discussion of opinion. Mill’s On Liberty, published in 1859 became a classic defence of the right to freedom of expression. 19] Mill argued that truth drives out falsity, therefore the free expression of ideas, true or false, should not be feared. Truth is not stable or fixed, but evolves with time. Mill argued that much of what we once considered true has turned out false. Therefore views should not be prohibited for their apparent falsity. Mill also argued that free discussion is necessary to prevent the “deep slumber of a decided opinion”. Discussion would drive the onwards march of truth and by considering false views the basis of true views could be re-affirmed. 27] Furthermore, Mill argued that an opinion only carries intrinsic value to the owner of that opinion, thus silencing the expression of that opinion is an injustice to a basic human right. For Mill, the only instance in which speech can be justifiably suppressed is in order to prevent harm from a clear and direct threat. Neither economic or moral implications, nor the speakers own well-being would justify suppression of speech. 28] In Evelyn Beatrice Hall’s biography of Voltaire, she coined the following phrase to illustrate Voltaire’s beliefs: “I disapprove of what you say, but I will defend to the death your right to say it. “[29] Hall’s quote is frequently cited to describe the principle of freedom of speech. [30] In the 20th Century Noam Chomsky states that: “If you believe in freedom of speech, you believe in freedom of speech for views you don’t like. Stalin and Hitler, for example, were dictators in favor of freedom of speech for views they liked only.

If you’re in favor of freedom of speech, that means you’re in favor of freedom of speech precisely for views you despise. “[31] Professor Lee Bollinger argues that “the free speech principle involves a special act of carving out one area of social interaction for extraordinary self-restraint, the purpose of which is to develop and demonstrate a social capacity to control feelings evoked by a host of social encounters. ” Bollinger argues that tolerance is a desirable value, if not essential.

However, critics argue that society should be concerned by those who directly deny or advocate, for example, genocide (see Limitations, below). [32] Democracy The free speech zone at the 2004 Democratic National Convention The notion of freedom of expression is intimately linked to political debate and the concept of democracy. The norms on limiting freedom of expression mean that public debate may not be completely suppressed even in times of emergency. [8] One of the most notable proponents of the link between freedom of speech and democracy is Alexander Meiklejohn.

He argues that the concept of democracy is that of self-government by the people. For such a system to work an informed electorate is necessary. In order to be appropriately knowledgeable, there must be no constraints on the free flow of information and ideas. According to Meiklejohn, democracy will not be true to its essential ideal if those in power are able to manipulate the electorate by withholding information and stifling criticism. Meiklejohn acknowledges that the desire to manipulate opinion can stem from the motive of seeking to benefit society.

However, he argues, choosing manipulation negates, in its means, the democratic ideal. [33] Eric Barendt has called this defence of free speech on the grounds of democracy “probably the most attractive and certainly the most fashionable free speech theory in modern Western democracies”. [34] Thomas I. Emerson expanded on this defence when he argued that freedom of speech helps to provide a balance between stability and change. Freedom of speech acts as a “safety valve” to let off steam when people might otherwise be bent on revolution.

He argues that “The principle of open discussion is a method of achieving a more adaptable and at the same time more stable community, of maintaining the precarious balance between healthy cleavage and necessary consensus. ” Emerson furthermore maintains that “Opposition serves a vital social function in offsetting or ameliorating (the) normal process of bureaucratic decay. “[35] Research undertaken by the Worldwide Governance Indicators project at the World Bank, indicates that freedom of speech, and the process of accountability that follows it, have a significant impact in the quality of governance of a country. Voice and Accountability” within a country, defined as “the extent to which a country’s citizens are able to participate in selecting their government, as well as freedom of expression, freedom of association, and free media” is one of the six dimensions of governance that the Worldwide Governance Indicators measure for more than 200 countries. [36] Social interaction and community Permanent Free Speech Wall in Charlottesville, VA Richard Moon has developed the argument that the value of freedom of speech and freedom of expression lies with social interactions. Moon writes that by communicating an individual forms relationships and associations with others – family, friends, co-workers, church congregation, and countrymen. By entering into discussion with others an individual participates in the development of knowledge and in the direction of the community. “[37] Limitations For specific country examples see Freedom of speech by country, and Criminal speech. According to the Freedom Forum Organization, legal systems, and society at large, recognize limits on the freedom of speech, particularly when freedom of speech conflicts with other values or rights. 38] Limitations to freedom of speech may follow the “harm principle” or the “offense principle”, for example in the case of pornography, or hate speech. Limitations to freedom of speech may occur through legal sanction or social disapprobation, or both. [39] Members of Westboro Baptist Church have been specifically banned from entering Canada for hate speech. [40] In “On Liberty” (1859) John Stuart Mill argued that “… there ought to exist the fullest liberty of professing and discussing, as a matter of ethical conviction, any doctrine, however immoral it may be considered. [39] Mill argues that the fullest liberty of expression is required to push arguments to their logical limits, rather than the limits of social embarrassment. However, Mill also introduced what is known as the harm principle, in placing the following limitation on free expression: “the only purpose for which power can be rightfully exercised over any member of a civilized community, against his will, is to prevent harm to others. “[39] In 1985 Joel Feinberg introduced what is known as the “offence principle”, arguing that Mill’s harm principle does not provide sufficient protection against the wrongful behaviours of others.

Feinberg wrote “It is always a good reason in support of a proposed criminal prohibition that it would probably be an effective way of preventing serious offense (as opposed to injury or harm) to persons other than the actor, and that it is probably a necessary means to that end. “[41] Hence Feinberg argues that the harm principle sets the bar too high and that some forms of expression can be legitimately prohibited by law because they are very offensive. But, as offending someone is less serious than harming someone, the penalties imposed should be higher for causing harm. 41] In contrast Mill does not support legal penalties unless they are based on the harm principle. [39] Because the degree to which people may take offense varies, or may be the result of unjustified prejudice, Feinberg suggests that a number of factors need to be taken into account when applying the offense principle, including: the extent, duration and social value of the speech, the ease with which it can be avoided, the motives of the speaker, the number of people offended, the intensity of the offense, and the general interest of the community at large. 39] The Internet and Information Society Free Speech flag, from the HD DVD AACS case Jo Glanville, editor of the Index on Censorship, states that “the Internet has been a revolution for censorship as much as for free speech”. [42] International, national and regional standards recognise that freedom of speech, as one form of freedom of expression, applies to any medium, including the Internet. [7] The Communications Decency Act (CDA) of 1996 was the first major attempt by the United States Congress to regulate pornographic material on the Internet.

In 1997, in the landmark cyberlaw case of Reno v. ACLU, the U. S. Supreme Court partially overturned the law. [43] Judge Stewart R. Dalzell, one of the three federal judges who in June 1996 declared parts of the CDA unconstitutional, in his opinion stated the following:[44] “The Internet is a far more speech-enhancing medium than print, the village green, or the mails. Because it would necessarily affect the Internet itself, the CDA would necessarily reduce the speech available for adults on the medium. This is a constitutionally intolerable result.

Some of the dialogue on the Internet surely tests the limits of conventional discourse. Speech on the Internet can be unfiltered, unpolished, and unconventional, even emotionally charged, sexually explicit, and vulgar – in a word, “indecent” in many communities. But we should expect such speech to occur in a medium in which citizens from all walks of life have a voice. We should also protect the autonomy that such a medium confers to ordinary people as well as media magnates. [… ] My analysis does not deprive the Government of all means of protecting children from the dangers of Internet communication.

The Government can continue to protect children from pornography on the Internet through vigorous enforcement of existing laws criminalizing obscenity and child pornography. [… ] As we learned at the hearing, there is also a compelling need for public educations about the benefits and dangers of this new medium, and the Government can fill that role as well. In my view, our action today should only mean that Government’s permissible supervision of Internet contents stops at the traditional line of unprotected speech. … ] The absence of governmental regulation of Internet content has unquestionably produced a kind of chaos, but as one of the plaintiff’s experts put it with such resonance at the hearing: “What achieved success was the very chaos that the Internet is. The strength of the Internet is chaos. ” Just as the strength of the Internet is chaos, so that strength of our liberty depends upon the chaos and cacophony of the unfettered speech the First Amendment protects. [44] The World Summit on the Information Society (WSIS) Declaration of Principles adopted in 2003 makes specific reference to the importance of the right to freedom of expression for the “Information Society” in stating: “We reaffirm, as an essential foundation of the Information society, and as outlined in Article 19 of the Universal Declaration of Human Rights, that everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; that this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers.

Communication is a fundamental social process, a basic human need and the foundation of all social organisation. It is central to the Information Society. Everyone, everywhere should have the opportunity to participate and no one should be excluded from the benefits of the Information Society offers. “[45] According to Bernt Hugenholtz and Lucie Guibault the public domain is under pressure from the “commodification of information” as item of information that previously had little or no economic value, have acquired independent economic value in the information age, such as factual data, personal data, genetic information and pure ideas.

