Abstract

Innovation is essential to counter the current wave of change. Most companies are working very hard to minimise the operation cost by outsourcing cloud services. The need to reduce the cost of transaction is the reason why iPhone 6 Apple Pay is becoming more and more popular among businesses today.

This paper will provide general information in relation to cloud computing services and the reason behind its growing popularity in the corporate world. In addition, the paper will carry out a case study analysis to explore the contribution of iPhone 6 Apple Pay to E-Commerce.

Introduction

The last one hundred years saw Information Communication Technology (ICT) turning out to be a core business enabler (O’Brien & Marakas, 2011, p. 6). The “dot.com” recession of 2001 followed by the Great Recession of 2007 saw an increasing demand for information technology systems to maintain a competitive advantage at a low cost.

At the same time, technology and connectivity evolved very fast with the introduction of numerous cloud platforms and high speed internet. Nevertheless, the impact of these technologies cannot be viewed from a narrow perspective. ICT has been one of the most unsettling technologies over the last four decades. It has transformed how individuals and business entities operates (KPMG, 2011, p. 5; O’Brien & Marakas, 2011, p. 6).

The continuous evolution of ICT has helped businesses to automate their systems and discover new products and, therefore, attain a competitive advantage in their respective industries (KPMG, 2011, p. 5). A number of studies have shown that the growth of multinational corporations is highly attributed to their capacity to speedily leverage ICT for commercial purpose. On the other hand, small and medium size organizations are very slow in leveraging ICT. Therefore, they lack a level playing ground (Laudon & Laudon, 2012, p. 10).

However, with the emergence of cloud computing, everything has totally changed (KPMG, 2011, p. 5). Cloud Security Alliance defines cloud computing as a system that facilitates shared computing resources. The term resources refer to networks, servers, applications, services and storage with easier provision and release.

Therefore, cloud computing is a method that involves outsourcing computer resources with the potential for expendable enterprise scalability and on demand provision (Cloud Security Alliance 3).

This paper will provide general information in relation to cloud computing services and the reason behind its growing popularity in the corporate world. In addition, the paper will carry out a case study analysis to explore the contribution of Apple Pay to E-Commerce. Apple Pay is one of the fastest growing cloud services delivered through iPhone 6.

Cloud Services and the Growing Popularity

Before we discuss cloud computing, it is necessary to dive into the history for a better understanding. Cloud computing is a new term that has emerged in the computing world, but it is not a new concept.

In the early 60’s, John McCarthy envisaged an infrastructure where computers and data could be accessed from any place in the world, delivering it as a public utility where users are allowed only to pay for what they use. Cloud computing uses a similar concept of centralized computing, where users can access services within a particular network (Cloud Security Alliance, 2009, p. 4).

During the fifties and seventies, centralized computing was used to overcome low storage capacity in local computers. Devolved computing was later developed in the eighties due to limited networks and the need for improved computer storages. This led to the abolishment of centralized computing, which paved way for the development personal computers. This was made possible through the availability of applications that could be stored and ran on computers (Omtzigt, 2008, p. 1).

Greater improvements in the local area network (LAN) and wide area networks (WAN) were made in the late 1990s. These improvements allowed institutions to start using a centralized storage as a way of saving money. This enabled institutions to manage their information technologies on dumb terminals through improvements in virtualization and networks.

Cloud computing is more or less similar to a previous computing procedure known as time-sharing. The time-sharing computer connected several users to an isolated computer processor by means of a dumb terminal, which is also connected to the main server (Cloud Security Alliance, 2009, p. 5).

Cloud computing offers vast benefits to users with three types of delivery models, namely: Platform as a Service (PaaS), Software as a Service (SaaS) and Infrastructure as a Service (IaaS).

SaaS gives users the ability to access applications over a network. With this service, users only have control over the application on a pay as you use rate, and no control over the hardware and the operating systems. PaaS is a service, which offers a platform for users to develop web applications without the need to buy and manage specialist software and hardware required to create such applications.

The user is limited to selecting an application and cannot control the hardware. Some of the key providers of this service include Google App Engine. IaaS is the supplier offering storage, network components, hardware and servers, which are housed and maintained. The client can control the operating system and tweak settings in the hardware. The service is also referred to as Hardware as a Service (HaaS) (Omtzigt, 2008, p. 5).

Cloud computing delivers these models through four deployment forms, namely: private cloud, public cloud, hybrid cloud and community cloud. A private cloud is restricted to a user. On the other hand, public cloud allows users to rent space on the virtual servers. With this design, customers are only liable to pay for what they use as compared to other local data storages and data centres where a client pays for a set amount of storage.

Hybrid cloud is a deployment that combines different modes, such as the private and the unrestricted model. Each model still maintains its identities, but are bound together. The last model is the community cloud where the cloud resource infrastructures are shared by a number of users with a shared responsibility and interest, such as security requirements and compliance considerations (Omtzigt, 2008, p. 5).

Cloud computing has numerous characteristics, which distinguishes it from other computing paradigms. The basic characteristics are: (a) on demand self-service, which allows the specification of computing resources (b) broad network access, which is access to cloud resources over the network using standard mechanisms in heterogeneous matters through thick and thin clients, such as smart phones and mobile phones (c) resource-pooling, which allows the capacity to be pooled and serve multiple clients through a multitenant model (d) rapid elasticity, which allows rapid capacity provisioning for rapid scaling, and (e) measure service, which allows for control, monitoring and reporting of operation, as well as allowing transparency between the users and providers.

Besides the underlying cloud computing characteristics, there are other common characteristics, such as resilient computing, large scale availability of storage and computing capacities, pay as you use mechanism, homogeneity and the use of virtualization technology. These are the characteristics that have made cloud services so attractive among businesses today (Cloud Security Alliance, 2009, p. 6).

Cloud computing offers a variety of deployment method and, therefore, numerous benefits to the market. The benefits include economics of scale, which leads to reduced costs of information technology infrastructure. Secondly, it has low maintenance and administration costs. It also offers other benefits, such as enhanced performance due to access dynamic, scalable computing, storage and memory capabilities based on their demand.

Cloud computing also offers easier data monitoring and lower costs of security measures and quick incident responses. Other benefits include better collaborations and universal access to computing resources (Kemerer, 1997, p. 20; Omtzigt, 2008, p. 5). At the moment, cloud computing services can be accessed through a Smartphone, thus the name I-cloud. I-Cloud describe cloud services that can be accessed through an iphone, for instance, iphone 6 Apple Pay.

IPhone 6 Apple Pay

Apple Pay is a mobile payment platform developed by the Apple Company and is available exclusively on iPhone 6. The system security is designed in such a way that both the platform and the hardware are secure across all its components. In other words, iPhone 6 Apple Pay is designed to safeguard all the private information. IPhone 6 Apple Pay has five distinct components, namely: secure element, Near Field Communication controller, passbook, secure enclave and touch ID and Apple Pay servers (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 24).

The secure element denotes the approved chip running the Apple Pay platform. It complies with the standard set in the financial industry for all electronic transactions. The Near field communication (NFC) controller handles information protocols and directs communication between the secure element and the processor, and the point of sale terminal. Passbook is used in adding and managing credit/debit cards and making payments using the platform.

It enables users to view their cards and other supplementary information linked to the transaction. It also makes it possible for users to add new credit cards and debit cards to Apple Pay through the available settings and set up assistance. As a result, financial transactions are basically made using the passbook within the platform (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 24).

Any payment made through Apple Pay is validated using Touch ID, and or the user’s password. The secure enclave manages the process of validation and ensures that the transaction takes place. Last but not least, the Apple Pay Servers manage the state of all the cards used in the transaction and the account numbers stored in the Apple Pay Platform. The Apple Pay Severs communicates with the phone and the payment network servers. The server is also in charge of encrypting transaction information within the application for security purpose (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 25).

