Theories

The poem will be interpreted that the agony of the writer will diminish only if he will identify someone who is the source of all the agony that he suffered. He was looking for somebody to blame for his shortcomings, agonies, pains, and suffering (Davidson). The presence of somebody in existence will be beneficial to him so that he can blame and point to it all the antagonism shaped by all the pain that he experience (“Thomas Hardy (1840-1928)”). But frustrations set in for him.

He was unable to find out somebody that existed to blame after (“Hap”). He was not able to prove that there is someone that controlled all the possibilities that happened to his life. Later on, he only said that all was a product of unplanned possibilities. Just like he was only tripped. Accidental possibility is liable for his agony was the focus of the poem and there is no scientific reason behind everything that is happening to one’s life. Just like Jesus Christ, he exists in the minds of many people but his biological proof is not yet clear.

The church created him as super natural being but in fact he never existed. Centuries had passed but no one can justify that he indeed existed. It was all a product of stories that was passed through generations. Stories that later on became factual in the beliefs of people. It is only a myth that had eventually developed like a principle or a law that is unbreakable through time. A principle or a law that can be acceptable even we are already in the information age.

This mindset is opposite to the idea of biological theory that all things came from something, evolved and develop through time. And not just a single possibility that we keep on believing although we know that it is not true. Darwin’s Theory was a product of science that is more believable than legends (“Charles Darwin”). It is a result of biological evolution with scientific basis. Scientific basis that is more reliable than methodological or logical basis.

Chapter 4 Terms in Review 1. Some questions are answerable by research and others are not. Using some management problems of your choosing, distinguish between them. When management wants to find out which method of a production process is the most efficient in terms of operational productivity we can use research to provide usable results. When management wants to know if now is a good time to take on debt for equipment upgrades is, research may not be able to provide usable results.

Due to the extensive number of variables affecting financing decisions research will likely not be able to assist in this decision. The current market conditions, economy, interest rates, industry competition, and many other items require a type of analysis that research can not provide. 2. Discuss the problems of trading off exploration and pilot testing under tight budgetary constraints. What are the immediate and long-term effects? The text discussed that often pilot testing is not done to both reduce costs and also to reduce the total research time.

Not conducting pilot testing can then immediately progress the research process or reduce the total cost of the research but it can possibly have negative long-term effects. By not conducting pilot testing your research results may suffer because the proper information is not being gathered. A pilot test often provides indication of problems with the data gathering process. There may also be an overall increased cost with no additional benefit when no pilot testing has been completed.

The pilot test can not only indicate incorrect information be gathered but can also provide some indication as to whether the proper research questions have been asked. When the research questions being asked do not answer the true management questions then the conducted research will be useless. Useless research is a wasted expense. Pilot testing can indicate whether more in-depth research is required thus providing a possible cost reduction or a better justification for proceeding with a higher cost project. 3.

A company is experiencing a poor inventory management situation and receives alternative research proposals. Proposal 1 is to use an audit of last year’s transactions as a basis for recommendations. Proposal 2 is to study and recommend changes to the procedures and system used by the materials department. Discuss issues of evaluation in terms of (a) Ex post facto versus prior evaluation, and (b) Evaluation using option analysis and decision theory. Both of these proposals are going to be quite difficult to evaluate.

The need of the research will determine which method will be followed. Ex post factor or after-the-fact evaluation will determine the total cost of each proposal after the research studies are completed. This makes it quite difficult to determine whether the research is providing enough benefit to make it worthwhile until after the cost has been incurred. Thus for either of these systems it may be a better decision to proceed with a prior or interim evaluation method.

Under this method the research is designed in stages and an ex post facto evaluation is performed at the end of each stage. Then a determination is made deciding if enough benefit has been generated to proceed to the next stage thus allowing management to get results while also controlling cost. Option analysis may also be used to evaluate the two proposed studies. With option analysis the studies are designed in a very explicit manner thus allowing an organization to compare estimated costs (based on prior research approximations) versus an expected benefit.

Management will then select one proposal over another depending on the cost benefit ratio and current need. Decision theory allows management to make decisions based on defined criteria. Each criterion consists of a decision rule and a decision variable. The selection process then consists of analysis determining which proposal either increases the decision variable or which follows the decision rule. This information is considered with a choice being determined by the rules and current management need.