The commodification of information is taking place through intellectual property law, contract law, as well as broadcasting and telecommunications law. [46] Freedom of information Main article: Freedom of information Freedom of information is an extension of freedom of speech where the medium of expression is the Internet. Freedom of information may also refer to the right to privacy in the context of the Internet and information technology. As with the right to freedom of expression, the right to privacy is a recognised human right and freedom of information acts as an extension to this right. 47] Freedom of information may also concern censorship in an information technology context, i. e. the ability to access Web content, without censorship or restrictions. [48] Freedom of information is also explicitly protected by acts such as the Freedom of Information and Protection of Privacy Act of Ontario, in Canada. [49] Internet censorship Main articles: Internet censorship and Internet censorship by country The concept of freedom of information has emerged in response to state sponsored censorship, monitoring and surveillance of the internet.

Internet censorship includes the control or suppression of the publishing or accessing of information on the Internet. [50] The Global Internet Freedom Consortium claims to remove blocks to the “free flow of information” for what they term “closed societies”. [51] According to the Reporters without Borders (RWB) “internet enemy list” the following states engage in pervasive internet censorship: China, Cuba, Iran, Myanmar/Burma, North Korea, Saudi Arabia, Syria, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Vietnam. 52] A widely publicized example of internet censorship is the “Great Firewall of China” (in reference both to its role as a network firewall and to the ancient Great Wall of China). The system blocks content by preventing IP addresses from being routed through and consists of standard firewall and proxy servers at the Internet gateways. The system also selectively engages in DNS poisoning when particular sites are requested.

The government does not appear to be systematically examining Internet content, as this appears to be technically impractical. [53] Internet censorship in the People’s Republic of China is conducted under a wide variety of laws and administrative regulations. In accordance with these laws, more than sixty Internet regulations have been made by the People’s Republic of China (PRC) government, and censorship systems are vigorously implemented by provincial branches of state-owned ISPs, business companies, and organizations. 54][55] Najat Vallaud-Belkacem a French Socialist Minister of Women’s Rights proposed that the French government force Twitter to filter out hate speech that is illegal under French law, such as speech that is homophobic. Jason Farago, writing in the The Guardian praised the efforts to “restrict bigotry’s free expression. ” Freedom of speech in the United States From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search The Newseum’s five freedoms guaranteed by the First Amendment to the U. S. Constitution.

Freedom of speech in the United States is protected by the First Amendment to the United States Constitution and by many state constitutions and state and federal laws. The freedom is not absolute; the Supreme Court of the United States has recognized several categories of speech that are excluded from the freedom of speech, and it has recognized that governments may enact reasonable time, place, or manner restrictions on speech. Criticism of the government and advocacy of unpopular ideas that people may find distasteful or against public policy are almost always permitted.

There are exceptions to these general protections, including the Miller test for obscenity, child pornography laws, speech that incites imminent lawless action, and regulation of commercial speech such as advertising. Within these limited areas, other limitations on free speech balance rights to free speech and other rights, such as rights for authors and inventors over their works and discoveries (copyright and patent), protection from imminent or potential violence against particular persons (restrictions on fighting words), or the use of untruths to harm others (slander).

Distinctions are often made between speech and other acts which may have symbolic significance. Despite the exceptions, the legal protections of the First Amendment are some of the broadest of any industrialized nation, and remain a critical, and occasionally controversial, component of American jurisprudence. * | First Amendment The First Amendment to the United States Constitution codifies the freedom of speech as a constitutional right. The Amendment was adopted on December 15, 1791.

The Amendment states: Congress shall make no law respecting an establishment of religion, or prohibiting the free exercise thereof; or abridging the freedom of speech, or of the press; or the right of the people peaceably to assemble, and to petition the Government for a redress of grievances. Although the text of the Amendment prohibits only the United States Congress from enacting laws that abridge the freedom of speech, the Supreme Court used the incorporation doctrine in Gitlow v. New York (1925) to also prohibit state legislatures from enacting such laws. Early history England

During colonial times, English speech regulations were rather restrictive. The English criminal common law of seditious libel made criticizing the government a crime. Chief Justink Hut, writing in 1704-1705, explained the apparent need for the prohibition or no government can subsist. For it is very necessary for all governments that the people should have a good opinion of it. The objective truth of a statement in violation of the libel law was not a defense. Until 1694 England had an elaborate system of licensing; no publication was allowed without the accompaniment of the government-granted license.

Colonies The colonies originally had different views on the protection of free speech. During English colonialism in America, there were fewer prosecutions for seditious libel than England, but other controls over dissident speech existed. The most stringent controls on speech in the colonial period were controls that outlawed or otherwise censored speech that was considered blasphemous in a religious sense. A 1646 Massachusetts law, for example, punished persons who denied the immortality of the soul.

In 1612, a Virginia governor declared the death penalty for a person that denied the Trinity under Virginia’s Laws Divine, Moral and Martial, which also outlawed blasphemy, speaking badly of ministers and royalty, and “disgraceful words”. [1] More recent scholarship, focusing on seditious speech in the 17th-century colonies (when there was no press), has shown that from 1607 to 1700 the colonists’ freedom of speech expanded dramatically, laying a foundation for the political dissent that flowered among the Revolutionary generation. 2] The trial of John Peter Zenger in 1735 was a seditious libel prosecution for Zenger’s publication of criticisms of the Governor of New York, William Cosby. Andrew Hamilton represented Zenger and argued that truth should be a defense to the crime of seditious libel, but the court rejected this argument. Hamilton persuaded the jury, however, to disregard the law and to acquit Zenger. The case is considered a victory for freedom of speech as well as a prime example of jury nullification. The case marked the beginning of a trend of greater acceptance and tolerance of free speech.

First Amendment ratification In the 1780s after the American Revolutionary War, debate over the adoption of a new Constitution resulted in a division between Federalists, such as Alexander Hamilton who favored a strong federal government, and Anti-Federalists, such as Thomas Jefferson and Patrick Henry who favored a weaker federal government. During and after the Constitution ratification process, Anti-Federalists and state legislatures expressed concern that the new Constitution placed too much emphasis on the power of the federal government.

The drafting and eventual adoption of the Bill of Rights, including the First Amendment, was, in large part, a result of these concerns, as the Bill of Rights limited the power of the federal government. Alien and Sedition Acts Main article: Alien and Sedition Acts See also: Espionage Act of 1917 and Sedition Act of 1918 In 1798, Congress, which contained several of the ratifiers of the First Amendment at the time, adopted the Alien and Sedition Acts.

The laws prohibited the publication of “false, scandalous, and malicious writing or writings against the government of the United States, or either house of the Congress of the United States, or the President of the United States, with intent to defame… or to bring them… into contempt or disrepute; or to excite against them… hatred of the good people of the United States, or to stir up sedition within the United States, or to excite any unlawful combinations therein, for opposing or resisting any law of the United States, or any act of the President of the United States”.

The law did allow truth as a defense and required proof of malicious intent. The 1798 Act, however, made ascertainment of the intent of the framers regarding the First Amendment somewhat difficult, as some of the members of Congress that supported the adoption of the First Amendment also voted to adopt the 1798 Act. The Federalists under President John Adams aggressively used the law against their rivals, the Democratic-Republicans. The Alien and Sedition Acts were a major political issue in the 1800 election, and after he was elected President, Thomas Jefferson pardoned those who had been convicted under the Act.

The Act expired and the Supreme Court never ruled on its constitutionality. In New York Times v. Sullivan, the Court declared “Although the Sedition Act was never tested in this Court, the attack upon its validity has carried the day in the court of history. ” 376 U. S. 254, 276 (1964). Modern view As a result of the jurisprudence of the Warren Court in the mid-to-late 20th century, the Court has moved towards a baseline default rule under which freedom of speech is generally presumed to be protected, unless a specific exception applies.

Therefore, apart from certain narrow exceptions, the government normally cannot regulate the content of speech. Associate Justice Thurgood Marshall cogently explained this in 1972: [A]bove all else, the First Amendment means that government has no power to restrict expression because of its message, its ideas, its subject matter, or its content. [Citations. ] To permit the continued building of our politics and culture, and to assure self-fulfillment for each individual, our people are guaranteed the right to express any thought, free from government censorship.

The essence of this forbidden censorship is content control. Any restriction on expressive activity because of its content would completely undercut the ‘profound national commitment to the principle that debate on public issues should be uninhibited, robust, and wide-open. ‘ [Citation. ][3] Types of speech Core political speech This is the most highly guarded form of speech because of its purely expressive nature and importance to a functional republic. Restrictions placed upon core political speech must weather strict scrutiny analysis or they will be struck down.

The primary exception to this rule would be within the context of the electoral process, whereby the Supreme Court has ruled that suffrage or standing for political office as a candidate are not political speech and thus can be subjected to significant regulations; such restrictions have been upheld in Buckley v. Valeo. Commercial speech Main article: Commercial speech Not wholly outside the protection of the First Amendment is speech motivated by profit. Such speech still has expressive value although it is being uttered in a marketplace ordinarily regulated by the state.

Restrictions of commercial speech are subject to a four-element intermediate scrutiny. (Central Hudson Gas ; Electric Corp. v. Public Service Commission) A June 2011 case casts doubt upon whether this category exists any more, or if it has been folded into the main category of speech. (Sorrell v. IMS Health)[4] Expressive conduct While freedom of expression by non-speech means is commonly thought to be protected under the First Amendment, the Supreme Court has only recently taken this view. As late as 1968 (United States v.