The contribution of iPhone 6 Apple Pay for E-Commerce

Numerous studies, particularly management and marketing studies have been carried out on inter-business relationship. Goles and Chin (2005, p. 47) integrated the concept of outsourcing and partnering and came up with the definition of inter-business outsourcing relationship.

They defined inter-business outsourcing relationship as a linkage between service providers and clients arising from contractual agreement. The contractual agreement highlights the benefits attained by each party. Therefore, the sound relationship/partnership between Apple Company and IPhone 6 Apple Pay users has helped to minimise risks, increase predictability and, therefore, reduce uncertainty (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 4).

The biggest concern among many organizations is security of different IT platforms. To understand the security issues surrounding iPhone 6 Apple Pay, it is important to look at the iOS (iPhone Operating System) security architecture. The figure below shows iOS reference model that integrates all the key components.

The security features include system security, encryption and data protection, App security, network security, Apple Pay, Device Controls and Privacy controls. The security system is designed in a way that both software and the hardware are protected across all key components of the Gadget used (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 4).

The security features in iOS model are nearly similar to those in the cloud computing reference model. However, it uses a different service model and functional model, which presents new types of risks. The business IT security is tackled in different faces ranging from physical security, network security, system security, and application security.

The service provider and the users have key security responsibilities. Apple Company is responsible for physical security, environmental security and virtualization security. On the other hand, users are responsible for their Touch ID or password (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 5).

Besides the architecture, Apple Pay tackles security from other domains, that is, governance domain and operational domain. Governance domain encompasses strategic and procedural issues, while the operational domain tackles technical aspects of the security and implementation within the architecture. Governance domain tackles business risks, legal and electronic risks, compliance and data management.

On the other hand, operation domain consists of operational procedures used to tackle security, operations of data centres, incident handling and forensics, application security, encryption and scalability management, and virtualization.

For these reasons, iPhone 6 Apple Pay provides the most secure and convenient means of payment for all users. In addition, it enhances the network effect of collaboration among different businesses using the service. Other security benefits include multiple locations, edge networks, instant response, and improved risk management (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 14).

According to porter (1980, p. 103), low cost production and product differentiation are some of the factors that could help a company achieve a competitive advantage in the industry. A company has a competitive advantage if it is capable of distributing its products or services at a relatively lower cost than its rivals in the industry.

IPhone 6 Apple Pay is a product of its own kind. It is the only mobile money transfer system that allows for contactless payment. It presents the user with a default card that can be managed through the setup assistance. In addition, it has considerably lowered the cost of transaction/payment among the users. For this reason, companies using Apple Pay usually enjoy high profit margins and a competitive advantage in the industry (Apple Inc., 2014, p. 27).

Conclusion

Innovation is essential to counter the current wave of change. Most companies are working very hard to minimise the operation cost through virtualization. The need to reduce the cost of transaction is the reason why iPhone 6 Apple Pay is becoming more and more popular among businesses today.

Apple Pay is the summation of Software as a Service, and other computing utilities. It is a new concept and is still at the infancy stage. The growing popularity of iPhone 6 Apple Pay is attributed to cost and security factors. The security system is designed in a way that both software and the hardware are protected across all key components of the Gadget used. In addition, Apple Pay has considerably reduced the cost of transaction/payment.

References

Apple Inc. (2014). iOS Security. Retrieved from http://www.iOS_Security_ Guide October 2014.pdf.

Cloud Security Alliance. (2009). Security Guidance for Critical Areas of Focus in Cloud Computing, New Jersey: Cloud Security Alliance, Inc.

Goles, T., & Chin, W. (2005). Information Systems Outsourcing Relationship Factors: Detailed Conceptualization and Initial Evidence. The Data Base for Advances in Information Systems, 36 (4), 47-57.

Kemerer, C. (1997). Information Technology and Industrial Competitiveness: How IT Shapes Competition, Boston: Kluwer Academic.

KPMG. (2011). The Cloud: Changing the Business Ecosystem, Mumbai, India: KPMG International, Inc.

Laudon, K., & Laudon, J. (2012). Management information systems: Managing the digital firm, New Jersey: Prentice Hall.

O’Brien, J., & Marakas, G. (2011). Management Information Systems, New York, USA: McGraw-Hill.

Omtzigt, T. (2008). Cloud Computing – Predominantly an IT Operation Outsourcing Trend. Eclipse – Developers Journal, 11 (4), 1-20.

Porter, M. (1980). Competitive strategy: Techniques for analyzing industries and competitors, New York: Free Press.

Abstract

In this paper, the meaning of technology is well outlined and its major impact on different services that are offered to customers by different people in the world of business. Some major developments that have taken place in the way services are delivered to customers have been discussed. It is true that due to technology, more efficient ways of rendering services to customers are being invented every day.

Some of these ways have been discussed in this paper outlining the impact they are placing on many businesses as well as customers. The paper also describes the appropriate time for using high technology services, as well as low technology services to customers.

Introduction

The word technology has acquired many definitions especially from the start of the twentieth century up to date. Sometimes we use the word technology while describing objects, knowledge as well as activities. The nature of an object, level of knowledge and the activities carried out by different people may give an indication that some level of technology has been incorporated. Technology has seen to it that, different sectors of an economy improve.

For one, the effect of technology is largely felt in the business world with many new products being produced every day as well as improving the way services are rendered to different customers. This has led to a great improvement in many business organizations with some of them experiencing abnormal profits. Customer service happens to be the major activity of all business organizations (Gerow & Miller, 2010).

Without customers, businesses are unable to operate. This is because, for any business to continue its operations, it must have customers for all its commodities and services. The type and nature of services offered to customers will influence their response to a particular business and its commodities. This is a reason that has enabled many businesses to opt for high technology and customer friendly way of offering services.

Types of customer services and technology

A service is an act or performance that is done to someone. The service may come after one has done something, although at other times, services can be given to someone who has not done anything to another (Hsieh, 2005).

Many business organizations prefer giving good services to their potential customer even when they have not had any transaction with them. This is done in order to attract more and more customers to the products of a business. Technology in terms of customer services may be defined as the ways or objects that fulfils a service in an efficient manner a within a short period of time.

There are several types of customer services in the business world. One of these services is the high touch customer service. In this type of customer service, there is usually a high level of interaction between the seller and the customer. It is mostly conducted in high stores where there are sales people. On approaching a particular business premise, a customer is usually approached by a sales person, who tries to create a good mood to the customer (Choudrie & Dwivedi, 2005).

The sales person may first of all ask obvious questions to the customer such as how they are. When the customer gets in the mood of talking, the sales person can then start explaining the importance and the uses of different commodities in the store. Through this kind of a dialogue, the customer may end up creating an interest in another product that they did not have an interest in. In today’s business world; technology has les to the improvement of this type of customer service.

Through the internet, a customer can obtain all the information required for some one to create an interest in a particular product. Much of the information offered through the internet about products, is usually incorporated with captivating advertisements which are very hard to be ignored.

Some of these advertisements are even brought on televisions and radios. After the advertisement, one is left with an urge to try and experience the effects of the commodity that was being advertised. Thus, through technology, it is not always necessary for sales people to look for customers and try to create interest in them about a product.

The second form of customer service is referred to as the low touch customer service. This is where there are no sales people to give more information to customers about a product. It is mostly done by those business organizations that deal with only one type of a commodity.

