Theories

There were four different theories of governments, the force theory, the evolutionary rule, the divine right theory, and social contract theory. The Force theory was when one person or group of people gained control of the area and forced others to submit to their rule. The evolutionary Rule basically said that the states would develop naturally out of family clans, tribes, ect. The divine right theory said that the state was created by God and God gave people of royal birth the “divine right to rule”.

The social contract theory was created by Thomas Hobbes and he believed that before the state people were British. People lived poorly and to improve their lives people could enter into a social contract where a superior person would rule over the rest. None of these four different theories of governments would be a best fit for the United States today. The force theory should not be a government for the United States. A dictator or a group of dictators would make all decisions and there would be no rights for U. S. citizens.

The people would have no say and would not be able to vote on anything. The dictator would have all control. In the United States today, we do not use the force theory, but rather a democracy. The Force theory would not be best fit for the United States because with one person having all control, the people of the United States would not have a government that would not be able to exercise their amendments. The evolutionary Rule would also not be a best fit for the United States because in the evolutionary rule, there is no one with control.

There would be no form of government and the states would be separate depending on what family you were born into. The area the family clan or tribe originated from would become part of that state. The states would develop naturally rather than families moving throughout each state. This theory would not be a best fit for the United States because there would be no form of government and the families would be born into a state. The divine right theory is mostly based on religion and would not be a good way to govern in the United States because people practice different religions.

God gave people of the royal birth the “divine right to rule”, but not all people believe in the same religion or God. Not only would religion be an issue but also the royal family factor. In the United States, there are no royal families, but there are wealthy, middle class, and the low class. The “divine right to rule” is not used in the United States because of the different religions. This theory would not be best fit for the United States because the United States does not rule based on religion and there are no royal families.

The Social contract theory was created by Thomas Hobbes and he basically stated that the state people were British. People were poor and to improve their lives people would enter into a social contract where one superior person ruled over the rest. This would not be a best fit form of government for the United States today because not everybody lives poor in every state. Each state has a different group of lower class, middle class, and upper class. This also would not be good government for the U. S. because with one superior person ruling there would be no democracy. The United States does not use the social contract today because of these reasons. The four theories of forms of government were all different from one another. These theories are should not be used in the United States today because it’s a different time from when these theories were created. They also should not be used in the U. S. today because there are different reasons the theories would not work in the U. S.

For the past several decades the terms learning disorders, learning dysfunctions, learning disabilities, learning differences, and attention-deficit disorders have made the rounds in the educational, medical, and psychological journals. The concepts have been studied routinely and thoroughly with similar and distinct differences. Some theoreticians and educators include the concepts of dyslexia, hyperactivity, interrupted concentration, anxiety, perceptual dysfunction, and a host of other variables as belonging to the definition of what should be called a learning puzzle rather than a dysfunction.

If the perception of a piece is placed before the recognition of the whole, then treatment is item specific and not supportive of the entire structure. In other words, learning, and the process whereby it is completed or interrupted, must be viewed in relation to the whole structure rather than identified by its parts. The learning puzzle can be properly described as an intricate formation of a human’s neurological, physiological, psychological, and sociological systems (parts) blended together to produce a healthy functioning individual (whole).

The “act” of learning is accomplished optimally when all parts of the puzzle are functioning without interruption. However, when learning is interrupted through external or internal stimuli the puzzle cannot be completed and negative results occur. The lack of puzzle completion is brought about both environmentally and medically. For example: A lack of educational opportunity, poor self esteem, and even peer pressure (environmental leaning interruption) can help to erode the puzzle structure and produce a dysfunctional situation in the learning process (Jourard, 1959).

Similarly, should there exist a malfunction in the body (medical part) disruption in learning can occur as well; thus preventing the puzzle from becoming complete. The focus, therefore, of this paper will be to report on that which causes learning to be disrupted through a medical variable (hyperactivity) and the treatment that can be applied to permit learning to take place on a much more normal basis. The literature is replete with references to Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (AD/HD) and the learning consequences.

Generally speaking AD/HD is characterized by developmentally inappropriate impulsivity, attention, and hyperactivity. It is a neurological disorder (DSM-IV-TR, 2000; Breggin, 2000) that has serious consequences including school failure, problems with relationships, conduct disorder, substantive abuse and job failure (Bagwell, 2001; Cepeda, 2000). More specifically AD/HD refers to a family of related chronic neurobiological disorders that interfere with an individual’s capacity to regulate activity level (hyperactivity), inhibit behavior (impulsivity), and attend to tasks (inattention) in developmentally appropriate ways.