O’Brien) the Supreme Court stated that regulating non-speech can justify limitations on speech. The Court carried this distinction between speech and expression through the early part of the 1980s (Clark v. C. C. N. V. , 1984). It was not until the flag-burning cases of 1989 (Texas v. Johnson) and 1990 (United States v. Eichman), that the Supreme Court accepted that non-speech means applied to freedom of expression and freedom of speech. Types of speech restrictions The Supreme Court has recognized several different types of laws that restrict speech, and subjects each type of law to a different level of scrutiny.

Content-based restrictions Restrictions that require examining the content of speech to be applied must pass strict scrutiny. [citation needed] Restrictions that apply to certain viewpoints but not others face the highest level of scrutiny, and are usually overturned, unless they fall into one of the court’s special exceptions. An example of this is found in the United States Supreme Court’s decision in Legal Services Corp. v. Velazquez in 2001. In this case, the Court held that government subsidies cannot be used to discriminate against specific instance of viewpoint advocacy. The Court pointed out in Snyder v. Phelps (2011) that one way to ascertain whether a restriction is content-based versus content-neutral is to consider if the speaker had delivered a different message under exactly the same circumstances: “A group of parishioners standing at the very spot where Westboro stood, holding signs that said ‘God Bless America’ and ‘God Loves You,’ would not have been subjected to liability. It was what Westboro said that exposed it to tort damages. Time, place, or manner restrictions The free speech zone at the 2004 Democratic National Convention Freedom of speech is also sometimes limited to free speech zones, which can take the form of a wire fence enclosure, barricades, or an alternative venue designed to segregate speakers according to the content of their message. There is much controversy surrounding the creation of these areas – the mere existence of such zones is offensive to some people, who maintain that the First Amendment makes the entire country an unrestricted free speech zone. 5] Civil libertarians claim that Free Speech Zones are used as a form of censorship and public relations management to conceal the existence of popular opposition from the mass public and elected officials. [5] The Department of Homeland Security under the Bush Administration “ha[d] even gone so far as to tell local police departments to regard critics of the War on Terrorism as potential terrorists themselves. “[6][7] Time, place, or manner restrictions must withstand intermediate scrutiny.

Note that any regulations that would force speakers to change how or what they say do not fall into this category (so the government cannot restrict one medium even if it leaves open another). According to Ward v. Rock Against Racism, 491 U. S. 781 (1989), time, place, or manner restrictions must satisfy the following: 1. Be content neutral 2. Be narrowly tailored 3. Serve a significant governmental interest 4. Leave open ample alternative channels for communication Incidental burdens on speech See United States v. O’Brien. Prior restraint

If the government tries to restrain speech before it is spoken, as opposed to punishing it afterwards, it must: clearly define what’s illegal, cover the minimum speech necessary, make a quick decision, be backed up by a court, bear the burden of suing and proving the speech is illegal, and show that allowing the speech would “surely result in direct, immediate, and irreparable damage to our Nation and its people” (New York Times Co. v. United States). U. S. courts have not permitted most prior restraints since the case of Near v. Minnesota in 1931. Exclusions

Main article: United States free speech exceptions Incitement to crime Speech that presents imminent lawless action was originally banned under the clear and present danger test established by Schenck v. United States, but this test has since been replaced by the imminent lawless action test established in Brandenburg v. Ohio. The canonical example, enunciated by Justice Oliver Wendell Holmes, is falsely yelling “Fire! ” in a crowded movie theater (This example was authored in Schenck v. United States, but still passes the “imminent lawless action” test).

The trend since Holmes’s time has been to restrict the clear and present danger exception to apply to speech which is completely apolitical in content. Fighting words Inflammatory words that are either injurious by themselves or might cause the hearer to immediately retaliate or breach the peace. Use of such words is not necessarily protected “free speech” under the First Amendment. If the hearer is prosecuted for assault, claiming fighting words may establish mitigating circumstances. [8] True threats See Watts v. United States, Virginia v. Black. Obscenity

Obscenity, defined by the Miller test by applying contemporary community standards, is one exception. It is speech to which all the following apply: appeals to the prurient interest, depicts or describes sexual conduct in a patently offensive way, and lacks serious literary, artistic, political, or scientific value. (This is usually applied to more hard-core forms of pornography. ) Child pornography See New York v. Ferber. Torts Defamation Limits placed on libel and slander attach civil liability and have been upheld by the Supreme Court. The Court narrowed the definition of libel with the case of Hustler Magazine v.

Falwell made famous in the movie The People vs. Larry Flynt. Making false statements in “matters within the jurisdiction” of the federal government is also a crime. Invasion of privacy See Time, Inc. v. Hill. Intentional infliction of emotional distress See Hustler Magazine v. Falwell, Texas v. Johnson. Commercial speech Restrictions on commercial speech, defined as speech mainly in furtherance of selling a product, is subject to a lower level of scrutiny than other speech, although recently the court has taken steps to bring it closer to parity with other speech.

This is why the government can ban advertisements for cigarettes and false information on corporate prospectuses (which try to sell stock in a company). Political spending Campaign contributions See Buckley v. Valeo. Independent political expenditures See Citizens United v. Federal Election Commission Government speech The government speech doctrine establishes that the government may censor speech when the speech is its own, leading to a number of contentious decisions on its breadth. Public employee speech

Statements made by public employees pursuant to their official duties are not protected by the First Amendment from employer discipline as per the case of Garcetti v. Ceballos. This applies also to private contractors that have the government as a client. The First Amendment only protects employees from government employers albeit only when speaking publicly outside their official duties in the public interest Pickering v. Board of Ed. of Township High School Dist. Speech is not protected from private sector disciplinary action. 9] Student speech Main article: School speech (First Amendment) Original “BONG HITS FOR JESUS” banner now hanging in the Newseum in Washington, D. C. In Tinker v. Des Moines Independent Community School District (1969), the Supreme Court extended broad First Amendment protection to children attending public schools, prohibiting censorship unless there is “substantial interference with school discipline or the rights of others”. Several subsequent rulings have affirmed or narrowed this protection. Bethel School District v.

Fraser (1986) supported disciplinary action against a student whose campaign speech was filled with sexual innuendo, and determined to be “indecent” but not “obscene”. Hazelwood v. Kuhlmeier (1988) allowed censorship in school newspapers which had not been established as forums for free student expression. Guiles v. Marineau (2006) affirmed the right of a student to wear a T-shirt mocking President George W. Bush, including allegations of alcohol and drug use. Morse v. Frederick (2007) supported the suspension of a student holding a banner reading “BONG HiTS 4 JESUS” at a school-supervised event which was not on school grounds.

In Lowry v. Watson Chapel School District, an appeals court struck down a school dress code and literature distribution policy for being vague and unnecessarily prohibitive of criticism against the school district. [10] Such protections also apply to public colleges and universities; for example, student newspapers which have been established as forums for free expression have been granted broad protection by appeals courts. [11][12] In Lamb’s Chapel v. Center Moriches Union Free School District, 508 U. S. 84 (1993), the Supreme Court held (in a unanimous decision) that the Free Speech Clause of the First Amendment was offended by a school district that refused to allow a church access to school premises to show films dealing with family and child-rearing issues faced by parents. National security Military secrets Publishing, gathering, or collecting national security information is not protected speech in the United States. [13] Information related to “the national defense” is protected even though no harm to the national security is intended or is likely to be caused through its disclosure. 14] Non-military information with the potential to cause serious damage to the national security is only protected from willful disclosure with the requisite intent or knowledge regarding the potential harm. [14] The unauthorized creation, publication, sale, or transfer of photographs or sketches of vital defense installations or equipment as designated by the President is prohibited. [15] The knowing and willful disclosure of certain classified information is prohibited. [16] The unauthorized communication by anyone of “Restricted Data”, or an attempt or conspiracy to communicate such data, is prohibited. 17] It is prohibited for a person who learns of the identity of a covert agent through a “pattern of activities intended to identify and expose covert agents” to disclose the identity to any individual not authorized access to classified information, with reason to believe that such activities would impair U. S. foreign intelligence efforts. [18] In addition to the criminal penalties, the use of employment contracts, loss of government employment, monetary penalties, non-disclosure agreements, forfeiture of property, injunctions, revocation of passports, and prior restraint are used to deter such speech. 19] Inventions The Voluntary Tender Act of 1917 gave the Commissioner of Patents the authority to withhold certification from inventions that might harm U. S. national security, and to turn the invention over to the United States government for its own use. [20][21] It was replaced in 1951 with the Invention Secrecy Act which prevented inventors from publishing inventions or sharing the information. [22] Both attached criminal penalties to subjected inventors. [23] The United States was under a declared state of emergency from 1950–1974, after which peacetime secrecy orders were available. 24][25][26] The government issued between approximately 4,100 to 5,000 orders per year from 1959 to 1974, a peak of 6,193 orders in 1991, and approximately 5,200 per year between from 1991 to 2003. [26] Certain areas of research such as atomic energy and cryptography consistently fall within their gamut. [27] The government has placed secrecy orders on cold fusion, space technology, radar missile systems, and Citizens Band radio voice scramblers, and attempts have been made to extend them to optical-engineering research and vacuum technology. [27] Nuclear information

The Atomic Energy Act of 1954 automatically classifies “all data concerning (1) design, manufacture, or utilization of atomic weapons; (2) the production of special nuclear material; or (3) the use of special nuclear material in the production of energy”. [28] The government has attempted to censor publications regarding nuclear information in the Scientific American in 1950 and The Progressive in 1979. [29][28] Weapons Pub. L. 106–54 of 1999, a bill focused on phosphate prospecting and compensation due to the Menominee Indian Tribe, added 18 U.