Shannon and Weaver’s Mathematical Theory of Communication is probably the most influential of all communication models; and has been used as a guide from which many contemporary communication theories have emerged. The theory’s large influence on communication studies has also led some to claim that the theory is widely applicable to human communication. In this essay, I will be analyzing how artworks are used to communicate messages and ideas to the general audience with the use of this theory. For the first part, I will briefly introduce the theory as a general entity. I will follow with my analysis.

The Mathematical Theory of Communication The Mathematical Theory of Communication, hereinafter be referred to as the Mathematical Model, consists of several elements. The first five elements namely, Information Source, Transmitter, Channel, Receiver and Destination are all connected in a linear fashion. The sixth element, Noise Source, is connected to the Channel. The model is illustrated below (Figure 1). Figure 1: Mathematical Theory of Communication The Information Source is what produces the message. A Transmitter encodes the message into a signal and is passed through a Channel.

The Receiver then decodes a message from the signal and is passed to the Destination. Noise Source is anything added to the signal that is not intended by the Information Source and distorts the message. Using this model, there are many ways an artwork can communicate a message. The first instance is when an artwork is both the Information Source and Transmitter and the audience the Destination and Receiver. In the second instance the artist is the Information Source, the artwork the Channel and the audience, again, the Destination.

The third instance is when an arts manager is placed into the equation. The Artwork and Audience The first instance is probably the ‘cleanest’ of the three ways proposed, involving two parties, the artwork and the audience. A painting hung on the wall at a gallery catches the eye of an audience member. The audience member proceeds to stand in front of the painting and attempts to analyze the painting’s message or perhaps just marvel at its brilliance. In this case, the simplistic Mathematical Model can then be further simplified to just include just the Information Source, Noise and Destination.

Noise in this scenario may include the inappropriate lighting in the gallery, noisy children running around in the gallery or even the way the painting is presented. All of the above would diminish the audience’s ability to interpret the artwork’s message. The underlying assumption here is that the artist has completely divorced himself from the artwork and does not care how the audience interprets his art. However some artist do care about the message being send across. The Artist The second instance brings in the ‘third’ party, the artist.

Here the artist is the Information Source and Transmitter who uses his artwork to communicate ideas. This artwork becomes the Channel of communication. Now Noise has the potential to disturb the message at two points, one between the Transmitter to the Channel, and the other from Channel to Receiver. The shape of Mathematical Model thus becomes slightly irrelevant, although the linearity of the model stays in contact. Noise can happens in the first point when the artist is unable to materialize fully his concepts. This could be due to the lack of funds or the inability to acquire certain materials the artist hopes to use.

The message is then compromised. The second point occurs when the audience is unable to interpret correctly what the artist is trying to convey. There are many communication theories that elaborate on this, however for the purposes of this essay I will elaborate on ‘preconceived notion’ and ‘ideological differences’. Preconceived notions could come in many forms, for instance when one first views Damien Hirst’s The Physical Impossibility of Death in the Mind of Someone Living, one might assume the glass tank was an thoughtless choice when in actuality there was a certain artistic element to it.

Yet such a misunderstanding does not affect the overall message of Hirst’s work. However an ideological difference, could affect greatly the message intended. The list of ideological differences is endless, but one of the most prominent ideological different that still persists in this century is religion. To one the Balinese Dances may have religious significance however to another who is a non-believer, such dances might just be a work of art with culture as the theme. In addition, the masks used in such dances might become a sacred object but to another it might be nothing more than a work of art.

The time and purpose of an artwork might also create disparity in the understanding of the message. During the 16th century, the art was used to propaganda the Christian faith, which was competing for the spiritual allegiance of masses with the other religious fractions in Europe. Now however, an art lover would just be inspired at the sheer brilliance of the artwork, eliminating the evangelical purpose. Arts Manager The third instance introduces a ‘fourth’ party to the equation, the arts manager. Communicating art, as illustrated above, is no easy task.

One might need to transcend boundaries and ideologies in order to fully understand the message of the artwork. The arts manager can be placed in numerous positions in the Mathematical Model. In one instance the arts manager might elongate the communication chain. The artist (Information Source) might communicate to the Arts Manager (Receiver). The Arts Manager, now the Information Source, will then communicate to the Audience who becomes the second Receiver. This elongated chain would then create more opportunities for Noise to develop. The arts manager may also assume the role of the Channel.