Treatment for the disorder runs the gambit from behavioral therapy (Rabiner, 2003), to herbal remedies (Chan, 2000), to medication (Biederman, 1999). For the most part the drugs used to treat AD/HD are those, which must be prescribed by a physician. Regardless of the drug prescribed the most effective way to treat AD/HD is to use a combination of drugs and therapy. The most common, as well as most familiar, prescriptive medications used for the treatment of AD/HD in children are those stimulants known as methylphenidates (Ritalin, Concerta, Metadate-ER) and amphetamines (Dexedrine, Dexedrine Spansules, Adderall. (Breggin, 1998; Watkins and Brynes, 1999).

However, administering these particular drugs to AD/HD children reportedly has some rather severe ramifications such as drug dependency, changing brain chemistry, suppressing appetite, and disrupting the growth hormone. Stimulant medications commonly used to decrease distractibility by increasing focus and concentration, are Ritalin, Dexedrine and Cylert. The general misconception is that this type of medication is used to control hyperactivity. However, the decrease in observable hyperactivity is actually the result of increased ability to concentrate.

On the other hand there are even some researchers and practitioners who believe that Ritalin can also lead the way to the use of other narcotics and drugs as the child gets older. Yet there are those who believe that even though the use of Ritalin should be discontinued, they believe the AD/HD child can be placed in a more compliant or submissive state with medications that will permit the child to gain control over the disruptive behavior and learn more (Pelham, Carlson, Sams, Vallano, Dixon, & Hoza, 1993; Runnheim et al. 1996; Barkley, R. A. ,1990).

Just because an AD/HD child may have a positive reaction to medication is not indicative that medication is all that is required to produce the desired learning and behavioral results. The medications do not cure the disorder; they only control the symptoms while the medication is in the system. Knowing that medications may help a child pay better attention they do not improve the child’s academic skills or increase the child’s knowledge.

What is most often recommended for lasting improvement is to combine a medical management program with other treatment modalities such as behavioral therapy, emotional support, and parental and educational involvement. The concern today is that everyone is looking for a miracle cure for AD/HD children. Successful treatment of AD/HD requires specifically dealing with several problems in terms of hyperactivity, impulsivity, inattention, and poor motivation. In fact the more the treatment digresses from the aforementioned performance points, the less successful the treatment becomes.

Knowing that proper nutrition, exercise and a healthy lifestyle is important for everyone, including ADHD children, there is extremely little scientific evidence that any homeopathic or herbal preparations will lessen or eliminate the symptoms of AD/HD in children. In addition there is little evidence as well treating an AD/HD child with vitamin and mineral supplements, biofeedback, or acupuncture will have any long-lasting affect. The life of an AD/HD child can only change for the better through a combination of careful assessment, proper counseling, family involvement, and appropriate medical treatment.

What exactly is the chaos theory? Some believe the chaos theory is one of the many theories that will be recognized in the centuries to come. The chaos theory embodies many conditions of science, such as physics, engineering, economics, philosophy, mathematics, music, and even psychology. The chaos theory is only beginning. The chaos theory is a theory used in different categories of science that a seemingly possible phenomena has an underlying meaning. When was chaos first discovered? Edward Lorenz was the first true experimenter in chaos, he was a meteorologist.

In 1960 Edward Lorenz was working on a weather prediction problem, he ad a computer set up to model the weather with twelve equations. His computer program did not predict the weather, but theoretically predicted what the weather might be. In 1961 Edward Lorenz wanted to see a specific sequence again, to save time he began in the middle of the sequence. He entered his printout number and let it run. An hour later the sequence had changed differently. The pattern had diverged, ending up being extremely different. His computer had saved the numbers to a six decimal place, he printed it out for three decimal places to save paper.

The original sequence was 0. 506127 he had it as 0. 506. Lorenz’s experiment: he ditterence between the sta rting values ot these curves is only . 000127. (Ian Stewart, Does God Play Dice? The Mathematics of Chaos, pg. 141) This is how the butterfly effect became, because of the number of differences of the two curves starting points was that of a butterfly’s wings flapping. Unpredictability is one of the most important element is a complicated system. Lorenz calls this unpredictability “sensitivity to initial conditions,” which is also known to be the butterfly effect.