S. C. § 842(p) making it an offence “to teach or demonstrate the making or use of an explosive, a destructive device, or a weapon of mass destruction, or to distribute by any means information pertaining to, in whole or in part, the manufacture or use of an explosive, destructive device, or weapon of mass destruction” either intending or knowing that the learner/viewer intends “that the teaching, demonstration, or information be used for, or in furtherance of, an activity that constitutes a Federal crime of violence”. 30][31] This is in addition to other federal laws preventing the use and dissemination of bombmaking information for criminal purposes. [32] The law was first successfully used against an 18 year old anarchist in 2003, for distribution of information which has since been republished freely. [33] Private actors A sign prompted by the Pruneyard case. A major issue in freedom of speech jurisprudence has been whether the First Amendment merely runs against state actors or whether it can run against private actors as well.

Specifically, the issue is whether private landowners should be permitted to utilize the machinery of government to exclude others from engaging in free speech on their property (which means balancing the speakers’ First Amendment rights against the Takings Clause). The right of freedom of speech within private shopping centers owned by others has been vigorously litigated under both the federal and state Constitutions, notably in the case Pruneyard Shopping Center v. Robins. Censorship Main article: Censorship in the United States

While personal freedom of speech is usually respected, freedom of press and mass publishing meet with some restrictions. Some of the recent issues include: * United States military censoring blogs written by military personnel * The Federal Communications Commission (FCC) censoring television and radio, citing obscenity, e. g. , Howard Stern and Opie and Anthony (Though the FCC only has the power to regulate over the air broadcasts and not cable or satellite television or satellite radio) See also Roth v. United States * Scientology suppressing criticism, citing freedom of religion, e. . , Keith Henson * Censoring of WikiLeaks at the Library of Congress As of 2002, the United States was ranked 17th of 167 countries in annual Worldwide Press Freedom Index by Reporters Without Borders. “The poor ranking of the United States (17th) is mainly because of the number of journalists arrested or imprisoned there. Arrests are often because they refuse to reveal their sources in court. Also, since the September 11 attacks, several journalists have been arrested for crossing security lines at some official buildings. In the 2006 index the United States fell further to 53rd of 168 countries; indeed, “relations between the media and the Bush administration sharply deteriorated” as it became suspicious of journalists who questioned the “war on terrorism”. The zeal of federal courts which, unlike those in 33 U. S. states, refuse to recognize the media’s right not to reveal its sources, even threatened journalists whose investigations did not pertain to terrorism. The United States improved, moving up to 48th place in 2007, however, and to 20th in 2010. Barack Obama’s election as president and the fact that he has a less hawkish approach than his predecessor have had a lot to do with this. “[34] Internet speech In a 9-0 decision, the Supreme Court extended the full protection of the First Amendment to the Internet in Reno v. ACLU, a decision which struck down portions of the 1996 Communications Decency Act, a law that prohibited “indecent” online communication (that is, non-obscene material protected by the First Amendment). The court’s decision extended the same Constitutional protections given to books, magazines, films, and spoken expression to materials published on the Internet.

Congress tried a second time to regulate the content of the Internet with the Child Online Protection Act (COPA). The Court again ruled that any limitations on the internet were unconstitutional in American Civil Liberties Union v. Ashcroft (2002). In United States v. American Library Association (2003) the Supreme Court ruled that Congress has the authority to require public schools and libraries receiving e-rate discounts to install filters as a condition of receiving federal funding.

The justices said that any First Amendment concerns were addressed by the provisions in the Children’s Internet Protection Act that permit adults to ask librarians to disable the filters or unblock individual sites. Freedom of speech by country From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia Jump to: navigation, search This article is about freedom of speech in specific jurisdictions. For the concept itself, see Freedom of speech. Part of a series on| Liberty| | Concepts| * Positive liberty * Negative liberty * Social liberty * Rights * Free will * Moral responsibility| By type| Academic * Civil * Economic * Intellectual * Morphological * Political * Scientific| By right| * Assembly * Association * Choice * Education * Information * Movement * Press * Religion * Public speech * Thought| * v * t * e| Part of a series on| Censorship| | Media regulation| * Books * Films * Internet * circumvention * Music * Post * Press * Radio * Speech and expression * Thought * Video games| Methods| Bleeping * Book burning * Broadcast delay * Burying of scholars * Censor bars * Chilling effect * Concision * Conspiracy of silence * Content-control software * Euphemism * Minced oath * Expurgation * Fogging * Gag order * Heckling * Internet police * Memory hole * National intranet * Newspaper theft * Pixelization * Prior restraint * Propoganda * Purge * Revisionism * Sanitization * Self-censorship * Speech code * Strategic lawsuit * Verbal offence * Whitewashing * Word filtering * Damnatio memoriae| Contexts| Blasphemy * Criminal * Corporate * Hate speech * Ideological * Media bias * Moralistic fallacy * Naturalistic fallacy * Politics * Religion * Suppression of dissent * Systemic bias| By country| * Censorship * Freedom of speech * Internet censorship| * v * t * e| Freedom of speech is the concept of the inherent human right to voice one’s opinion publicly without fear of censorship or punishment. “Speech” is not limited to public speaking and is generally taken to include other forms of expression.

The right is preserved in the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights and is granted formal recognition by the laws of most nations. Nonetheless the degree to which the right is upheld in practice varies greatly from one nation to another. In many nations, particularly those with relatively authoritarian forms of government, overt government censorship is enforced. Censorship has also been claimed to occur in other forms (see propaganda model) and there are different approaches to issues such as hate speech, obscenity, and defamation laws even in countries seen as liberal democracies.

Contents * 1 International law * 2 African continent * 2. 1 South Africa * 2. 2 Sudan * 3 Asia * 3. 1 Hong Kong * 3. 2 India * 3. 3 Indonesia * 3. 4 Iran * 3. 5 Japan * 3. 6 Malaysia * 3. 7 Pakistan * 3. 8 People’s Republic of China (mainland) * 3. 9 Philippines * 3. 10 Saudi Arabia * 3. 11 South Korea * 3. 12 Thailand * 4 Australia * 5 Europe * 5. 1 Council of Europe * 5. 2 European Union * 5. 2. 1 Czech Republic * 5. 2. 2 Denmark * 5. 2. France * 5. 2. 4 Germany * 5. 2. 5 Greece * 5. 2. 6 Hungary * 5. 2. 7 Ireland * 5. 2. 8 Italy * 5. 2. 9 Malta * 5. 2. 10 The Netherlands * 5. 2. 11 Poland * 5. 2. 12 Sweden * 5. 2. 13 United Kingdom * 5. 3 Norway * 5. 4 Switzerland * 5. 5 Turkey * 6 North America * 6. 1 Cuba * 6. 2 Canada * 6. 3 United States * 7 South America * 7. 1 Brazil * 8 See also * 9 References * 10 Further reading * 11 External links| International law Wikisource has original text related to this article: Universal Declaration of Human Rights| Main article: Freedom of speech (international) The United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, adopted in 1948, provides, in Article 19, that: Everyone has the right to freedom of opinion and expression; this right includes freedom to hold opinions without interference and to seek, receive and impart information and ideas through any media and regardless of frontiers. [1] Technically, as a resolution of the United Nations General Assembly rather than a treaty, it is not legally binding in its entirety on members of the UN.

Furthermore, whilst some of its provisions are considered to form part of customary international law, there is dispute as to which. Freedom of speech is granted unambiguous protection in international law by the International Covenant on Civil and Political Rights which is binding on around 150 nations. In adopting the United Nations Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Ireland, Italy, Luxembourg, Monaco, Australia and the Netherlands insisted on reservations to Article 19 insofar as it might be held to affect their systems of regulating and licensing broadcasting. 2] African continent Protesters use freedom of speech to hold a vigil in front of the Zimbabwean Embassy in London, 2005. The majority of African constitutions provide legal protection for freedom of speech. However, these rights are exercised inconsistently in practice. The replacement of authoritarian regimes in Kenya and Ghana has substantially improved the situation in those countries. On the other hand, Eritrea allows no independent media and uses draft evasion as a pretext to crack down on any dissent, spoken or otherwise.

One of the poorest and smallest nations in Africa, Eritrea is now the largest prison for journalists; since 2001, fourteen journalists have been imprisoned in unknown places without a trial. Sudan, Libya, and Equatorial Guinea also have repressive laws and practices. In addition, many state radio stations (which are the primary source of news for illiterate people) are under tight control and programs, especially talk shows providing a forum to complain about the government, are often censored. Also countries like Somalia and Egypt provide legal protection for freedom of speech but it is not used publicly.