Here the artist or artwork will be the information source. In this model, if related back to the original Mathematical Model implies that the arts manager (Channel) is the sole producer of Noise, if any. Conclusion Ultimately when communicating, the ideal circumstance would arise if the message to be conveyed is transmitted and understood in its entirety. Thus is it the job of an arts manager to reduce Noise so that the artist is able to convey his message? Or is it the artist job to better his craft if he wants to convey the message? With that said, is Noise necessarily always negative?

What if the Noise was intended? In the experimental exhibitions entitled Not Against Interpretation, the Singapore Art Museum decided to challenge the concept of interpretation by allowing several curators to interpret the same artworks to the audience. The audience can then decide which interpretation to accept. The philosophy behind this is to exploit the ‘openness’ of contemporary art and also provide an opportunity to engage with people from varied backgrounds. Bibliography Agata, T. & Okada, T. “How does information about creative process affect audience appreciation of artwork? Proceedings of the Twenty-eighth Annual Meeting of the Cognitive Science Society (2006): 949-954. Print Berger, John. Ways of Seeing. London: Penguin, 2008. Print. Dannatt, Adrian. ” Life’s Like This Then It Stops” Flash Art. Web. 24 Apr. 2012. <http://www. flashartonline. com/interno. php? pagina=articolo_det>. Elsen, Albert E. Purpose of Art An Introduction to the History and Appreciation of Art Fourth Edition. USA; Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. , 1981. Fiske, John. Introduction to Communication Studies. London: Routledge, 1990. Print. Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performance. Dir.

Deborah Clearwaters. Asian Art Museum’s Education and Public Programs, 2011. Film. Newton, Eric. “Art as Communication. ” British Journal of Aesthetics 1. 2 (1961): 71-85. Print. Pang, Ruben. Personal interview. 5 April. 2012. Roszak, Theodore. The Cult of Information: The Folklore of Computers and the True Art of Thinking. New York: Pantheon, 1986. Print. Shannon, Claude E. and Warren Weaver. “The Mathematical Theory of Communication. ” Urbana, Illinois: University of Illinois Press, 1949. Tinggal, Zainal Abiddin. The Dances of ASEAN. Brunei Darussalam: ASEAN Committee on Culture and Information, 1998. Print. ——————————————- [ 1 ]. John Fiske, “Introduction to Communication Studies” (1990) Pg 6. [ 2 ]. Ibid. [ 3 ]. The essay revolves around the assumption that artists use art as a communicative device to express emotions and ideas. Eric Newton further elaborates this idea in his paper ”Art as Communication”. [ 4 ]. To better illustrate the Mathematical Model assume a telephone conversation. In such a case the Channel is the wire and the signal is the electrical wire in it. The telephone handsets are the Transmitter and Receiver, and the people using those handsets are the Information Source and Destination.

Noise Source in this instance could be distortion of sound in the telephone wire due to various reasons. [ 5 ]. Many critics have condemned Shannon and Weaver’s theory to be overly simplicity. One such critic, Theodore Roszak, agues in his book “The Cult of Information” that the model has no mechanism for distinguishing important ideas from pure non-sense. [ 6 ]. Although the article “How does Information about Creative Process Affect Audience Appreciation of Artwork? ” does not provide conclusive findings, the study conducted does however provide relevant insight with regards to forming curatorial concepts. 7 ]. In the interview conducted on 5th April 2012, Ruben Pang, a local painter, reveals that he prefers that his artworks connect with the audience on their own accord. And in his analogy “Much to the same degree as a love song with generic lyrics. The audience likes the song because they are deluded that it relates to them when in actual fact the love song might be about a particular girl. However when the audience finds out that the love song is indeed about a particular girl, the lost interest in the song. ” [ 8 ]. The Propeller Group, a team made of three video artists, made a video entitled ‘Uh! to communicate the ideas of freedom of expression in present day Vietnam. For an online interview with the Propeller Group please refer to http://is. asia-city. com/events/article/60-seconds-propeller-group. [ 9 ]. After publishing the original theory in the The Bell System Technical Journal, Shannon and Weaver became that Noise could happen at other points besides the Channel. Another theory, the Information Theory was thus conceived. [ 10 ]. In an interview with Adrian Dannatt, Hirst mentions his infatuation with glass and thus the continuous use of glass in many of his other works. 11 ]. The Balinese dances were usually performed in temples for scared rituals to local deities associated with nature and ancestry. However in recent years, due to globalization and ASEAN’s push for cultural development and education, such dances have travelled around the world. (Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performances, 2011)(Tinggal, 1998) [ 12 ]. The Balinese believe the masks, when carved properly and are consecrated, becomes a vessel for a deity. In turn, the mask becomes a protective guardian and powerful sacred force when worn during a dance. Introduction to Bali: Art Ritual Performances, 2011)(Tinggal, 1998) [ 13 ]. Albert E. Elsen “Purpose of Art: An Introduction to the History and Appreciation of Art” (1981). [ 14 ]. Not Against Interpretation is an experimental platform to nurture an appreciation for contemporary art. The first artwork to be presented under this series is A Flog of Birdies by Singaporean artists Jason Lim and Vincent Leow. The work was an artistic collaboration between them as part of UTOPIA (United Together to Organise and Produce Interesting Art).