This idea means with a non-linear, complex systems, starting conditions will effect in extremely dissimilar outputs. The effect of the utterfly’s movements, to predict the weather. An example is if a butterfly flaps it’s wings in Tokyo, it could predict a storm in Texas in several weeks time. The dependance on initial conditions is extreme. There is a rule for complicated systems that one cannot create a model that will predict outcomes accurately. The idea initial conditions on sensitive dependance mathematical roots are powerful.

If you have a circle with the points XO and Xl , this represents the starting value for a variable. “We assume that the difference between there two numbers is represented by the distance between the points on the circle, given by the ariable d. To demonstrate the importance of infinite accuracy of initial conditions, we iterate T. Atter only one iteration, d, or the distance between T ), has doubled Iterating again, we find that the distance between the two points, already twice its initial size, doubles again. In this pattern, we find that the distance between the two points, Tn(XO) and Tn(X1), is 2nd.

Clearly, d is expanding quite rapidly, leading the model further and further astray. After only ten iterations, the distance between the two points has grown to a whopping 210d = 1024d. ” This example determines that to close conditions begin, after only a few minor ifferences, and iterations. The exact point on the circle can only be describes with an infinite amount of decimal places, the other remaining decimal places are discarded. There will always be a decimal error even if you enter the initial numbers into the computer with precision.

Chaos is deterministic, sensitive to initial conditions, and orderly. Chaotic systems do have a sense of order, non chaotic systems are random. In a chaotic system even a minor in the starting point can lead to different outcomes. Equations for this system appear to show an increase to completely random behaviour. When raphed the system, something surprising happened, the output stayed on a double spiral curve. Lorenz’s equations were certainly ordered, because they all had followed a spiral. The points never ended on a single point , but they weren’t periodic either, they never repeated the same thing.

He called his graphed equation the Lorenz attractor. In 1963 he published a paper describing his discovery and the unpredictability of the weather. This paper also included key information about the types of equations and what caused this behaviour. Since he was not a mathematician or a physicist he wasn’t cknowledged for his discoveries until year later, when there had already been rediscovered by others. Lorenz had to wait for someone to discover him, his discovery was revolutionary. Another example of sensitive dependance of initial conditions is flipping a coin. There are two variables.

One is how fast it is flipping, and the other is how fast it will hit the ground? Apparently, it should be likely to control how might the coin end up. In practice, it is impossible to control exactly how fast the coin flips and how high. There are similar problems like this in ecology. This occurs with the prediction of biological population. If the population rises continually, but with predators and limited food supply the equation is incorrect. next year’s population = r * this year’s population * (1 – this year’s population) Benoit Mandelbrot was a mathematician working at 18M, he was studying self- similarity.

One ot the areas ne studying was cotton prize tluctuation. He tried many times to analyze the data of the price for cotton, but the data did not go with the normal distribution. He decided to collect data from. Mandelbrot eventually gave up, until he decided to gather all the information dating back to 1900. He IBM’s computer and found a surprising fact: The numbers that produced aberrations from the point of view of normal distribution produced symmetry from the point of view of scaling. Each particular price change was random and changes unpredictable.

But the sequence of changes was independent on scale: curves for daily price changes and monthly price changes matched perfectly. Incredibly, analyzed Mandelbrot’s way, the degree of variation had remained constant over a tumultuous sixty-year period that saw the two World Wars and a depression. ” dames Gleick, Chaos – Making a New Science, pg. 86) Another example of the chaos theory is the human heart. The heart has a chaotic pattern. The time between the beats is not constant. It depends on how much actions a person is doing and there also among other things.

Muted Group Theory This topic is to basically analyze the theory of Muted Group and to see how it correlates with Walt Disney’s The Litter Mermaid. What is Muted Group Theory? Muted Group Theory was first proposed by Edwin Ardner and the theory is an attempt to explain why certain groups in society are muted which means they are either silent or just not heard. Edwin Ardener was an anthropologist who discovered that a group becomes mute due to the lack of power that is experienced of a group with a low status.

Ardener then realized that this particular theory might form more of a gender perspective. Females are seen as being constructed differently and it is these specific differences that cause females to act in a different way as opposed to males. It is these reasons that women and minorities are to be considered muted groups because they are considered to be of a lower status than the dominant groups. Ardener called the theory the muted group because these muted groups are liken to black holes since they are muffled, overlooked and invisible (Griffin. 003: Prentice. 2005: Rogers 1978). It is not necessarily always seen that women are automatically muted or feel like a muted group but women believe that have no choice in order to “fit in” other than to change the way they act and talk. Women still live in a world that is dominated by men and women have taken the backseat to a man for centuries and depending on some cultures, the status of women and how they are viewed is not likely to change any time soon.