See also: Censorship in Algeria, Censorship in Tunisia. South Africa South Africa is probably the most liberal in granting freedom of speech, however in light of South Africa’s racial and discriminatory history, particularly the Apartheid era, the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa of 1996 precludes expression that is tantamount to the advocacy of hatred based on some listed grounds. [3] Freedom of speech and expression are both protected and limited by a section in the South African Bill of Rights, chapter 2 of the Constitution.

Section 16 makes the following provisions: § 16 Freedom of expression (1) Everyone has the right to freedom of expression, which includes- (a) freedom of the press and other media; (b) freedom to receive or impart information or ideas; (c) freedom of artistic creativity; and (d) academic freedom and freedom of scientific research. (2) The right in subsection (1) does not extend to- (a) propaganda for war; (b) incitement of imminent violence; or (c) advocacy of hatred that is based on race, ethnicity, gender or religion, and that constitutes incitement to cause harm.

In 2005, the South African Constitutional Court set an international precedent in the case of Laugh It Off Promotions CC v South African Breweries International when it found that the small culture jamming company Laugh-it-Off’s right to freedom of expression outweighs the protection of trademark of the world’s second largest brewery. [4] Sudan Blasphemy against religion is illegal in Sudan under Blasphemy laws. [5] Asia Several Asian countries provide formal legal guarantees of freedom of speech to their citizens. These are not, however, implemented in practice in some countries.

Countries such as Myanmar, North Korea and some Central Asian Republics are reported to brutally repress freedom of speech. [citation needed] Freedom of speech has improved somewhat in the People’s Republic of China in recent years,[citation needed] but the level of free expression is still far from that of Western nations. There is no clear correlation between legal and constitutional guarantees of freedom of speech and actual practices among Asian nations. Hong Kong Under Hong Kong Basic Law, * Hong Kong residents shall have freedom of speech. [6] The freedom of the person of Hong Kong residents shall be inviolable. [7] * The freedom and privacy of communication of Hong Kong residents shall be protected by law. [8] India Main article: Freedom of press in India See also: Censorship in India The Indian Constitution guarantees freedom of speech to every citizen and there have been landmark cases in the Indian Supreme Court that have affirmed the nation’s policy of allowing free press and freedom of expression to every citizen. In India, citizens are free to criticize politics, politicians, bureaucracy and policies.

The freedoms are comparable to those in the United States and Western European democracies. Article 19 of the Indian constitution states that: All citizens shall have the right — 1. to freedom of speech and expression; 2. to assemble peaceably and without arms; 3. to form associations or unions; 4. to move freely throughout the territory of India; 5. to reside and settle in any part of the territory of India; and 6. to practise any profession, or to carry on any occupation, trade or business. [9] These rights are limited so as not to effect: * The integrity of India * The security of the State Friendly relations wi

Delivering a Persuasive Speech Douglas A. Parker August 13, 2001 | Amazon Products | |Subject(s):  Language Arts/Reading and Public Speaking |Links of Note | |[pic] | |Overview:   Students need to understand that how they say something and how they physically present |Persuasive Essay Topics form| | | |themselves are just as important as what they say.

By understanding the dynamics involved in effective |Curious Castle Classroom. | | | |persuasive speaking, students will improve their overall confidence in communicating. | | | | |Purpose:  The purpose of this lesson is to improve students’ oral persuasion techniques by understanding |Writing the Persuasive | | | |the appropriate speaking skills.

The lesson is presented in second person, making it more meaningful as a |EssayCurious Castle | | | |resource for the students, and easier for the teacher to use as a handout. |Classroom | | | |Objectives:   Students will be able to: | | | | |1) Demonstrate the appropriate classroom public speaking and listening skills (e. . , body language, |[pic]  | | | |articulation, listening to be able to identify specific examples of the speaker’s coordination of talking |[pic] | | | |and action) that would be necessary to influence or change someone’s mind or way of thinking about a | | | | |topic. | | | |2) Define the elements of persuasion. | | | | |3) Recognize the elements of personal credibility. | | | | |4) Develop methods to analyze other students’ speeches. | | | | |5) Understand outlining main ideas. | | | |6) Create a persuasive speech. | | | | |Resources/Materials: Teacher-prepared topics for persuasive speeches. | | | | |Assessments:    The Class will assess each speaker’s performance in terms of voice and body coordination, | | | | |and in terms of persuasiveness.

Each class can develop performance assessments such as rubrics to | | | | |facilitate this process. | | | | |Teacher’s Anticipatory Set: | | | | |During class discussion, define and explain how people make decisions based on what they see and hear. | | | |Explain that sometimes we have to use skills to convince others about our positions. Have the students | | | | |recall and list their own experiences trying to convince their friends about something, and then ask them | | | | |to share these with the class. | | | |  | | | | |Activities and Procedures:  Delivering a Persuasive Speech  | | | | |  | | | | |The Procedure | | | | |Pick a proposition that not everyone would agree with such as: “nuclear power plants are superior energy | | | | |sources. ”  Write a 6 to 8 – minute speech in outline form to persuade the group. | | | | |The Lesson: Your Voice and Body are Your Best Tools | | | | |You are a natural persuader! You have done it all your life.

Every time you enter a conversation, you | | | | |engage in elementary persuasion techniques. It is true, that any time you make a statement of fact, you | | | | |are asserting its validity and assuming that your listener agrees. | | | | |This speech goes further than a normal conversational assertion: now you have to assume that not everyone | | | | |will agree with you from the start, and it is your job to make them see things your way.

The goal of this | | | | |speech is to change someone’s mind or way of thinking about a topic. This is not a speech to sell, as you | | | | |do not ask that the listener do anything except to agree with you or to begin to listen to your way of | | | | |thinking. Your message is, of course, very important in this speech, but your voice and body language are | | | | |even more important. Here you will see how your delivery can help. | | | |There are several important aspects of presentation to keep in mind: | | | | |1) Body language – make sure that you have a proper posture. If your shoulders are sagging and your legs | | | | |are crossed, you will not appear as being sincere and people just will not accept your message. | | | | |2) Articulation – articulation means how your total vocal process works. There are several steps to this | | | | |entire process.

First, you need air from the lungs, your vocal cords in your larynx must be working, your | | | | |mouth and tongue must be in sync, and you have to make sure that you have got some saliva in your mouth to | | | | |keep things oiled. You should be aware of your physical makeup to be able to understand how you speak. | | | | |3) Pronunciation – pronounce each word. Avoid slang, except to make a point, and do not slur your words. | | | | |Avoid saying, “you know. | | | | |4) Pitch – pitch refers to the highs and lows of your voice. Whatever you do, avoid a monotone! | | | | |5) Speed – your speed, or pace, is an important variable to control. Between 140-160 words per minute is | | | | |the normal pace for a persuasive speech. Any faster and you may appear to be glib; any slower and you | | | | |sound like you are lecturing.

If you are not sure about your speed, tape yourself for one minute and then | | | | |replay it and count the number of words you used in the minute! The human ear and brain can compile and | | | | |decode over 400 spoken words per minute, so if you are going too slow your listeners’ minds are going to | | | | |start to wander as the brains finds other ways to keep themselves occupied. | | | | |6) Pauses – the pause, or caesura, is a critical persuasive tool. When you want to emphasize a certain | | | | |word, just pause for one second before; this highlights the word.

If you really want to punch it, pause | | | | |before and after the word! | | | | |7) Volume – volume is another good tool for persuasive speech, but you should use it with caution. If you | | | | |scream all the way through your speech, people will become accustomed to it and it will lose its | | | | |effectiveness. On the other hand, a few well-timed shouts can liven up the old speech! Try to “project” | | | | |or throw your voice out over the entire group – speak to the last row. | | | |8) Quality – quality of voice is gauged by the overall impact that your voice has on your listeners. | | | | |Quality of voice is the net caliber of your voice, its character and attributes. Try to keep your vocal | | | | |quality high; it is what separates your voice from everyone else’s. | | | | |9) Variance – variance of vocal elements is your most important consideration of all! One of the most | | | | |persuasive speakers in modern history was Winston Churchill.

One of his most remarkable qualities was his | | | | |ability to vary the elements of his voice. He would start with a slow, laconic voice and then switch gears| | | | |to a more rapid pace. People were light-headed after listening to him! Even if you have no desire to run | | | | |for political office, you can still use the tools of variance. Change your pitch, volume, and speed at | | | | |least once every 30 seconds, if only for just one word. Never go more than one paragraph without a vocal | | | | |variance.