Reflections theory Introduction In this report I will be comparing two reflective theories, outlining their similarities and differences. I will be choosing the one I believe to be the best in my opinion. This will be the one I will be using in my end of year reflective account. The two reflective theories I will be looking at are, Johns Model of Structured Reflection and Gibbs’s Reflective Cycle. Theories There are two main differences between the two theories. Johns uses a linear structure, with a beginning and an end.

However, Gibbs uses a more cyclic structure and has no defined beginning or end. John’s theory is also mainly aimed towards health care and talks about working with patients and their families. Gibbs on the other hand can be aimed more towards students and their experiences. Johns uses the 2 main headings: Looking in and looking out. Under Looking in there are 5 Sub-Headings: Aesthetics, Personal, Ethics, Empirics and Reflexivity. Johns for the most part requires the need to work with a supervisor and as such he calls this a guided reflection.

It requires you to write a description of the experience before you begin the reflection, once you have done this it requires you to follow the questions as they come up. One of the advantage of Johns reflective model is that there is a clear Beginning and an end meaning the person looking back on their experience has a clear outline on where to begin and the process used in the reflection. However the issue with the reflexive pattern of knowing is that it will only be relevant for a situation that has been resolved.

If your were trying to analyze a situation that’s was ongoing you would have to incorporate parts of another reflective model to help you. With Johns model of structured reflection you would not have to use all the questions within the model, but you could also use the questions a number of times if appropriate. Gibbs Reflective Model is easier to be used by students as it talks about getting a clear understanding the situations. It uses the six main Headings: Description, Feelings, Evaluation, Analysis, Conclusion and Action Plan.

It uses these heading to gain a clear understanding of what went on, what was the experience like for the person, how they interpreted the situation, what they could have done and what they would do again if the situation arose again. Because there is no defined structure and no definite beginning or end, there is the advantage that if the person going through the reflection of their experience and they look back on it they can add more information to each section as and when they think of it, so they can go back or forward to one of the headings and add in the information into the specific field.

For example if they feel they need to talk about their feeling first they can do that or if they feel they need to evaluate the situation or talk about what they would do again, and add their input to it, as they can go through the cycle as many times as they need to get all the information down. Gibbs also talks about what would we do different if the situation arose again. They both put great emphasis on the feelings and the emotions of the person throughout the reflection process. They both talk about what happened and try to make sense of the situation. They both also talk about Conclusion

To conclude the theory that I will be choosing for my reflective practice at the end of year is, Gibbs Reflective Cycle. I have chosen this reflective model for a number of reasons. I believe that Gibbs reflective cycle is more aimed towards Student whereas Johns is aimed more towards health care and talks about working with patients and their families. Gibbs reflective model is also easier to interpret and I believe it to be easier to use to analyze any given situation with the main headings it uses to gain information about the situation the feelings of the person and the experience the person underwent during any given situation.

I believe it is easier to follow than Johns model of structured reflection. Gibbs reflective cycle does not require the need of a supervisor to aid the reflection whereas; John’s model talks about have one present to go through the reflection process. I will be using Gibbs Reflective cycle as I feel that it is more relevant to myself and it is clearer to follow and would be easier to use for my reflection process. References (2012) REFLECTION.

Available: http://moodle. bcu. ac. uk/tee/pluginfile. php/116376/mod_resource/content/0/reflective_models. pdf. Last accessed 15th Dec 2012. (2012) About Johns’ model of structured reflection. Available: http://www. brookes. ac. uk/services/upgrade/a-z/reflective_johns. html. Last accessed 16th Dec 2012. (2012) About Gibbs reflective cycle. Available: http://www. brookes. ac. uk/services/upgrade/a-z/reflective_gibbs. html. Last accessed 16th Dec 2012.