There is quite a bit of power play being executed in environments where a specific group because of gender, race, or cultural background cannot be heard for who they are, but rather only by acting in ways they are reflective of who is “listening”, the dominant group. It would not be until Cheris Kramarae offered a different perspective to the Muted Group Theory. According to Cheris Kramarae, language is something that was constructed by man. The words and thoughts of women are ignored in our society.

Because of this, it is difficult for women to express their experiences as opposed to men. Kramarae further stated that language does not serve all its speakers in an equal manner regardless of the culture because women are not as free as men to say what they want, when they want, and where they want. Men have a dominant control of society and how the members of society should express themselves. As such, different terms are used to describe tasks done by both males and females even when they are doing the exact same thing.

It is also because of this that most sexual suggestions that are considered degrading are usually referring to women than to men (Anderson & Haddad 2005; Eckert & McConnel-Ginet, 1992; Epstein, 1986; Griffin, 2003; Prentice. 2005: West. 1983). In Order for women to express themselves to others, they must do so as how males express themselves (Epstein, 1986; Griffin, 2003; Rogers. 1978; Stets & Burke. 1996) One of Kramarae’s first published articles explains why women are perceived differently in the world and how they are not only less powerful but a group that does not speak a similar language as men.

Men and women speak a different language. According to popular belief, at least, the speech of women is weaker and less effective than the speech of men. Our culture has many jokes about the quality of women’s speech . . .. Compared to male speech, the female form is supposed to be emotional, vague, euphemistic, sweetly proper, mindless, endless, high-pitches, and silly” (p. 82). The Muted Group Theory does not necessarily explain all the possible ways woman can interact to obtain their desired goals within an organization or something along those lines.

Some women use certain techniques and tactics in which they are inherently strong and it is these particular women who can overcome the male power. One prime example of a women overcoming male power is the classic Disney Movie “the Little Mermaid”. When Walt Disney released its adaptation of Hans Christian Andersen’s “The Little Mermaid,” it had become a box-office hit. Yet, the movie captured the attention not just of young girls back in the late 1980’s but sociologists and anthropologists as well since the movie became a perfect example of whey they had termed as the “muted group theory. References Griffin, E. M. (1991). A first look at communication theory (3rd Ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. ISU Communication Studies. (n. d. ). Context of communication. Muted Group Theory Information Page. (1998, April 8). Kramarae, C. (1996). Classified information: Race, class, and (always) gender. In J. Wood (Ed. ), Gendered relationships (pp. 20-38). Mountain View, CA: Mayfield. Kramarae, C. (1981). Women and men speaking: Frameworks for analysis. Rowley, MA: Newbury House.

Theories that have been developed to account for 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, or acquisition, are closely related to those discussed above as general larning theories. A behavioristic attack to 2nd linguistic communication larning focal points on imitation, pattern, encouragement and wont formation. Learning a 2nd linguistic communication needfully involves comparing with the scholar ‘s first linguistic communication, but the latter is by and large perceived as doing ‘interference ‘ in the acquisition of extra one ( s ) . This attack is seen now to offer an deficient account of the complexness of linguistic communication acquisition.

The linguist Noam Chomsky ( 1957 ) provided a major review of behaviorism and its position of 2nd linguistic communication acquisition as imitation and wont formation. He developed a theory of first linguistic communication acquisition that suggests that linguistic communication acquisition is an unconditioned capacity – that kids are programmed to get linguistic communication thanks to their in-built cognition of a Universal Grammar. He called this cognition ‘competence ‘ , to separate it from what might really be said on a peculiar juncture.

aˆ? Second linguistic communication acquisition and larning theories need to account for linguistic communication acquisition by scholars from diverse life-worlds, larning with diverse demands, involvements, motives and desires in diverse contexts

aˆ? Intercultural linguistic communication instruction and acquisition focal points on the relationship between linguistic communication, civilization and acquisition

aˆ? Using languages, therefore larning linguistic communications, is:

– an intrapersonal and interpersonal procedure of meaning-making – interactional

– developmental/dynamic

– interpretive, inventive and originative

Understanding linguistic communication acquisition

key ideas

30 Teaching and Learning Languages: A GuideFor Chomsky, this abstract cognition of linguistic communication consists of a limited set of regulations that enabled an infinite figure of sentences to be constructed. While he did non specifically address 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, his theory has been applied to it.