This keeps your group locked into your speech, if for no other reason than it sounds | | | | |interesting! Let the words speak for themselves; reflect their nature through your voice. If you use the | | | | |word “strangle,” say it with a hint of menace in your voice. If you say the word “heave,” let the group | | | | |feel the onomatopoeic force behind it. If you say the word “bulldozer,” make it sound like a titan | | | | |earthmover, not like a baby with a shovel. | | | |The Strategy: Appear Rational | | | | |When you are trying to convince someone of something, you must first establish your credibility, or in | | | | |other words, you must sell yourself before you sell your message. If people feel that you are not being | | | | |reasonable or rational, you do not stand a chance. You must be committed to the ideals and goals of your | | | | |speech and what you are saying. Do not use words such as “maybe” or “might”- use positive words such as | | | | |”will” and “must.   | | | | |You are the authority figure in this speech, so you had better supply enough information to prove your | | | | |points so that you can seem knowledgeable, and you had better know your material cold. People can usually | | | | |spot someone who is trying to “wing” a speech. You should also appear to be truthful -even when you are | | | | |really stretching a point. If you do not appear to be earnest, even if your message is the 100% truth, | | | | |people will doubt your word and tune out your speech. | | | |Lastly, do not be afraid to show a little emotion – this is not a sterile or static speech. Your body and | | | | |voice must match the tone of your words. If your language is strong, you must present a physical force to | | | | |go along with your delivery. | | | | |The Comments and Goals | | | | |Self-control? | | | | |You cannot sit back and let your words do all of the talking.

You must use your total self to deliver your| | | | |message, and this means that you will have to expose a little of your personality to the group. Your group| | | | |will be supportive. | | | | |The Group Reaction | | | | |The group has two major criteria to consider after each member’s speech. First, the delivery. Were the | | | | |speaker’s body, words, and actions in synchronization and harmony? Did one support the other or was there | | | | |tension between the body and the voice?

Secondly, were you persuaded? Why or why not? Discuss what makes| | | | |a persuasive speech work and how the intangibles effect a positive outcome. | | | | |More Information? | | | | |For more information and help with public speaking, contact:  | | | | |http://capital. net/~bps2/  | |

Interpretation by Arkadiy Kurakin The story of Herbert Ernest Bates “The Beauty of the Dead”. The story is a unit of literary fiction. The author uses different expressive means and stylistic devices to show the reader the idea of the story, such as epithets, metaphor, similar, oxymoron, irony, hyperbola, understatement, etc. The protagonist of this story is Mr. Grimshaw. This is a complex character, reticent, gloomy. His surname is rather significant.

The adjective “grim” means harsh, merciless, severe; ghastly, joyless, sinister (has a grim truth in it); unpleasant, unattractive. – expresses here the impression to be made by him on a reader. We can see his mercilessness from the following phrase: he turned with satisfaction to look at his wife, who lay dying on the bed. From his interaction with the minor character it occurs that though his relative consider him to be another, he is so a man that his name gives our an impression.

The most important action of the protagonist is his inner thoughts, his choice in using sudden circumstances, his impulse to go through all the events happened. The minor characters is his wife. We do not know and the author do not let us know her name and it is significant because her name is of no account as her character is weak-willed, dull and infirm. What why he doesn’t care about her inner world and doesn’t interpret her as a person. Stylistic Analysis

The story “The Beauty of the Dead” by Herbert Ernest Bates is casual in its subject-matter, describing a particular place at a particular time. In analysing this story we must point out its three main features: 1) the effect of striking concreteness and simplicity; 2) the impression of a melancholy meditating tone; 3) the implication suggested by the author as the ultimate stylistic effect. These three peculiarities are linked and interwoven to produce a joint impression, the EMs and SDs of the story are aimed at achieving the desired effect.

SDs used in describing the picture are aimed at arousing a concrete image: epithets “yellow”, “grassy”, metonymical periphrasis “wanted wear” and “no step had trodden black” suggesting paths which are seldom used. A careful and inclusive analysis must consider linguistic items at various levels, as all stylistically significant features form a complex. The impression of colloquial intonation of reminiscence is mainly created in the story through enjambment. The pause in the middle of the line (see the third lines in the first and the last stanzas) makes the tone of the lines natural and meditating.

The combination of the SDs of enjambment and anadiplosis (the repetition of the pronoun “I” at the end of the line and at the beginning of the next line) in the last stanza produces the impression of a kind of afterthought uttered quite naturally after a pause: Lexical EMs and SDs emphasise the melancholy tone of the story. This SD is that of antonomasia. The proper name is substituted by a common noun which stands in certain relations to the name. Beatrice in her reply to Benedick treats the word “disdain” as a living being ascribing to it human qualities.

Hence here we have the SD of personification. Stylistic Analysis This story is one of Hemingway’s masterpieces. It gives a deep insight into human nature and a true picture of contemporary social and family relations in bourgeois society. The writer leaves the surface comparatively bare: the meaning is plain and simple. The impression of simplicity which strikes the reader from the first is brought out not only by the plain dialogues, the common matter-of-fact events at the beginning of the story but by the language itself.

A close study of the story for the purposes of examining its style involves a careful observation and a detailed description of the language phenomena at various levels. The text of the story is not homogeneous: the author’s narration is interrupted by the dialogues of the characters; inner thoughts of come characters (mostly Wilson’s) are imperceptibly interwoven with the narration. A rigorous analysis of the vocabulary of the story clearly shows that the author employs common words in his narration and a restricted number of colloquial words in the dialogue and represented speech.

Here are some examples of colloquial words: “… ”. In many instances the reader sees that the number of synonyms is deliberately restricted. Note the use of verbs of communication (“to say” and its synonyms) times; “to tell” — 3; “to ask” — 2; “to speak”, “to agree”— once each. No other verb of communication is used. Besides, the author does not usually add any adverbial modifier to show the manner in which the character speaks. See the first page where the author plainly states “”. The impression of impassive matter-of-fact narration is brought out also by a very limited use of words denoting feelings.

On the first pages we can find only the following words: “pretending”, “in triumph”, “smiled”, “liked”, Author’s scrupulous attention to minute details adds to the matter-of-fact and logical tone of the story. Underneath this simple exterior of restraint there lies a rich treasure of suggestions and implications. The very structure of the story adds to the effect of implication but the actual meaning of what is going on is not clear at the beginning of the story, as the feelings suggested by the writer are not precisely determined.

The reader however feels that something has happened and that the characters are strained and full of hidden apprehension and suppressed emotions. The effect of implication (???????????????? ?????????) and suspense (????????????????) is brought about in various ways, firstly by the direct means of stating that something has happened but not revealing what. Observe the repetition of the word “happen”. Note the word “pretending” which characterises from the start the atmosphere of suppressed emotion.

Note the various cases of logical periphrasis used by the characters to say in a round-about way what happened that morning. The reader is kept in constant suspense: “the whole thing”; “about it”; “that lion business”; “something like today”. Observe also the repeated use of the verb “to forget” stressing the intention of the speaker not to think of some unpleasant fact; the verb “to forget” is used four times and its contextual synonym “to drop” — twice. The hints and suggestive remarks uttered by the characters in their seemingly plain unpretentious dialogues are very effective in their implication.

The effect of implication and suspense is brought about indirectly too: The macro-context that comes after these words affects them and determines their meaning. The peculiar use of the verbs “to look” and “to smile” may also be regarded as an indirect means of creating the effect of implication. However additional contextual meaning and emotive colouring is received mainly from the macrocontext. This manner of describing the character’s reaction and emotions by presenting simple external actions may be considered a specific SD—metonymical description which is realised only in the macrocontext.

The SD of metonymical description makes the reader supply what is missing and creates the effect of implication. This is one of the ways in which Hemingway employs his “iceberg principle”: “I leave out what I know but knowledge is what makes the underwater part of the iceberg,” writes Hemingway. In a similar way the writer uses the verb “to smile”: the implication conveyed by this verb is also brought out in the macrocontext. The role of the macrocontext in Hemingway’s story is of utmost importance. Note instances where the verb “to smile” is used: “

So author’s story devoid at the beginning of any apparent emotional colouring, of any apparent expression of the characters’ feelings is impassive and matter-of-fact only on the surface whereas beneath the surface can be found intense emotions, meditations, sufferings. Note that the feelings and emotional reactions of Mrs. Macomber and Wilson are mostly conveyed by this means. Note the role of repetition in heightening the impression of growing fear: the word “fear” is used here twice, and the word “afraid” is repeated three times.

One more note about author’s usage of words and how it is related to the description of his characters. The impartial tone and the absence of emotive words in describing Mrs. Macomber may be accounted for by two reasons: the writer’s principle to leave the surface comparatively bare of any emotion, and the desire to emphasise the woman’s nature by choosing relevant words and expressions (note the writer’s way to explain her purpose for desiring to marry again — “to better herself”). Analyse the use of the adjectives “red” and “blue” in the story.

Similarly, the adjective “blue” is affected by the surrounding words (it is constantly used in such combinations as “cold blue eyes”, “his flat, blue, machinegunner’s eyes”) and had acquired an additional contextual meaning making it an epithet in the macrocontext. It is the macrocontext that determines the meanings of some words and suggests their implication in author’s story, and therefore should not be underestimated. The grammatical peculiarities of the story serve the basic stylistic purpose — that of giving the impression of simplicity and mpartiality on the one hand, and creating implication and emotional tension, on the other. Long sentences which are so characteristic of the author’s narration in the story do not produce a sense of complexity. On the contrary, the long sentences give the illusion of simplicity. The impression of simplicity is generally maintained by a peculiar sentence structure. The most striking feature which is easily observed is the repetition of one and the same conjunction within the sentence. Read this sentence: ” ” Similar structures can be seen on the same page: “ ” The use of one and the same conjunction and one and the ame type of subordinate clause within the sentence (a complex sentence with successive subordination) creates a monotonous analogous description where the author seems concerned only with presenting a bare enumeration of details. It is interesting to point out that folklore contains clear-cut structures of this type with successive subordination as in the well-known nursery rhyme “This is the house that Jack built… “. The established syntactical pattern which is repeated within the sentence is a stylistically significant feature in the story leading to a seeming lack of variety and maintaining the effect of simplicity.