Compare McGregor’s Theory X and Theory Y style of leadership and consider the types of organizations in which each style of leadership might be most appropriate. Douglas McGregor devised his concept of Theory X and Theory Y in the USA in the 1950’s using a survey of managers, which he then proposed in his book, ‘The Human Side of Enterprise’ in the 1960’s. Theory X states that a manager distrusts his subordinates, believes they don’t enjoy work and therefore must be controlled.

Theory Y, on the other hand, speculates that a manager believes their employees enjoy work and wish to contribute, the manager is therefore more likely to include them in the decision making process and employ a more democratic style of leadership (Marcousse 2003). The two theories are not opposite ends of one spectrum, but rather two separate lines of continuum that describes the attitude and perception a manager has of their employees. The type of motivation that the employees receive from their manager is down to their management style.

These Theories match up with Maslow’s ‘Hierarchy of Needs’. McGregor makes the point that the way in which a manager runs and controls his team has massive impacts on the happiness in employees, relating to esteem and self actualisation. These are two factors of motivation mentioned by Maslow in his theory. In comparing these two theories, X and Y, we must take into account different factors that may affect the two ideas and how they may do so in different scenarios or places of work.

The general idea is that Theory Y is the path of the “enlightened manager” (Chapman 1995) who runs a democratic form of leadership, and that it receives better results than theory X, whose manager employs more of an autocratic dictatorship. However this cannot always be believed. In different cases a manager may do better in his work to tell employees the best and most effective way to complete a task, knowing through experience. FW Taylor (1856-1917) believed in efficiency and complete control of a task provided to the manager.

This idea related to such methods as the assembly line, a process broken down into simple tasks and completed individually by a group of workers along a line. Employed by such companies as Ford in the early 1900’s, in producing cars, this method gave great results, however keeping workers motivated was difficult, part of Taylor’s method was to “devise a pay scheme to reward those who complete or beat tough output targets, but penalize those who cannot, or will not, achieve the productivity Taylor believed was possible. (pg 218) For the manager, Theory X is a self – fulfilling method, the workers are likely to develop a lack in interest in their work and do it solely for the wage (Marcousse 2003). There are two scenarios in which Theory X can escape a degree of criticism for producing a lack of motivation from its workers(Marcousse 2003). The part time worker has partially already given in to the idea that they will not be receiving much independence and delegation of responsibility.

This is due to the amount of time they have committed to their work. For example, a part time security guard might be asked to stand guard on a gate for an hour every morning to let personnel through, however once they have completed this task they are unlikely to achieve much more than changing the channel on their TV. The job simply requires a pair of eyes at one point in the morning, and the rest of the time they are simply on call.

There is no enjoyment or form of learning with this job; the part time worker is simply there to take home some money at the end of the month, satisfying his basic needs for financial security, a mutual understanding between employer and employee. A large majority of the time there is little for the security guard to watch over. When something does arise that requires more attention, someone of higher authority is only a phone call away.

In this, theory X is the logical management style, as to use theory Y would mean a greater chance of mistakes being made by someone who doesn’t have the same experience and qualifications as the elected official. The other scenario is in a moment of chaos (Marcousse 2003). At this point, due to the limited time scale in such moments, someone needs to take full control and make quick decisive decisions. Such a case is easily understood when put into the confines of an army unit under fire.

Someone must give direct orders to keep the enemy under pressure and move their men to safety, or face either death or capture. Theory Y would consume too much time to listen to all possible ideas and make a decision, with young men who have been trained to take orders rather than come up with them. Efficiency is the key in this scenario, Taylor would be completely right in giving total control to a senior soldier to try and ensure the safety of his soldiers. Encouraging an employee to work for a great amount of time during the week or without the threat of danger

Assurance services – deal with audit or review of historical financial information and assurances dealing with subject matters other than historical financial information. * designed to enhance the degree of confindence of the intended users other than the responsible party about the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria FF. are the broad categories of services under the umbrella of assurance services: 1. Risk assessment 2. Information system reliability 3.

Adequacy of security over Electronic commerce transactions, electronic documents, and support systems 4. Effectiveness of Health care performance measurement systems 5. Reliability and relevance of Business performance measurement * it evolves naturally from Attestation services, which in turn evolve from audit * The root of all three is independent verification Non-assurance services (Related Services) – pertain to compilation of financial information , agreed-upon-procedures and other related services which do not result in the expression of conclusion that provides a level of assurance.