With respect to learning methodological analysis, behaviorism can be linked to grammar/translation methods that tend to concentrate on the parts of grammatical cognition with less attending on how these parts might be brought together in communicating. The audiovisual and audio-lingual attacks were based on stimulus-response psychological science – that is, developing pupils through rehearsing forms to organize ‘habits ‘ .

One of the most influential of the innatist theories ( ie theories that argue that linguistic communication is unconditioned, is that of Stephen Krashen and it is this theory that influenced communicative linguistic communication instruction ( for more information, see Lightblown & A ; Spada, 1999, Chapter 2 ) .

Within cognitive theories of 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, larning involves constructing up the cognition system or architecture which over clip and through pattern becomes automatically accessible in response and production. Some theoreticians within the cognitivist tradition have argued that interaction is indispensable for linguistic communication acquisition to take topographic point, with the alteration of input, by instructors for illustration, to render it comprehendible to the scholar ( see Long, 1983 ) .

The sociocultural position on 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, based on the work of Vygotsky ( 1978 ) , high spots that all acquisition, including linguistic communication acquisition, is based on societal interaction ( see Lantolf, 2000 ) with more adept others, on an interpersonal and intrapersonal plane as described above.

Through the construct of the zone of proximal development, it highlights that linguistic communication acquisition is developmental. The feature of ‘prior cognition ‘ is really of import. It recognises that new acquisition is built on anterior larning – that is, the thoughts and constructs that pupils bring to acquisition.

Teachers work with these prepossessions in order to ease acquisition. The feature of ‘metacognition ‘ , or consciousness about how we learn, is built-in to larning. Students need to understand how they learn. They need to continuously reflect on their acquisition and develop self-awareness of themselves as scholars. There is a strong connexion between larning and individuality: scholars need to negociate constantly who they are, and how they can be/ should be/ would wish to be in the linguistic communication and civilization they are larning.

The function of linguistic communication

The function of linguistic communication in larning can non be over-emphasised. Language is the premier resource instructors have and use for interceding acquisition. When larning linguistic communications, so, instructors and pupils are working with linguistic communication at the same time as an object of survey and as a medium for larning. In learning linguistic communications, the mark linguistic communication is non merely a new codification – new labels for the same constructs ; instead, efficaciously taught, the new linguistic communication and civilization being learned offer the chance for larning new constructs and new ways of understanding the universe.

While these theories of 2nd linguistic communication larning provide penetrations on facets of 2nd linguistic communication acquisition, there is no comprehensive or ‘complete ‘ theory that can steer the patterns of instruction and acquisition. However, this does non intend that ‘anything goes ‘ . Rather, it becomes necessary for instructors to go cognizant of and understand what they do and why, by analyzing their ain, frequently silent, theories about larning in relation to penetrations from current and best theories, and by sing the deductions of these for instruction. Both instructors and pupils need to develop a rich construct of what linguistic communication and civilization are and do, and how they interrelate to construe and make significance.

Goal Setting Theory and Expectancy Theory: Comparison and Contrast

Introduction
The issue of employee motivation has been gaining so much attention of managers over the last numerous decades, because organisations realised that in order to stand out from their competitors, they need to have a better quality and higher productivity at all levels.  Also, they recognized employee is one of the most valuable assets in organisations, and they possess components that could directly affect the company’s overall performance, such as skills, experiences and knowledge. (Buhler 21) As such, most organisations are looking for ways to motivate their employee in order to improve efficiency, productivity and quality. 

A number of motivation theories have been proposed to explain individual motivation to perform in organisations.  Motivation is defined as “the willingness to exert high levels of effort toward organisational goals, conditioned by the effort’s ability to satisfy some individual need”. (Ramlall 53)  However, different theories produce different result at different times, and thus managers are now facing a problem that employees are potentially different in terms of personality and reactions to changes.  For example, a positive motivational atmosphere is not likely to motivate everyone in organisation, because different employee is motivated by different things. (Thompson, McHugh)  Therefore, it is critical for mangers to decide what motivation theories are most applicable in their workplace and ultimately achieving the organisation goals.

Two theories that can be used to explain the motivation of managers are the expectancy theory and the goal setting theory. Both of these are process theories as they are based on how behaviour is, “initiated, directed and sustained” (Billsberry 13) and, “attempt to identify the relationships among the dynamic variables which make up motivation” (Mullins 499). In this paper I am going to compare and contrast these two motivation theories.  I will briefly explore the context of each theory and attempt to identify the similarities and differences among them.  Finally, this paper will discuss how they apply to managers, and to what extent they can explain the manger’s motivations.