Note that this holds true not only of the sentence-structure but to a larger extent of the paragraph-structure. The established pattern (or patterns) is repeated with a slight variation throughout the paragraph giving the impression of analogy and logic in structure. Read the paragraph on p. XX beginning: “ ” The predominant sentence-type in the above paragraph is the complex sentence with a subordinate clause of time. The conjunction “when” is repeated five times, the conjunctions “while” and “before” are used once each. The paragraph being a unity of ideas presents in the story a striking unity of syntactic structure.

There is no conspicuous topic sentence, the paragraph gives a series of details or actions which go on and on, as if the writer assumes that his readers want only to learn as quickly and easily as possible what happens. The unity of the paragraph manifests itself in the established syntactical pattern used throughout the whole of the paragraph and in the one and the same conjunction. Repetition assumes in the story various structural forms. Catch-word repetition (anadiplosis) is frequently used giving the impression of plain, logical structure: “Margot looked at them both and they both saw that she was going to cry. “But more than shame he felt cold, hollow fear in him. The fear was still there… “. Note that anadiplosis produces the effect of a “chain-pattern” structure similar to that produced by successive subordination often used in the story. Anadiplosis is sometimes employed to connect successive paragraphs. The dominant conjunction which is employed frequently and variously in the story is “and”. The repetition of the conjunction “and” usually maintains parallelism and rhythm: “” The effect of a rhythmical arrangement is heightened in this example by alliteration at the end of the paragraph.

Suspense which is the basic compositional feature of the story manifests itself in the structure of most paragraphs. Read the paragraph by which the first part of the story culminates: “” Note that the paragraph tends toward balanced structure for the sake of contrast: “Macomber did not know… ,” “Wilson knew… “. The repeated use of the words “knew”, “did not know” adds to the effect of contrast and gives the impression of a certain established pattern of the paragraph.

Observe that parallel constructions are interrupted by inserting modifiers (three instances of subordinate clause of time introduced by “before”, “when”, “when”) and some other relevant detail. Syntactical parallelism supported and intensified by lexical repetition (four instances of “know”; “nor … nor”; “when, when … “; “how, how … “) lends an unmistakable rhythm to the passage. Note that the length of sentences and clauses is shortened and the number of inserted details is lessened by the end of the paragraph and so causing a change in rhythm: from a slow, even rhythm to a rapid, excited rhythm.

This change of rhythm heightens the emotional tension and reinforces the implication suggested by the last unexpected sentence of the paragraph: “He did not know how his wife felt except that she was through with him. ” The repeated words do not assume any definite compositional pattern, such a simple scattered repetition contributes to the impression of a colloquial simplicity of narration: “” The principle of repetition which reveals itself in the use of the established syntactic pattern and the repetition of one and the same conjunction often leads to the SD of cumulation: “” The clash between the yntactical analogy and semantic distance in the SD of cumulation brings about the effect of implication and hints at the real relations of the characters. All these similar features contribute to the impression of parallelism in the structure of the paragraph. Cumulation is striking as the clash between the grammatical identity and semantic difference is sudden and strong. Cumulation gives rise to implication and presents the first obvious hint at what happened before the story began. The main dramatic force is achieved by syntax — by the writer’s masterly utilisation of the resources concealed in the syntactic structure of the language.

Stylistic tendencies and peculiarities of the story manifest themselves in the passage most intensely and palpably. The passage tends to rhythmical structure: parallel constructions, various types of repetition, a peculiar scheme of sense-group division — all contribute to this impression. All these features lend balance to the passage. A change in rhythm from slow to rapid reinforces the effect of suspense and climax. Suspense is created by a number of interrupting but relevant details postponing the completion of the thought.

The length of the interrupting phrases and coordinate clauses is shortened by the end of the passage (note once again that the last three clauses contain two sense-groups while the first four — three or six) and causing a change in rhythm adds to emotional tension. The sentences are not so long, not so fragmentary, the relevant details are not so numerous. Note that some details are repeated (“like slate” — “like hitting a slate roof”). The rhythm of the paragraph is even and quiet giving the impression of an impassionate description.

The paragraph may be regarded as a kind of comment on what happened. Note the use of the Past Perfect which plainly refers the actions to those which have been mentioned. The idea of suspense and the effect of implication is masterfully revealed at the end of the story — the writer does not say plainly whether it was an accident or murder. The writer presents only a sequence of outward actions and the reader is left to imagine more than the words themselves convey. Assignments for Stylistic Analysis: 1. Speak on the subject-matter and the idea of the story. . Analyse the structure of the poem (its stanzas, rhythm, rhymes), note instances of enjambment and speak on its stylistic function. 3. What characters of the novel are described in the passage and what does the reader learn about them? 4. Who are the major and minor character/s? Describe them shortly. 5. What impression do you get from the protagonist? Discuss his/her character and his/her views as they are revealed through his/her speech. Describe the protagonist’s state of hopelessness and frustration. Comment on the protagonist’s words: “”. 6.

Analyse the direct speech and speak on its peculiarities. 7. Discuss the meaning of the saying: “” and comment on its stylistic peculiarity. Say why he/she uses it. Speak on the way he/she interprets the above mentioned saying. What SD is used by him? 8. Find cases of periphrasis in her speech and speak of their function. 9. Discuss she attitude towards the situation, comment on lexical and phonetic EMs and SDs used in her speech and speak of the effect achieved through the use of these devices. 10. Pick out various types of metaphors and comment on their stylistic effect. 1. Comment on the meaning and stylistic peculiarities of some lines. 12. Dwell on the implication suggested by the author. 13. Pick out epithets, state their types and structure and speak on their stylistic function. 14. Comment on the exclamatory sentence 15. How do you account for the sudden transmission from literary vocabulary mostly used by the author (“under the auspices”, etc. ) to the colloquial words (“a confounded quarrelsome highbred jade”)? What stylistic effect is achieved by this device? 16. Comment on the stylistic effect of the rhetorical question: 17.

Speak on the author’s attitude towards the society he describes. Pay attention to the EMs and SDs employed by the author (note the vocabulary of the passage, metaphors, metonymies, allusions, rhetorical questions and their stylistic function). 18. Speak on the scene and the characters introduced in the excerpt and SDs used to describe them. 19. Find various forms of repetition in the author’s narration: the repetition of a sound (alliteration); of a conjunction (polysyndeton); of a notional word; of a syntactical pattern (parallelism) and speak on the role of repetition in the structure of a paragraph. 0. Analyse the SD of repetition from the point of view of its compositional design (anaphora, anadiplosis etc. ); note what kind of repetition prevails in the excerpt; speak on the stylistic functions of repetition. 21. Take the Xth paragraph for rigorous analysis; in doing so dwell on the following points: 1) the main thought of the paragraph and the way it is developed; 2) the SD of polysyndeton; 3) the metaphor, the way it is prolonged and the stylistic effect achieved; 4) represented speech, its type and stylistic function; 5) antithesis as the culmination point of the paragraph. 2. Comment on the different ways author manipulates with the remarks of the characters. 23. Summing up the analysis of the chapter pick out all passages where the author’s ironic or sarcastic attitude towards high society and its corrupt morality is acutely felt and analyse the main SDs used to achieve this effect. 24. Summing up the analysis of the chapter/extract/passage/story, speak on the allegoric character of the story and on various SDs used to make the particular effect..

Communication is not just what you say. It is the tone of voice that you are using and the way you portray how you are feeling, for instance the way that you are standing will indicate how you are feeling towards whoever was with you if you were relaxed and open you would be standing with your head up and arms relaxed. If you were upset or didn’t want to talk then you’d be stood there with your head down and arms folded across your chest.

Eye contact is important and in the UK the majority of people look at each other for 70% of the conversation whereas in Japan they only look at one another for 50% of the time. Your confidence is shown in your eye contact if you are walking down a street with your head held high and briefly meet others eyes it shows that you are confident in yourself and what you are doing.

Only a small part of communication is what you are actually saying this can make it complicated when you are communicating with others as what you are saying will mean perfect sense to you but it may be interpreted to mean something completely different.

In most cases the tone of your voice is either taken for granted or perceived unconsciously. The tone of how you say something is 38% of the way that you communicate. 55% is non verbal communication and what you say is only 7%. This shows that awareness of the appropriate tone and good voice control this is important for all care workers.

Communication skills are a vital and necessary to have in any care setting. If you have good communication skills you can make sure that you get every thing done as efficiently and effetely as possible.

Also when you are dealing with people in a social care environment you will need to make sure that they understand what you are saying or meaning, you have to build a trusting relationship with your clients and make sure that they are at ease, this is because you might be dealing with vulnerable people, the elderly or people with learning difficulties.

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To meet you client’s needs you would help with housing, washing, shopping or with anything else that the individual may need. Some of the elderly clients may be suffering with dementia. This may result in them acting in an unpredictable way.