Auditing – is a systematic process of objectively obtaining and evaluating evidence regarding selected assertions about economic actions and events to ascertain the degree of correspondence between those assertions and established criteria and communicating the result to interested users. * determining whether recorded information properly reflects the economic events that occurred during the accounting period. Elements: * Systematic process * Objectivity * Obtaining and evaluating evidence * Assertions about economic actions and events * Degree of correspondence… stablished criteria * Communicating results * Interested users Attestation – refers to an expert’s written communication of a conclusion about the reliability of someone else’s assertions. * when a practitioner is engaged to issue a written communication that expresses a conclusion about the reliability of a written assertion * a type of assurance service whose subject matter (both FS and non-FS in nature) * offering some level of assurance Ex. of attest services: 1. Future-oriented financial information 2. Management’s discussion and analysis 3.

Effectiveness of internal control 4. Compliance with statutory, regulatory and contractual obligations Consulting services (Management Advisory Services) – professional services that provide advice and assistance concerning an entity’s organization, personnel, finances, operations, systems, or other activities. * an analytical process that typically involves some combination of activities relating to: a) objective-setting b) fact-finding c) definition of problems or opportunities d) evaluation of alternatives e) development of recommendations including actions ) communication of results g) implementation h) follow-up – reports are generally written in a narrative style – nature and scope is determined by agreement between the professional accountant and the client Areas of consulting services: 1. Consultations 2. Advisory 3. Implementation 4. Transaction 5. Staff and other support 6. Product AssuranceConsulting * three party-two party contractscontracts * to improve quality-to recommend of informationuses for infos. * decision makers & -Outcomes info. used for optimum decisions * intended to improve-designed to ecision maker’s improve client’s condition indirectly condition’s thru directly thru recommendationsfindings, conclusions and recommendation Four conditions that create demand for audits: 1. Potential conflict of interest between those who prepare information & those who use information. 2. Information can have substantial economic consequences for a decision maker. 3. Expertise is often required for preparing and verifying information 4. Users of information frequently are prevented from directly assessing the quality of information

Stewardship or agency Theory – implies that the manager, as well as the owner, wants the credibility an audit adds to the financial statement assertions. Types of Audits 1. Compliance Audits – to determine compliance with criteria, standards, or rules set by an authoritative body 2. Management Audit (Effectiveness of Performance) – an examination and evaluation of the activities of management 3. Performance Audit – analyzes an organization’s structure, internal systems, work flow and managerial performance 4. Comprehensive Audit – includes the components of compliance, performance and financial statements udit 5. Operational Audit – to determine the extent to which some aspect of an organization’s operating activities is functioning effectively 6. Internal Audit – an independent, ovjective assurance and consulting activity designed to add value and improve an organization’s operations. Helps by bringing a systematic, disciplined approach to evaluate and improve the effectiveness of risk management, control and governance process 7. Environmental Audit – environmental matters which may have an impact on the financial statements 8.

Forensic Audit – examination of evidence 9. Financial Statements Audit Types of Auditors 1. External (independent) auditors – public accountants, both individuals or firms 2. Internal auditors – services for a single organization for which they are employed on a full-time basis, typically reporting to the board of directors 3. Government auditors – full-time employees of the government tasked to determine compliance with laws, statutes, policies and procedures 4. Forensic auditors – financial auditing specialists who focus on unearthing the truth

Auditing and Assurance Standards Council (AASC) – body authorized to establish and promulgate generally accepted auditing standards (GAAS) in the Philippines * The main distinguishing feature of auditing and related services is the level of assurance provided by the auditor in the engagement. * An auditor becomes associated with the financial information through the attachment of a report or when consenting to the use of auditor’s name in professional connection. Remedies if known that the auditor’s name is inappropriately used: 1.