The commodities may be of different sizes and quantities but entirely of the same type. Mostly, in this type of customer service, the business owners may have a feeling that, the products they offer are useful and many people require them in their day to day lives. Thus, the business will be sure that, every day they must get customers. It has been found that, this type of service is rendered by those businesses that are rare in a region (Huang & Lin, 2006, p. 101).

This is because customers will have no otherwise, other than to buy from the business. As we can see, use of high technology for this type of service may not be required. No advertisements may be required, thus giving information through the internet, televisions or even the radios may not be necessary. Many businesses that offer discounts to their products, or sale goods at low prices may use this type of customer service.

In some cases, low touch customer service has been found to do well in some businesses than the high touch customer service. This is because, in the high touch customer service, the organization may be forced to spend a lot of funds while trying to post information through the internet and advertisements through televisions and radios.

Another type of customer service that is on the rise today is the understanding customer service. A sales person gives the customer the first chance to express themselves and their needs. The customer can give information on how they may have been in need of a particular product, and yet they have never gotten a chance to know where to find it.

The customer may also express their feelings about the effects of a particular product to them. After getting all the information, the sales person may then take the initiative to give explanations on the products.

In most cases, the sales persons tend to give information to the customer about other substitutes of the products they were talking about. Mostly, the substitutes suggested ends up being the products dealt with by the sales person. Through the internet, one is directed through a series of questions. After every answer they give, the get a comment that directs them to a particular product.

The last type of customer service is the perfect customer service. Information is usually given to a potential customer even when they did not show any interest in the information. This service is mostly offered by banking institutions and telecommunication service offering institutions.

The customer is always kept aware of the status of their accounts even when they did not ask (Choudrie & Dwivedi, 2005). The information given here is always true. Instructions on how to operate some machines may also be given, not bothering whether the customer is interested in using the machine. This information can be given through street videos, the internet as well as radios. In other institutions, after transaction services are also offered.

When large machines or many commodities are bought some businesses takes the responsibility of delivering the commodities to the customers’ premises. Through technology, such goods can be delivered by vehicles such as tracks, which take a shorter period of time to reach destinations unlike when people have to do the transportation.

Conclusion

Technology has improved the ease with which services are offer to customers. It is through the advancement in technology that customers can get some services even when they are at their respective homes. This occurs mostly through the radios and televisions which are products of high technology. The internet has also played a big role in improving the services offered to customers.

Better services to customers have also lead to the increase in the market of different products from different business institutions. The reputation of different businesses has also improved due to the services they offer to their customers. For a business organization to grow and be fruitful, the type of customer service offered matters a lot. All businesses should evaluate the best services that are convenient to use and acceptable to their customers (Reponen, 2003).

Reference List

Choudrie, J., & Dwivedi, Y. (2005). Investigating the Research Approaches for Examining Technology Adoption Issues. Journal of Research Practice,1(1).

Gerow, J. E., & Miller, J. (2010). Offering appropriate information technologies at different stages in the customer service life cycle for improved service delivery. J. Service Science & Management, 3, 1-15.

Hsieh, C. (2005). Implementing Self-Service Technology To Gain Competitive Advantages. Communications of the IIMA,5(1), 77-81.

Huang, J., & Lin, C. (2006). Empower internet services in hotel industry- A customer service life cycle concept. Journal of American Academy of Business, Cambridge, 9, 99 – 103.

Introduction

Corporations and governmental agencies use powerful strategies to achieve their objectives and deliver timely services to their clients. They also implement different projects to add value to different stakeholders. To make every organization successful, it is appropriate for managers to merge projects with existing strategic plans. When programs are aligned with a corporation’s vision or long-term goals, it becomes easier to allocate adequate resources and achieve every objective. Tasked with monitoring the exit and entry of people to the United Arab Emirates through Dubai, the Strategic Department of the General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners Affairs (GDRFA) can use appropriate models to align its projects with strategy.

Literature Review

Business theorists acknowledge that managers should align processes such as portfolio management, project selection, and strategic planning (Awwal 2014). This practice ensures that the strategic element supports the portfolio aspects of the targeted organization. The strategy results in improved project management practices, thereby supporting the execution process. Failure to align these activities will result in wastage of resources.

These ideas constitute what is known as strategic implementation theory or model (Cooke-Davies 2017). Departmental leaders should decompose strategy to projects and programs. This can be achieved using diverse approaches to ensure that every strategy supports different projects. Consequently, resources are delivered effectively. On the other hand, the implemented projects resonate with the outlined organizational aims.

Awwal (2014) argues that projects in an organization should be treated as critical aspects. Such projects are similar to various organizational functions such as human resources, production, and research and development (R&D). During strategic planning, organizational structures, internal analyses, and control systems must be connected to projects’ activities. A portfolio of projects can be merged with a strategy using appropriate concepts. The process will initiate a powerful system that results in improved performance.

Cooke-Davies (2017) indicates that a comprehensive model or framework entails the participation of stakeholders such as team members, project managers, and organizational leaders. Variables such as organizational strategies and project management elements are aligned with tactical processes. The ultimate goal is to develop a powerful approach whereby the portfolio of projects is supported by the existing strategic model. Another powerful alignment concept is known as contingent (Hyvari 2014). With this approach, different projects’ elements are configured with existing strategies such as cost leadership.

There are some critical success factors (CSF) that should be considered whenever aligning projects and programs to strategy. The first one is the ability to commit to the alignment decision or process. Stakeholders should also support the agenda. The concept of continuous prioritization is another success factor that dictates how organizations use different approaches to meet their future goals. Some of the key deficiency factors (KDF) in aligning programs to the strategy include the absence of a management model, the inability to offer adequate resources, and poor leadership.

Lack of coordinated efforts and focus on short-term gains will also affect the success of the alignment strategy (Hyvari 2014). Whenever aligning projects to strategy, managers should be keen to use the right framework. This decision should be informed by the nature of the industry. For instance, a company operating in the manufacturing industry can use a comprehensive tactic to bring on board different players, coordinate operations, and merge them with existing business strategy and project management elements.

Several organizations have managed to align their strategies with various projects. For instance, the GDRFA’s Strategic Department has combined different programs and projects in its strategy. The projects are usually implemented to support the agency’s performance. Emirates Airlines’ programs are also aligned with their business strategy. However, the case of GDRFA reveals that several risks might arise whenever aligning projects with strategies. At this organization, there is no specific mechanism to ensure that different projects resonate with their objectives.

The risks of decomposition are also evident at GDRFA. Different employees are forced to complete tasks that might be of less value. This also results in the misuse of resources. The level of accuracy in the decomposing process decreases significantly. Risk independency and interrelation between projects are critical concerns whenever programs are not aligned with strategies (Awwal 2014). These gaps make it impossible for leaders to manage dependencies between the existing risks whenever projects appear to overlap. Consequently, such gaps make it impossible for the organization to achieve some of its goals.

Research Limitation and Recommendations

The proposed study is expected to present new concepts for aligning business strategies with projects. Since the study focuses on a governmental organization, the collected information might not reflect the true picture of alignment in the corporate world. The research might also fail to offer evidence-based insights that can be applied in state organizations (Hyvari 2014). The best recommendation for improving project management processes is for organizational leaders to emulate the approaches implemented in the business world to align programs with organizational strategy.

Conclusion

Projects should be embraced by organizations that want to deliver the strategy. When projects are merged with existing strategies, it becomes easier for agencies to move forward and implement superior tactical plans. The completed study will, therefore, offer powerful insights that can ensure that the Strategic Department in the General Directorate of Residency and Foreigners Affairs (GDRFA) achieves its potential, mitigates risks, and support the needs of many travelers.