The medical side is different although communication is just as fundamental, as you may have to find something important out quickly to prevent further distress to the patient.

When you go and visit you doctor you only have a 10 minute time slot and in them 10 minutes your GP has to find out what is wrong explain and give you treatment. This would not happen if you and your doctor could not communicate properly. Your patients will be aware of your body language so you need to show them that you are comfortable and that you want to hear what they have to say; also you need to show them that what they are saying is important. So eye contact and openness is vital. You don’t want to be sat typing away at your computer when your patient arrives as that automatically says you have something more important to do other then greeting them. Also when people are in pain or ill they tend to become emotional and anxious. Then as the health professional it is your job to make sure that you have the situation under control. A GP or any other health professional needs to make sure that they use the correct type of tone this is make sure that the patient feels comfortable and valued also by using the appropriate tone you can make yourself sound interested, caring and encouraging.

Effective communication is central to a good working practice of all early years’ professionals and relationships with children and their families/carers may be impaired without it. Communication involves a successful exchange of information from one person to another.

When working with the early years you have to take in to account of their age and their understanding level. You can not expect a child of 3 to understand eye contact or subtle body language. You need to make sure that you are communicating to them on their understanding level not yours. You will also have to compromise for their lack of speech and their unpredictability when they cant communicate with you. So for communication to be successful it needs to meat the needs of both speakers and any breakdown will result in a lack of communication taking place

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Oral communication would be one of the most important ways of communicating in the social, medical and early years setting, as within these settings you have to build up a trusting professional relationship. That advantage to oral communication is that you can exchange information quickly. The service provider can explain situations and answer any questions that may arise. When speaking with someone you can make sure that whoever you are communicating with understand what you are saying. Also if necessary and appropriate you can comfort if what you are saying is distressing.

In a social setting oral communication is vital for a nurse as she not only has to be able to communicate efficiently and for the best of her clients she has to be able to hand over their information correctly to the next shift of nurses if she was to get this wrong it may jeopardise the patient. Also with oral communication you can nominally tell how your clients are feeling if they have a quite tone then it may be that they are depressed, feeling sad or passiveness. If they had a loud or excited tone this could mean that they were fearful, feeling angry or aggressive. Skilled care workers can pick this up and act appropriately.

It is an important role of a care worker to be able to understand, relay and gather information not just with the patients but also with her work team. On a typical day a nurse would have to record what medication was given, the amount and the time it was administered she would do this so she could pass it on to other nurses so they are aware of the medication that, the patient has had. Communication can fail if there is a lack of knowledge this could leave the people involved feeling inadequate.

Communicating orally in an early year’s environment can be demanding and frustrating. You not only have to build up trusting relationship and understanding with the children you also need to do this with their parents/carers and the rest of your team.

When communicating with young children they may not always understand what you are saying to them but the can hear your tone of voice and the tone of voice used conveys a message to the child which at times be the wrong message.

For example. To ask a child “what are you doing” may be interpreted by a child as a negative question if the tone of voice is wrong.

When you are talking to young children and are asking questions or giving guidance you need to do so in a clear voice and in bite size pieces. Like “go and get your shoes” not “go out the hall into the shoe area find your shoes and put them on. Then come back to me” this is because their understanding level is lower then yours and the short term memory only last for 30 seconds and by the time they have left the room they would have forgotten.

When talking to parent/carer you need to establish whether they would prefer you to communicate with them in an informal or formal way. This is the register of language. Some parents and most certainly the children will prefer you to great them in an informal way as this may put them at ease.

Within a medical setting you need to remember to use the correct type of language (register of language) formal language would be better unless requested from the patient. If a medical receptionist was informal then the patient may think that are being disrespected.

As a GP you will communicate aurally most of the time to you patients this mean that the GP has the advantage that the tone of voice can betray how the patient is feeling emotionally and if relevant the GP may be able to help or refer them to another source. This is the GP taking care of his patient’s emotional and physical wellbeing. As a GP you will have to work and communicate with people that have different styles of speaking such as ethic groups and people that come from different work and culture settings.

Verbal communication for a nurse at A+E is about buliding a relationship quickly with all types of people from all walks of life they have to be calm so she needs to have gained their trust. Also they have to exchange information to one another. Nurses and paramedics use a pain scale asking how bad the pain is from 1 to 10 this is especially good for children as they cant always describe what pain they are in.

Written communication in any organised setting is one of the most important factors. This is because of keeping records. Getting the right support for your clients. Without written communication you would not be able to do this.

In social care setting it may not be the choice of some of your clients. If you have clients that are profoundly deaf or very hard of hearing it would be more appropriate and polite to send them a letter rather then ringing them.

There would be little point of finding out effective way to communicate with a client and then not making an accurate record so that other people can also communicate with that person.

The type of things that you would record as a care worker would be what problems your clients have how it affects them both emotionally and physically. What action should be taken by yourself and others. Always add the date and whether you administered medication, and any other day to day things that you do.

Most of the written communication will be between you and your colleges on a professional basis. You will mainly communicate with your clients in a more informal way

When working in an early year’s environment it is important to keep parents well informed. You need to pass information through ways that parents can access. The easiest way to do this is by written communication. This can be in many ways such as news letters once a month with general information in them, home and setting books so that you can keep in contact with the parents that way this is a good way for people that have child care so they know what is going on a daily basis, notice boards so that you can display reminders and notices and displays of the children’s work throughout the setting so that the parents can see for them selves that their child is doing constructive things while at the setting

When working with early years children it is easier sometimes to use visual pictures as aids so that a child can associate a picture with a meaning or a word. For example you may put their picture on their coat per and a picture of a coat above them. Children respond and understand picture writing rather then just the written word.

Staff in the early years setting will also do reports on the children’s development and what aspects they need to improve on. This is to accommodate their social, physical, emotional and intellectual wellbeing and prepare them for school.

The types of medical written information that you would get would be letters and reminders about appointments whether at your GP’s clinic, medical centre or local hospitals. You may get test results or letters about your tests and the results. You may also get formal letters indicating a change of location.

Every doctor has his patient’s notes and information this is to see what illness and treatments that you have had in the past and whether you are allergic to anything. He keeps them as records nowadays stored on a computer so no matter where you are they can locate your files. As a patient you may get extra correspondence from your GP regarding any medical check ups that you need

GP’s and other health professionals use written communication to refer patients to one other service providers.

Being an employee in any care setting you will come across people with hearing and visual impairments there are a number of ways to carry on or start communicating with your clients.

Communication between hearing and deaf people is not always straight forward. Quite often the response of a hearing person is to either talk more loudly or over emphasise lip patterns, this will actually cause more difficulty. However the ability and awareness of how to communicate clearly can solve many day to day issues.

Makaton is a type of system that uses speech, signs and symbols to help people with learning difficulties to communicate, and to develop their language skills. People that speak Makaton will use speech as well as body language they don’t just silent sign. Makaton is a form of augmentative and alterative communication (AAC).

Makaton is used with both children and adults who are unable to speak or whose speech is difficult to understand. Makaton is a key word signing system that aims to provide a basic means of communication and encourage language development. When using Makaton the key words will still be spoken as well as signed. If you have a client in your care it is bested advised to try and learn some of their preferred way of communication, although you will pick up some meanings.

Braille is a type of communication that instead or words are raised marks that can be felt wit the fingers. This provides a type of written communication that can be used by people with limited or no sight.

Braille is usually taught to those who are totally blind from youth. Moon is usually taught to people who loose their sight in later life. Both moon and Braille are raised symbols that correspond to the alphabet.

British sign language is a visual/spatial language which is governed by its own grammatical rules using shapes, hand movements and facial expressions to convey meaning leading to successful communication.

There are 9,000,000 deaf or hard of hearing people in the UK, with distinct differences in the way that they wish to communicate. Approximately 80,000 people sign language as their first language.

Electrical aids have made communication much easier. Information displays on computer screens such as information kiosks ands bulletin boards are increasingly being used for public communication.

Other then e-mails and telephone and the internet there are loads of other ways to communicate using modern technology.

Technology can be made friendly and accessible to people that are blind or have low vision for example:-

you have voice synthesisers can be installed to read out loud the text on the screen. There is also Braille and other tactile symbols can be embossed on the buttons used on the display. You can also get special scanners to convert text into a read out which is relayed to the user by voice synthesisers or convert the words on a printed page into very large sized text on the computer screen.

Communication via computers has enabled society to be able to communicate efficiently, accurately and quickly. Within a hospital and emergency environment to communicate the correct information and quickly you need computerised communication.

For example somebody comes into A+E with a suspected broken arm they get sent to the Department to have an x-ray. After taking the photos they send them back to A+E. this saves time and money. It is efficient and it is to the best of the patients as treatment can be administered more quickly. In effect it’s taking care of their physical and emotional wellbeing. This is not the only benefit that computerised communication has, at the scene of an accident the paramedics will contact the hospital to let them know who is coming in and why their age and any other infomation that they have on them. This is to ensure that upon their arrival the correct treatment can be administered, Especially if it is a life threatening situation. Even though the need of speed may be vital they also have to be accurate, clear and understandable as its about somebodys care.