Request management to stop the inappropriate association of auditor’s name 2. Inform any known third party users 3. Seek legal advice Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 (SOX) – legislation passed in the USA in response to increased occurrence of corporate fraud. * gave Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board (PCAOB) authority to establish auditing standards, quality control standards and independence standards for auditor of public companies * Philippine Securities and Exchange Commission (SEC) in its Resolution No. 135 Series of 2002 – Code of Corporate Governance

Assurance Engagement – an engagement in which a practitioner expresses a conclusion designed to enhance the degree of confidence of the intended users other that the responsible party about the outcome of evaluation or measurement of a subject matter against criteria. “Subject matter information” – the outcome of the evaluation or measurement of a subject matter. Types of Assurance Engagement Objective Conclusion 1. Reasonable – risk reductionPositive to an acceptably low level 2. Limited – risk reduction to a level Negative that is acceptable in the circumstances

Elements of an Assurance Engagements 1. A three-party relationship – practitioner – responsible party – intended users 2. An appropriate subject matter a) identifiable and capable of consistent evaluation or measurement against the identified criteria b) information about it can be subjected to procedures for gathering sufficient appropriate evidence to support a reasonable assurance or limited assurance conclusion 3. Suitable criteria – benchmarks used to evaluate or measure the subject matter, including where relevant, benchmarks for presentation and disclosure. . Sufficient appropriate evidence – an attitude of professional scepticism to obtain sufficient appropriate evidence 5. A written assurance report in the form appropriate to a reasonable assurance engagement or a limited assurance engagement – a conclusion that conveys the assurance obtained about the subject matter information Assertion-based engagement: * In terms of the responsible party’s assertion * Directly in terms of the subject matter and the criteria Non-assurance Engagements Engagements covered by ISRS/PSRS, such as agreed-upon procedures engagements and compilation of financial or other info * preparation of tax returns where no conclusion conveying assurance is expressed * consulting engagements, e. g. Management and Tax consulting Reports on Non-assurance Engagements – clearly distinguishes that report from an assurance report Philippine Standards on Assurance Engagements – covers assurance engagements other than audits or reviews of historical financial infos. Acronyms: * AASC – Auditing and Assurance Standards Council * ASPC – Auditing Standards and Practice Council GAAS – Generally Accepted Auditing Standards * PICPA – Philippine Institute of Certified Public Accountants * ACPAPP – Association of CPAs in Public Practice * ISAEs – International Standards on Assurance Engagements * PCAOB – Public Companies Accounting Oversight Board * AAS – Auditing and Assurance Services * FRF – Financial Reporting Framework * PAS – Philippine Accounting Standards * PFRS – Philippine Financial Reporting Standards * PSA – Philippine Standards on Auditing * PRC – Professional Regulation Commission * BOA – Board of Accountancy Chapter 2 Objectives of Financial Statement Audit to enable the auditor to express an opinion whether the financial statements are prepared, in all material respects, in accordance with an applicable financial reporting framework -Auditor is responsible for forming and expressing opinion on the FS and should determine whether such financial reporting framework adopted by management is acceptable -Management those charged with governance and has the primary responsibility of preparing and presenting these FS in accordance with frameworks and responsible for identifying the financial reporting framework to be used

Complete Set of FS: * Statement of Financial position * Statement of Comprehensive Income * Statement of Changes in Equity * Statement of Cash Flows * Notes General Principle of Audit 1. Ethical Requirements – Quality control 2. Audit in accordance with PSA 3. Professional scepticism – questioning mind 4. Objectives – reduce audit risk to an acceptable level Assurance Provided by Auditor 1. Basis of evidence gathered (which include sampling) 2. Auditor provides reasonable assurance 3.

Financial statements are free from material misstatements (materiality) * Sampling – used to gather evidence on financial statement amounts and disclosures * Reasonable Assurance – alludes to the concept of audit risk which is implicit in the audit function and implied in the scope paragraph of auditor’s report * Material misstatements – no guarantee that the FS are accurate. Auditor provides reasonable assurance concerning material misstatements and an opinion on fairness, in all material aspects.

Collusions – when two or more individuals work together to effect misappropriation or concealment. Assertions – representations by managements, explicit or otherwise, that are embodied in the financial statements * Internal control assertions – an implied assertions by management that such internal control procedures are effective as to both their design and operation * Financial Statement assertions – management asserts that the financial statements, and by implication the financial statement items and underlying account balances and classes of transaction, are free of material misstatement.