Reference List

Awwal, MI 2014, ‘Importance of strategic aspect in project management: a literature critique’, International Journal of Supply Chain Management, vol. 2, no. 4, pp. 96-99.

Cooke-Davies, T 2017, ‘Managing strategic initiatives: advances in project management’, PM World Journal, vol. 6, no. 7, pp. 2-7.

Hyvari, I 2014, ‘Project portfolio management in a company strategy implementation, a case study’, Procedia – Social and Behavioral Sciences, vol. 119, pp. 229-236.

Critically examine the accountability structures designed into your project plan. In particular, you should refer to the roles and responsibilities of the Project Manager and Project Director

The project manager and project director’s major role is to ensure that the overall performance of the project is effectively undertaken; they are guided by the project goals and objectives to ensure planning, execution, monitoring, control, and closure of the project are undertaken according to the planned and predetermined manner. The following are the roles and responsibilities in point form:

• To build an orchestrate and winning team, such a team is dedicated and motivated to see the project successes.
• They have the role of allocating human, information, and physical resources to the project in such a combination that offers maximum results.
• They offer mentorship and leadership in the entire project and ensure that processes abide by the plan, work schedules, and initiation documents are followed.
• They are the point of communication to the management and advises the board on any changes that might have occurred in the project and needs the intervention of third parties.

Project managers and project directors’ roles may vary with the project however, the most important factor is that they hold the project thus they are accountable for any occurrence in the project (Anantatmula 12-32).

Critically examine and describe the nature of leadership and communication in project management. You should consider the roles of the project team

For effective completion of a project, the team leader should adopt a hybrid leadership approach; under this approach, the leader has some elements of democratic intentions and allows team members to give their inputs in decision-making. Secondly, he is aware that he is the final decision maker and some decisions do not rely on need consultation but he should stamp his leadership powers; to sum up, the leader has a scientific approach to decision-making where he consults and seeks information when making a certain decision.

The success of a hybrid system can only be attained if the leader is able to maintain effective communication channels; team members should have the freedom of giving their views and leaders should listen to them. Good communication will facilitate the manager to have time with his subordinates and tell them of the final verdict that has been reached for a certain issue/

Describe a method for the assessment of risks to the success of a project. Critically assess the suitability of this method in the context of your project

Risks come in different forms and take different shapes, an effective risk management strategy for projects is called Project Management Body of Knowledge (PMBOK), under the approach, the following are ways of assessing the risks associated with the project:

• Objective-based risk identification.
• Scenario-based risk identification.
• Taxonomy based risk identification.
• Common risk identification.

The method is successful because it considers all the areas that can lead to a risk in the project; it can be said to be a hybrid method of risk assessment and identification.

Critically examine the wider project management structures in a typical organization. In particular, you should refer to the roles and responsibilities of senior staff in relation to the management of projects

The senior staffs in a project have the role of undertaking technical matters of the project; they are given certain tasks that they are expected to see them succeed. When they are performing their duties, they are guided by the blueprint of the project and the initiation documents; they have the sole advantage of having the physical project running, the expectations of the management, and can understand the issues to a project first hand. With the three at hand, their work is skewed down to monitoring the way the project is operating, controlling the project, offering expert knowledge, and handing issues with the top management.

In the case at a certain point, there was something that had been overlooked by the planners of the project, or something new has come into place that calls for the intervention of the management, they act as the middlemen to advise the management on the way forward as well as the team (Lock 12-67).

Critically examine PRINCE2 as a method of Project Management by comparing it to another method. You should explain the advantages and limitations of each

PRINCE2 method of project management came into the moonlight in late 1990, the method has much emphasis on the interlink between the processes and the role that human capital plays in the project (see the appendixes for a sample illustration of a PRINCE2 method). On the other hand, the traditional method of project management had five stages of a project, like initiation, planning, implementation, monitoring and controlling systems, and finally control, according to the approach each of the stages was undertaken separately (see the appendixes for a sample illustration of a traditional method).

Advantages of PRINCE2

• It identifies the interdependence of different project stages and tries to manage the dependency
• Appreciates the role played by human capital
• It is a scientific approach to project management

Disadvantages

• In most cases, it concentrates on minor interdependent among the processes/stages
• It’s a complicated method especially for non-project managers

Advantages of the traditional method

• the simple and straight method that explains what is entailed in a certain project
• Creates a difference of processes and enable processes to be looked at individually

Disadvantages

• The method assumes that there can be a complete separation of tasks and processes
• Rarely does the project consider the effects and the role of human capital in the process (Lock 12-67)

Describe how you would identify, access, and manage the risks to the success of your project. Critically assess the suitability of this method in the context of your own project

When a project has been well initiated and planned, the best method of identifying risks is through continuous appraisal, monitoring, and level of complete analysis. Project managers should be following their work schedules and compare them with the level of completion attained. In case there is a deficit, it should always be interpolated as a risk area until there is a legitimate reason for the mismatch.

Risks in a project take different forms, there is a need to have regular reports on costs, times, the rate of completions made, and interpolated using scientific means or information technology. With such an approach, a risk will be identified early enough before it has made substantial damage to the project. Any indication that shows there may be the cause of alarm should not be taken lightly buts a solution and the underlying reasons should be sort (Anantatmula 12-32).

Works Cited

Anantatmula, Vital S. “Project Manager Leadership Role in Improving Project Performance.” Engineering Management Journal 22.1 (2010): 13-22.

Lock, Denis. Project Management. New York: Gower Publishing, Ltd., 2007. Print.

Appendixes

Traditional method

PRIENCE2 Method

Executive Summary

The paper primarily delves into the marketing strategy of approaching various private schools in the U.S. in order to market the iPad 6 as an educational tool. With the growing interest in incorporating technology with education, Apple can position itself as a primary supplier of tablets in this market sector resulting in a considerable amount of profit for the company.

What have I learned?

Based on the activities done in this paper, I learned that it is necessary to create added value for a product in order to distinguish a company in a highly competitive market environment.

Reference List

Asher-Schapiro, A., & Hermeling, A. (2013). Racing the iPad in K12 Education. District Administration, 49(4), 70.

Han, J. H. (2014). Unpacking and repacking the factors affecting students’ perceptions of the use of classroom communication systems (CCS) technology. Computers & Education, 79159-176.

Lynch, J., & Redpath, T. (2014). ‘Smart’ technologies in early years literacy education: A meta-narrative of paradigmatic tensions in iPad use in an Australian preparatory classroom. Journal Of Early Childhood Literacy, 14(2), 147-174.

Mautone, M. (2013). Integrating the iPad into the ASD Classroom. Education Digest, 79(4), 25.

Powell, S. (2014). Choosing iPad Apps With a Purpose: Aligning Skills and Standards. Teaching Exceptional Children, 47(1), 20-26.

Rivero, V. (2013). A New Mobile Approach to the Learning Space. InternetatSchools, 20(4), 12.

Statement of Work and Its Role in Project Management

Project management is a complex undertaking that requires dedication and accuracy with regard to the execution and propagation of various components that characterize its essence. In most cases, project managers rationalize ideas and activities in order to ensure and guarantee efficiency and timely completion of underlying tasks and objectives (Fox 13). Such undertakings require a comprehensive statement of work that outlines various objectives that suffice with regard to the project.

The statement of work is vital because it embodies basic requirements that ultimately define the overall progression and orientation of the project (Fox 13). It also presents structural and institutional frameworks that shall support the initiation and completion of the project. In essence, a statement of work reflects a project summary and various desirable outcomes after its completion (Fox 17). This declaration anchors pertinent facets of a project and offers room for evaluation in order to determine progress. However, it is important for project managers to present the statement of work to stakeholders for scrutiny and approval (Fox 21).