Level of Aggregation Category of FS Assertions per the AASC’s Glossary of Terms: 1. Existence 2. Rights and Obligations 3. Occurrence 4. Completeness 5. Valuation 6. Measurement 7. Presentation and disclosure Audit Objectives * to gather and evaluate audit evidence of sufficient quantity and appropriate quality in order to form an opinion on the financial statements prepared by management. Three Fundamental Concepts in Conducting an Audit 1. Materiality – degree of misstatement or omission . Audit risk – auditors may inappropriately express his opinion 3. Evidence – refers to the necessary information that an auditor gathers in order to form a credible opinion on the assertions Audit Report 1. Title 2. Addressee 3. Introductory paragraph 4. Management’s responsibility 5. Auditor’s responsibility 6. Auditor’s opinion 7. Other reporting responsibilities 8. Auditor’s signature 9. Date of the auditor’s report 10. Auditor’s address Other Types of Opinions

Qualified – expressed when the auditor concludes that an unqualified opinion cannot be expressed but that the effect of any disagreement with management, or limitation on scope is not so material and pervasive Adverse – issued when the effect of a disagreement is so material and pervasive to the FS that the auditor concludes that a qualification of the report is not adequate Disclaimer – issued when the possible effect of a limitation on scope is so material and pervasive to the FS

Adult learning theory focuses on educating adults in a style that best relates to the life and experiences. Adults and children learn in different ways. It has been found that children learn because they have to, while adults learn for reasons usually based on self motivated factors or androgogy (Holt, 2011). “Teaching that transforms: Facilitating life change through adult Bible teaching” by Richard A. Holt (2011), it is stated that it is necessary to bring both concepts of the Bible teaching and contemporary adult learning theories together for the most effectiveness. In the Holt article; it is shown that Biblical explanation and interpretation assist the adult learner in gaining knowledge. The choices one makes gives real world perspective and power can only be obtained by the Holy Spirit. The article discusses the styles in which adult learning makes a difference, whether androgogy, transformative learning or self-directed learning (Holt). Adult Learning Theory for the Twenty-First Century” discusses the goals of educators to better prepare themselves to better deal with adult learners. Over the last 15 years, learning theories have changed very aggressively (Merriam, 2008). As adults continue to develop human physiology changes, thus learning teaching styles have to change to keep up. It has been recognized that with time everything that adults experience is part of the learning process. It has been further recognized that educators have to increase their tool set to involve creative and artistic modes of teaching to reach a wider audience.

Both articles cover the ever-changing dynamics of the human psyche and educational styles and requirements in dealing with adult learning. Educators have to continue to increase knowledge both for themselves as well as those whom they are educating. Where the styles of the teaching process in the Holt (2011) article differ from the Merriam (2008) article, they both recognize the changes in adult learners. It has been recognized over years and will continue for years to come that educators of adults will have to continue honing their skill sets to accommodate the learning styles of adults.

Since adults learn differently from children it is important to include the learning styles necessary to maximize the efforts of educators. As adults learning styles change it will be necessary for those educating adults to change also. Reflection After reading both articles and realizing the application in my own life and learning style, I conclude that adults learn differently. There were moments of complete frustration as I was putting my thoughts together as I can tend to be somewhat of a perfectionist. I had the realization that time management and organizational skills are imperative when completing an assignment of any type.

The Holt (2011) article caught my attention initially because of how I tend to study and read the Bible in particular. I am coming to understand more and more how I learn and further realize that the concepts of knowledge, choice and power are applicable in my own life. I am intrigued by the concept mentioned in the Holt article and will consider its application to my current Bible study methods. The Merriam (2008) article is interesting in the fact that I had no idea how challenging it is for educators to keep up with the learning curve that is necessary to continue teaching the increasing number of adult learners.

Being out of the college environment for so long, I realize it is not as easy to just get things done with all of the demands of life as I know it. I can see how both articles and their teaching styles have a positive impact on dealing with adult learning. With all of the influences of culture, music, art, etc, it is imperative that educators find a way to keep up with the demands of educating the population of adults returning to increase their knowledge to keep up with fast paced American culture. I now have a new respect for teachers on all levels. It is interesting that adult educator’s find is so necessary to effectively reach adults.

It is increasingly more common for adults to return to school for a number of reasons, and are driven to succeed for just as many reasons. Thankfully educators realize the change necessary to comprehend the goals of those adults striving for successes related to educating themselves.

References

1. Holt, R. A. (2011). Teaching that transforms: Facilitating life change through adult Bible teaching. Christian Education Journal, 8(2), 450+ Merriam, S. B. (2008).
2. Adult learning theory for the twenty-first century. New Directions For Adult And Continuing Education, Volume 2008, Issue 119, 93-98. DOI: 10. 1002/ace. 309