This function plays a crucial role in enhancing accountability and institutional goodwill. Whenever project managers present such statements, they seek stakeholder support and approval (Fox 23). The approval allows project managers to undertake and implement various components of the project without interference. Stakeholders are very critical with regard to the initiation and propagation of projects.

Project managers must cooperate with stakeholders in order to guarantee goodwill and support for the project (Fox 27). Devoid of such efforts, it would be difficult for project managers to actualize ideals and aspirations that characterize projects within organizational contexts. A statement of work guides project managers on specific areas of interest such as cost, duration, funding, and desired outcomes. These functions give credence to the formulation and actualization of a statement of work (Fox 32).

Project Controlling and Monitoring Processes in Project Management

As earlier mentioned, project management requires skills that augment the overall desire for success and accomplishment. Project managers must understand basic realities that characterize project initiation and actualization (Mantel 47). In absence of such knowledge and skills, it is difficult for them to evaluate and appraise projects with regard to progress and adherence to institutional guidelines.

A project life cycle constitutes various developmental phases that embody diverse objectives and aspirations (Mantel 47). It guides the implementation and articulation of inherent components of a project. It also eases surveillance on core tenets that embody organizational projects and undertakings. Surveillance guarantees accountability and transparency regarding costing and budgetary allocations (Mantel 48).

It also supports introspection and evaluation with a view to enhancing the progression and implementation of project ideals and aspirations. The most important phase of a project life cycle involves monitoring and control (Mantel 49). Through monitoring and control, project managers evaluate various metrical aspects in order to sustain compliance and adherence to initial objectives that suffice with regard to a project. Monitoring bolsters institutional and statutory frameworks that guide the overall implementation of diverse aspirations that relate to a specific project (Mantel 52).

It also facilitates budgetary control and rationalization to guarantee adherence to initial costing and estimates. It identifies areas that require review in terms of cost and time. These processes assess progress in relation to actual and planned outcomes within specific facets of a project (Mantel 56). Monitoring and control facilitate risk control and performance reporting. Other areas of control include cost, schedule, risk, scope, and change management (Mantel 57).

It is important to note that projects do not necessarily comply with initial expectations. Through monitoring and evaluation, project managers identify discrepancies and ultimately draft recommendations for a reprieve. Indeed, monitoring and control play an important role in facilitating the qualitative completion of organizational projects (Mantel 62).

Project Team Management in Accordance with Organizational Vision and Mission

Compliance augments basic principles that guide conformity to statutory and organizational provisions that characterize projects in corporate contexts. Successful projects must satisfy legal frameworks that define their essence and rationale (Kloppenburg 11). In fact, compliance is very important with regard to project management and appraisal. Project managers strive to guarantee compliance and adherence to core objectives that relate to specific projects and organizational undertakings. In order to bolster compliance, most organizations institute control mechanisms and frameworks that support the realization of underlying objectives (Kloppenburg 11).

Project compliance ensures that projects adhere to organizational aspirations and regulatory thresholds. This ensures credibility and the ability to deliver anticipated outcomes with regard to the project. Project managers must play an active role in guiding project progression and compliance with holistic ideals that suffice in project activation and propagation (Kloppenburg 13). This involves recurrent monitoring and evaluation in order to quantify progress in specific areas of interest. Project managers must invoke various institutional controls that empower comprehensive foray into compliance and statutory alignment (Kloppenburg 13).

Project managers should also inspire action through candid engagement with leaders and supervisors within the team (Kloppenburg 14). This should involve constant reporting and appraisal regard progress in important areas that characterize the project. Situational and incident reports enable managers to understand issues and challenges that manifest in the course of implementation (Kloppenburg 18).

It also enables managers to make decisions that create an impetus for success and accomplishment (Kloppenburg 21). Unless project managers understand their role in actualizing projects, it is difficult for them to perform accordingly. They should also appreciate the role of teamwork in ensuring proper implementation of core ideals and aspirations that support project sustenance and completion (Kloppenburg 23).

Project Team Performance and Its Evaluation

Evaluation is a pertinent undertaking with regard to project management in contemporary organizational contexts. It offers an opportunity for project managers to appraise performance and progress. Numerous paradigms suffice in relation to project evaluation and appraisal (Haynes 53). There are systems that facilitate evaluation among project team members. Under this premise, team members check on colleagues in order to determine and sustain compliance with the basic objectives of the project. Another paradigm involves situations where team leaders appraise individual members (Haynes 53).

The latter is very common because it yields better results as compared to the former. In order to institute effective evaluation, project managers should instruct team members to appraise individual performance on key areas of interest. After presenting individual appraisals, the project manager should analyze them with a view to identifying discrepancies and strengths (Haynes 54). Project managers should identify successful areas and areas that require special attention. Evaluation should revolve around areas such as challenges, performance, achievements, individual strengths, and overall orientation of the project (Haynes 57).

Managers should exercise candour and precision in order to achieve favourable outcomes. In absence of such action, there would be little progress in relation to understanding the overall progress of the project. It is important for managers to appreciate the individual contribution of team members. However, team members must earn sustenance through performance and positive results (Haynes 58). Project managers should identify areas that require more effort and allocation of resources. This guarantees continuous progress and the ability to satisfy objective areas of interest. Project evaluation creates an impetus for actions that guarantee consistency and accountability (Haynes 63).

Teamwork plays an important role in supporting the qualitative and timely completion of projects. Project managers should utilize evaluation as a tool for accountability and transparency. Evaluation should suffice in consultation with team members and organizational stakeholders (Haynes 63).

Problem Areas Identification in Project Management

All organizational projects gear towards successful and resourceful completion. Project managers desire positive results that ultimately guarantee accomplishment and timely closure of core objectives that encompass project undertakings (Kanda 19). However, managers should appreciate the challenges and complexities that characterize the actualization of projects. It is impossible for projects to actualize devoid of challenges. Challenges should suffice as motivators as opposed to impediments. Project managers should endeavour to conduct regular appraisals that identify key problem areas within the project (Kanda 19).

Through such exercises, project managers enhance accountability and transparency. This cannot happen in absence of constant evaluation with regard to pertinent areas of interest. Regular project appraisal identifies areas that warrant attention and adjustment (Kanda 21). For instance, it could realize budgetary deficits and inadequacies that could ultimately jeopardize the quality and timely completion of the project.

All projects must encounter challenges in the course of actualization and propagation (Kanda 22). Such issues should motivate remedial steps that gear towards ameliorating implementation. This guarantees appropriate action towards offering solutions regarding such discrepancies. Project managers should evaluate progress by comparing current progress to initial objectives enshrined in the statement of work (Kanda 26).

This makes it possible for project managers to identify problem areas that could affect the progress and completion of the project. Such areas should enhance constant troubleshooting with regard to the general orientation of the project (Kanda 29). Managers should devise appropriate structural frameworks that not only solve problems but also forestall their occurrence and propagation within projects. Indeed, problems are integral realities in project initiation and sustenance. However, challenges should not affect overall performance within project teams (Kanda 32).

Project Work Integration in Organizations

Whenever organizations embark on projects, they entrust it to project managers. Project managers play an important role in ensuring the success and actualization of a project. Their contribution to projects must embody inclusive and rational objectives that ultimately enhance progress (Hobbs 76). In most cases, projects involve teams that perform specific tasks towards the realization of core ideals and aspirations.

It is important for project managers to initiate appropriate ownership models that enable team effort towards the actualization of the project (Hobbs 76). This involves the creation of specific roles and responsibilities that outline specific duties assigned to team members (Hobbs 76). Team members cannot achieve success in absence of proper knowledge regarding their anticipated contribution to the team. Proper knowledge enables team members to pursue areas that bolster performance in their assigned roles (Hobbs 78). The project manager should assign roles depending on identifiable attributes that manifest with regard to individual team members.

This ensures that all tasks reflect individual competencies in pertinent areas that require attention. All activities within teams should promote organizational ideals and aspirations in order to guarantee efficiency and overall adherence to basic thresholds of existence within such entities (Hobbs 81). This is possible through proper leadership and tutelage by project managers. The development of project ownership models should revolve around the basic tenets of organizational entities. Team members should have a willingness to undertake duties that reflect individual ability. Projects that lack such probity fail to satisfy overall ideals that warrant their existence and propagation (Hobbs 82).

Works Cited

Fox, William. A Guide to Project Management. London: Juta and Company Ltd, 2008. Print.

Haynes, Marion. Project Management: Practical Tools for Success. Newyork: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Hobbs, Peter. Project Management. London: Dorling Kindersley Limited, 2009. Print.

Kanda, Arun. Project Management: A Life Cycle Approach. Newyork: PHI Learning Pvt Ltd, 2011. Print.

Kloppenburg, Timothy. Contemporary Project Management. London: Cengage Learning, 2011. Print.

Mantel, Samuel. Project Management: A Managerial Approach. Newyork: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.

Meridith Lavinson (2010) had mentioned in his paper that there are a number of factors which determine either the success or failure of a project portfolio success and failure. Among these factors are schedules, assets and sources of funds. However, new-age project management analysis from training institution insights learning and a strategic execution consultant suggest that the primary factor determining a project success is the task’s relation to the institution’s business approach and the project manager’s appreciation of how the task influences the development of the business strategy.

This basically means that, the closely linked a project is to the business approach, the easier and more appreciable the progress. On the other hand, the more tenuous the relationship between the project and chosen strategy, the more difficulties the project will have to go through.

Payne H. (1995) offers an even better viewpoint of these problems and in order to offer some guiding principles, an analysis of the popular and accessible literature was conducted. The information collected fell under a five-tier categorization framework. These five categories are: Capacity. Conflict, Context, Complexity and Commitment

Capacity refers to the ability of an enterprise to initiate and oversee the success of the multi-projects in order to come up with enough and more relevant resources. The author in this instance has come to the conclusion that a balance between the needed resources and resources supplied is only achieved in very few circumstances. It does not make economic sense for a company to have excess resources in terms of labor force idling around while still on the establishment’s payroll. As a result of this, dedicated efforts should be made to cut down the number of staffs and manage those persons retained in a more effective and less costly manner.

Unfortunately, this form of discriminate retrenchment is associated with sessions of under capacity occasioned by increased work loads. This scenario is occasioned by management insisting on taking up all available opportunities without factoring in the company’s capabilities. Spuher and Biaggini (1990) supports this latter fact by stating that it is almost impossible to find a company which shies away from taking up more projects just because it cannot complete them using the available resources.

Payne, J (1993) established a categorical distinguishing of elements of the conflict by placing them under three subdivisions. These are staffing, infrastructural and organizational issues. Conflicts tend to come up in the unstable relationships emanating around a multi-project set up. If the individual in particular specialist role is constantly being replaced because of fluctuations in the levels of the needed resources, there is a possibility that the new staffs will be required to constantly assess and modify the work done by his/her predecessors. This mainly happens because of certain inadequacies in the proper institutional management.

The author has attested to witnessing this on more than a few occasions. In one instance the individual in a certain engineering specialist role was replaced thrice, and each of the new staffs ended up editing the work done by the individuals who occupied the same position before. This in turn had the negative effect of causing delays and substantial non-cooperation from the other members of staff whose jobs are affected by the modification of the design or the delays caused, or both. This ineffectiveness was to a great extent linked to a lack of proper exercise of authority on the part functional manager regarding the performance of the task.

In this particular instance, the functional manager and the project manager did not gel effectively, resulting in a personal tension which ended up toughening the flow and execution of instructions, with the functional manager not making any response to the project manager’s complaints. The project manager had to share some of the blame because he did not ask for assistance. Peer rivalry amongst a group of functional specialists almost always ends up causing definite conflicts. The most distinguishable causes of systems conflicts are the protocol structure and the job scheduling procedure. These elements are also influenced by the appreciation of the necessity of the project.

Commitment is basically the dedication to individual projects of the individuals or groups of individuals working on, or controlling the flow of resources to, the various tasks. The topic has some definite importance on its own but it mainly makes sense in the light of the multi-project context. The extent of a project usually plays a role in the determinations of its perceived relevance. Commitment is relative to perceived importance.

It is appropriate to direct the emphasis further from size of the project and focus it on the objectives of the organization. The size of the establishment actually has some influence on the commitment. A member of a small organization is likely to be subject to the moral pressures not to disappoint his/her colleagues as compared to his/her counterpart from a large institution.

The resource providers, also known as functional managers, need to clearly establish both the level and type of commitment required for the project. This could be defined by the provision of resources for the tasks or by shouldering responsibility for the project. As far as the individual is concerned, the type of commitment is also having some critical relevance

Context is basically the elements surrounding the development of a project, such as cultures, traditions and practices of groups or societal set ups. Context can also be described from the direction of staffing issues, infrastructural issues, and institutional issues. The culture of an expansive task or process is categorically distinguishable from the culture of comparatively smaller projects. This is something that can be attested to by any individual who has worked in a variety of different-sized enterprises.

The committed hierarchical organizational structure which is in most instance linked to large tasks, or institutions, tends to come with a stable culture, while the multi project culture, on the other hand, is constantly undergoing changes. Senior administrative influence has an appreciable impact on the context. A specialist resource provider, linked to a small task, tends to lack the necessary direct contact with peers which makes the setting interesting to work on. The multi-project project on its part has a number of managers working concurrently, alongside functional managers which makes the task comfortable. The career structuring and development that are required in different situations also exhibit some differences.

Complexity mainly refers to those elements that are linked to multiple interfaces between the tasks, the institution, the relevant authorities etc. It is also directly linked to the directive approaches utilized by management, and options pertaining to the extent to which the amalgamation of the multiple tasks is either desirable or applicable.

Many recently recruited project managers discover that their working relationships with resource allocation heads have not been clearly defined by management. Who is responsible for assigning work to the financial analyst? Who decides when to order critical material before the product design is firm? Who decides to delay design release to reduce unit cost? Who determines the quantity and priority of spares? All these decisions vitally concern the project manager, and he must often forge his own guidelines for dealing with them.

Because of the number of decisions or approvals that may arise in the course of a large project, and the number of departments that have an interest in each, innumerable possibilities always exist for interdepartmental conflicts. Besides coping with these conflicts, the project manager must juggle the internal schedules, avoid political problems that could create bottlenecks, expedite one department to compensate for another’s failure to meet its schedule, and hold the project within a predetermined cost. Moreover, he must do all this single handed, with little or none of the experienced top management guidance that the line manager enjoys. Stewart John (1965).

The problem is in most instances not related to the project management, but instead the management of the entire portfolio. The bottom line is that some organizations can’t do portfolio management by themselves. It must be accomplished with the participation of both executive (who must understand and accept that resources are constrained) and the portfolio managers (who must appreciate that there are other projects competing for resources and which help distinguish the priorities).

Even if a team is able to achieve cooperation from senior administration and business partners, and there are systems in place for displaying the project portfolio, they (senior management) should not be expected to accept long project delays any more than an individual would appreciate a nine hour airport delay (Wittmann 2010).

However, in some tasks the objectives and/or the strategies for their attainment are not well defined at the beginning of the implementation phases. Projects can be defined by analyzing them against two definers: How properly defined are the targets, and how well defined are the strategies. The ensuing two b-two matrix relates to four kinds of tasks/projects:

Goals and achievement strategies matrix

• Type-1 projects: tasks for which goals and strategies for achieving the tasks are clearly laid down.
• Type-2 projects: tasks for which goals are clearly laid down but the strategies for achieving them are not.
• Type-3 projects: tasks for which goals are not clearly laid down but the strategies for achieving them are.
• Type-4 projects: tasks for which neither the goals nor the strategies for achieving them are clearly defined (J R Turner and R A Cochrane 1993).

To improve the organization and efficacy, many institutions tend to adopt multiple project management (MPM) strategies. A popular way for doing this is to have one project manager head multiple concurrent projects, which are described as the management of an integration of multiple projects (MGMP):

An example of a multiple-project management setup in one institution

Ideally, the issues look at interactions between the groups of multiple projects and their organizational environment as being important for effectively managing multiple projects. Such issues are related with the need for achievable portfolio management, sometimes in relation with appropriate project selection, establishment of priorities, and allocation of resources. For effectiveness in extremely competitive businesses, it is imperative that an institution undertaking multiple projects have the potential to provide both sufficient and relevant resources. In doing so, the enterprise should utilize a rigorous, well defined and formal projects selection framework (Fricke SE and Shenhar AJ 2000)

Tasks should be differentiated depending on their importance to the institution’s business criteria, the relevance of the size of the project, the timing and the technical workability, the financial viability and so on and so forth. Along the same line, Payne (1995) and Adler (1996) insisted that it is very inappropriate for an organization to implement more projects that can be handled by the available resources.

According to Patandakul and Milosevic (2009), after the selection process, another challenging task of managers in Multiple project management (MPM) environments lies on the assignment of projects to multi-project managers.

Kuprenas (2000) suggested that effectiveness in the management of a number of concurrent projects (MGMP) is dependent upon the number of projects that a multiple-project manager operates at any given time. In the development of support structures, a study revealed that assigning two to three major tasks to an engineering project manager will effectively maximize his/her productivity.

Pertaining to the assignment process, Patanakul (2006, 2007) concluded that a proper assignment process should comprise steps aimed at the understanding of project priority, development of linkages between the strengths of multiple project managers and project demands, and the categorization of the institutional/personal weaknesses.

Aside from project manager assignment, the distribution of resources also comes along as a challenge to management. A number of studies came up with tools and approaches for guiding the process of scarce resource allocation, which comprised of integer programming, heuristic methods, queuing theory, etc. (Lenvy 1997, Dean 1992, and Hendriks 1999). However, such approaches were fronted for utilization at a functional level. In this instance these referred to the distribution of functional resources over a number of projects. Because they were not meant for MGMP settings, these strategies may not apply to an operational level for a multiple project manager to use in the distribution of resource over a number of projects in his/her team.

According to Abdul-rahman, Takim and Min (2009) delay refers to a time overrun to either go past the original date of the contract or beyond the time that the parties had settled on for the conclusion of a project (Lo et al, 2006). Delay can be seen in most construction projects and its duration varies to a large extent depending on the needs of the project. Some tasks can be a few days behind schedule while others can delay by over a whole year (Ahmed et al, 2003).

In construction, delay is outlined in contract or past the agreed date for completion of a task amongst the concerned parties (Assaf and Al-Hajji, 2006). Sambasivan and Soon (2007) established 28 recognizable and well appreciated delay causatives in construction and classified them under eight major distinctions.

These classifications are: customer-related elements, developer-related elements, consultant-related elements, supplies-related factors, workforce and machinery-related elements, finances-related elements, agreement-related elements and external factors. From these categories the finances-related element is one of the most common factors that bring about delays in construction tasks (Alaghbari et al, 2007). Financial challenges experienced by many contractors result in delays in construction tasks.

This is because of the numerous modifications that are made by project customers in the construction process. Consequently, it results in an increase in construction costs because the contractors are forced to use means beyond their abilities to acquire the material and equipment needed. In addition to this, delays in offering payments to contractors tend to interfere with contractor’s flow of resources. A delay in payment is effectively linked to slow progress on site, because most sub-contractors and suppliers go through financial strains hence, the required materials are not delivered to the site on time.

Table 1: Potential causes of financial-related challenges.

Figure 8: How dependent and independent variables relate with each other.

The figure above is a description of how dependent and independent variables are linked to each other. It suggests that the finance-related challenges causing delays in construction tasks are mainly as a result of four primary reasons. These reasons are: Delayed payment, uncontrolled cash-flow, insufficient financial requirements and instability the financial market.

How the main problem is linked to the sub-problems

The illustration above presents the suggestions with the direct relationship between the principle problem and sub-problems. The propositions for the sub-problems can be assessed in the summary below:

• The more the delay in payment owed to a contractor, the more the cash-flow challenges and therefore the greater the length of the delays.
• The poorer the management of the flow of cash, the more the cash flow challenges and therefore the greater the length of the delays.
• The more the unavailability of finances, the more the cash-flow issues, and therefore the greater the length of the delays.
• The more the instability in financial markets, the more the cash-flow challenges, and therefore the greater the length of the delays.

Inter-relationship between independent variables

The above figure shows the suggestions establishing the direct relationship between general problem and sub-issues. For example, poor cash-flow managerial tactics by the customer of a construction task may end up resulting in delayed payments to the contractor. Lateness in payment for work completed will in turn cause problems in the cash-flow framework of the contractor.

According to Angling (1985) resources can be defined as those components that utilized by a task during its implementation. Examples of these resources are manpower, finance, time, plant and machinery, materials and computer. A project can be defined as a set of actions that utilize resources with visibly defined start and finish point and produce the end product. All types of organisations are involved in projects of one type or different types at one time.

The number of projects could be large or small as well as the size of each project. Most projects will need to be analysed to determine whether they should proceed or stop and how they should be prioritized among other projects in terms of limited resources.

A study was conducted on two organisations and the findings indicated that there is common issue in both organisations which is resource allocation pattern. The portfolio management was full of issues pertaining to the establishment of a protocol between tasks and, allocation of duties to staffs from one task to another and the search for material requirements. In addition to this, when resources were re-channelled to other sections it the result was harmful effects on other tasks within the portfolio. This ended up causing the administrative authorities to go through wrangles and unending conflicts during the implementation of various tasks.

However, the main influence for portfolio management which also affects the development of an already established project was the re-distribution of resources. The study’s findings verified the full image in literature of the complexity of planning, scheduling, and allocating resources between different, concurrently ongoing projects (Engwall and Jerbrant 2003).

Blichfeldt and Eskerod (2008) demonstrated the findings of empirical study that have been conducted on 30 companies, and the most remarkable finding is that most of the companies are suffering from performing too many projects while they suffering from lack of resources. The projects managers are facing a battle of resources; they have a lot more projects than they able to work on. In addition to that they do not have enough people to do the work.

Although most of companies greatly involved in project management and project portfolio management but have not overcome the resources crisis for projects because the PPM list a lot of different projects and the top management does not aware of all these projects in turn they spend many resources on some projects and fail to allocate the resources to other projects.

Elonen and Artto (2003) believed that resource shortage and allocating resources improperly has a vital impact on the project portfolio management. When the projects is not planned properly, and go decision is made on a project without considering available resources precisely, in turn this affect the entire project portfolio in term of prioritizing the projects. Moreover, few experts are responsible for too many tasks in too many projects, which make them incapable to handle the workload. In most of the projects in the portfolio the personnel competencies are not managed properly, which affect the entire PPM performance. The top management is reluctant to stop any ongoing projects when they discover they can not reach the objectives of the projects, because they consider the stoppage of the projects as a management failure.

Researchers and practitioners considered that the human resources are the most important factor in successful projects, and have a direct link to PPM performance. In the development institutions human experience is the most needed and most rare resource. Proper distribution the right manpower to a project is very important. The management meets challenges in the allocation process if there are more projects in his/her tab and they all require very specific knowledge (Hendriks, Voeten and Kroep 1999)

Cooper (1999) declared in his study that there are very many tasks being carried out and but there is a deficit in the amount of resources to ensure that they are carried out well. This is a global challenge within organisations focussing on development. The need for additional new projects coupled with corporate restructuring has to some extended come along to deal with this resource shortage.

Techniques and methods to increase the efficiency of PPM

Ioannis and Lefteris (2001) illustrated that a common activity in the fundamental phases of a project is the estimation of the required task development resources (cost) and time. The three primary criteria for managing instabilities in task portfolio cost approximation are professional estimation, approximation by analogy and algorithm cost approximation. Professional judgment is dependent on the cumulative experience of a group of experts.

Shepperd (1997) defined the approximation by analogy strategy as a process of establishing comparisons between the software task under consideration with a number of already-completed similar projects. Finally, the algorithmic cost approximation approach requires the input of a cost model, i.e. a number of mathematical formulae which, basically, have been arrived at by utilizing methods of statistical data evaluation.

Most institutions, whether in the private or the public sector, actively participate in developmental projects. The number of tasks per organization may be many or few depending on the size of the organization. Most projects require a process of analysis and evaluation to establish whether or not they are viable and how they compare in terms of priority to other projects when the provided resources cannot fully sustain all of them. Traditional cost-benefit analysis can provide an economic assessment of projects, but because it is time consuming and costly to conduct, it is normally only used on large projects.

Alternative methods that are relatively inexpensive and easy to use are available for assessing the relative priority of projects. Where a number of projects of a similar nature are to be compared, it is possible to identify a common factor in each that will enable the projects to be ranked in order of priority. However, the common factor should be chosen with care to ensure that it actually reflects the objectives of the organization (Michael Angling 1984)

Based on the findings of the research, we have come up with a framework for establishing the efficacy levels in MGMP, structured around the determining elements and approximation criteria.

A framework for determining the efficiency levels in the management of a number of concurrent projects

In order to attain efficiency in the management of a number of concurrent tasks, all multiple-project managers and their junior associates in our study came to the agreement that the support from their parent institution has a significant impact. This support can be described in terms of task assignment, resource distribution, and institutional culture. First and foremost, the efficiency in MGMP lies in the achievability of the assignment (proposition 1).

Such tasks should factor in the strategic relevance of the project, the ideal match between project requirements and effectiveness of the multi-project manager, and some other elements like the time available. Consequently, a critical project will be given to the project manager with the appropriate skills and time to effectively complete it. Secondly, it is necessary that the available resources be distributed properly (proposition2).

Proper allocation is linked to the sufficiency and sustainability of resources, hence supporting the maintenance of continuity in the project. Third, the most efficient MGMP requires an organisational culture which enhances commitment, communication, team-work, and appreciation of desired performance. This type of organizational culture provides the basic ground rules for the task, resulting in effectiveness of the concerned parties (proposition 3).

It is not just the institutional backing that is important for MGMP effectiveness in the functional level. All collected evidence guided the conclusion that understanding the procedures involved in relation to MGMP and having credible multiple-project managers are also determinants of the efficiency in MGMP. With respect to the project management strategies, aside from managing each individual project procedure just like in basic project management, MGMP has to have structured method of managing inter-task frameworks and role inter-dependency (proposition 4). Having multi-project managers with the professional ability for guiding each individual project and coordination of relations among projects are also important criteria for the attainment of MGMP efficiency (proposition 5). Such administrators need to have various credibility enhancing elements such as managerial competencies, commercial competencies, interdependency administration, multi-tasking, and leadership.

When asked about the determinants used for estimating the MGMP effectiveness, a case informant proposed that at the institutional level, the general effectiveness of MGMP needs to be assessed with the consideration of input productivity and institutional learning (proposition 6). Pertaining to task success indices, time-to-market and client satisfaction need to be emphasized (proposition 7). Personal growth and satisfaction are also appreciated as proper measures of effectiveness in MGMP at a personal project level (proposition 8). At this instance, the main intention was to suggest a strategy that could be used to develop a clear illustration of the main issues influencing the effectiveness of MGMP (Patanakul and Milosevic 2009)

We propose the heuristic approach depicted in figure 12. Individual tasks are basically classified without regarding the input constraints; then resource strain is appreciated and a basic hypothesis of the project portfolio is identified. Subsequently, a multi-project portfolio analysis is done in order to appreciate the challenging interactions that come between tasks at portfolio level, affecting both the appropriateness and the risk of the general portfolio until the ensuing result is considered satisfactory, measures for improvement are implemented that may either influence the institutions as an entity or on individual tasks.

Projects are then studied again and a new portfolio is identified. Once an amicable situation is arrived at, the strategy is compiled as one whole entity and then distributed to follow up procedure for further detailed task evaluation. At the task execution level, projects are analysed and, when some appropriate changes are made, a re-classification for a new loop of multi-project management. (Adriano, Roberto and Mariano,1994)

Heuristic approach to multi project management

The inception point of the suggested model is the evaluation of individual tasks in terms of importance, risks and the requirement of critical-resource input. The analysis of the above three variables is however not just targeted at distinguishing the most appropriate tasks; from a PM viewpoint the main reason for this is the identification of the most relevant strategy and, in relation to the anticipated critical issues, to establish both assessment and control systems for the task. Depending on their appropriateness, risks-involved and the resources needed, projects can be distinguished by different institutions such as functional matrix or task force (Larson and Gobeli, 1987).

During the last years several scholars wrote on the topic of resource-allocation for projects. In 1994 a ‘rough-cut-project-and-portfolio-planning’ was published by Platje et al (1994). In this method the planning and control cycle for single projects level and projects portfolio level is made (figure 13)

Portfolio planning procedure in multi-project organization

This concept was implemented and tested in a small R&D organisation which grew quickly towards 200 professionals in 80 different projects. The allocation process was designed in such a way that periodically checking of an inventory on a projected project portfolio by using simple ‘resource claim’ and ‘resource-offer’ spreadsheets (see figure 14). This provided a rapid and overall overview of the demanded project portfolio.

Each claim and each offer were made clear by a percentage of resources needed for the next period. The projects leader and the group leader all together discuss the claims by implementing this concept the project leaders contact directly the group leaders in a controlled way. Also, management was obligated to decide on what projects were positioned in the portfolio and a decision on the allocation of the resources. Without this tool the decisions on the portfolio can be delayed or made too late and due to the daily stress often no time was left for a hard resource’s discussion between project leaders and group leaders (Hendriks, Voeten and Kroep 1999).

Flow resource allocation

Most of the project portfolios constitute of repetitive projects that require the manpower to repeat the same activities with the similar materials in different projects and locations. Hence, the manpower plays a main factor in the improvement of the productivity and the accomplishment of the projects, the planning and scheduling methods focus on exploiting team work continuity. Team work continuity enables each team to finish the activity in one location and move to the next order to minimize work stoppages.

Applying this concept lead to improve overall efficiency of the PPM, many researches had studied the influence of the team work continuity on the planning and scheduling of repetitive projects. Efficient planning and scheduling of exploiting resources in the repetitive projects can lead to minimize the lead time of the subsequent projects and improve the overall PPM efficiency (Hyari and El-Reyas 2006).