The Expectancy Theory
Vroom presented the original workplace related expectancy theory in 1964, which argued that “employees tend to rationally evaluate various on the job-work behaviours and then choose those best behaviours they believe will lead to their most valued work related rewards and outcomes”. (Vroom 8) “The expectancy theory suggests that people will put in extra effort if they believe it will result in greater performance, and that the greater performance will lead to desirable outcomes such as bonuses, promotion, a feeling of satisfaction or simply someone saying thank you” (Billsberry 13). The expectancy theory is based on the principle that an individual will act in a certain way on the expectation that the act will be followed by a given outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual. For example, a manager may be more motivated and work twice as hard to succeed for the business if they believe it will increase the chance of him/her receiving a bonus.

This theory can be used to help us understand how managers make decisions regarding various behavioural alternatives. It deals with the direction aspect of motivation, where our expectations and behaviour lead to achieving our goals. The expectancy theory is also known as the Valence-Instrumentality-Expectancy Theory or VIE Theory (Arnold 123). This theory is based on the belief that motivation is a combination of valence, instrumentality and expectancy. Valence is the value of the perceived outcome, for example, how much a manager wants to gain a promotion in a company. This is based on his/her goals, needs, aspirations, preferences and values. Managers can gain both intrinsic and extrinsic rewards, which help motivate them to do their job. Intrinsic rewards are positive internal feelings which include a sense of responsibility and achievement, and this business cannot offer its employees. Extrinsic rewards can be physical such as receiving a bonus, and this the company can offer. For a manager to be motivated, both these types of values should be satisfied (Huczynski & Buchanan).

The second part of the expectancy theory, instrumentality, is the belief that if certain actions are completed, then the individual will achieve the outcome. (Arnold 127) An example of this is if a manager achieves a target he sets himself, he will intrinsically feel that he has done a good job, and this would also motivate him to continue to meet other goals. (Giles 429) Expectancy is the last part of this theory and it is the belief that a person is able to complete the actions in order to attain the desired goals. This belief is usually based upon an individual’s previous experiences and self-confidence (Huczynski & Buchanan). An example of this is how much a manger believes that by working his hardest, his individual effort will make a difference to the company he works for.

The expectancy theory equation is as follows (Giles 427):
F = (Expectancy x Instrumentality x Valance)
The formula above helps explain the motivation of managers as it, “provides a basis for measuring the strength or force (F) of the individual’s motivation to behave in particular ways” (Huczynski & Buchanan 250). Managers should have high values for force because to motivate their team, they too should be highly motivated. The managers have a high expectancy value (as well as valence and instrumentality) because they believe that their job is to effectively co-ordinate their subordinates, so if they are successful in motivating, they would feel even more motivated because of the intrinsic and extrinsic rewards gained from that.

However, the expectancy theory only helps and applies to the motivation of managers to some extent because it does not consider job insecurity and how that can affect performance. Therefore, any value calculated is likely to be unreliable. It is also difficult to compare two managers’ motivations as they may rate valence, expectancy and instrumentality differently, hence, it would be a slightly unfair comparison. (Mullins).

Goal Setting Theory

Goal setting theory is one of the most widely used motivational techniques throughout industry today. (Halepota) This theory emerged in late 1960, researchers argued that the simple act of specifying targets for behaviour enhanced task performance. (Yearta et al. 238)  In other words, individuals make calculated decisions about their desired goals.  Once individuals determine the goals they intend to achieve, these goals or intentions will motivate efforts to attain them.  Thus, setting goals affects behaviours of the individuals and their job-related performance. (McKenna 101-110)

There are two critical aspects in goal setting theory.  Firstly, researchers showed that goal specificity, goal difficulty, goal acceptance and participation are closely related in enhancing task performance.  For instance, specific and clear goals always increase performance, also, when difficult or challenging goals are accepted by employees, performance will tend to be higher, therefore the characteristics of goals are largely affect on individual’s performance. (Richard 382) Secondly, receiving feedback on goal achievement is another critical part for motivation, because the feedback will assure individuals of their continued progress or behaviours in achieving the same goals in the future. (Yearta et al. 237-252)

In contemporary work situations, goal setting theory seeks the involvement of both mangers and employees in participation of goals-setting process, which allows them to communicate and evaluate the most attainable and acceptable goals. Simultaneously, the communication between managers and employees offers the feeling of importance to employees and allows for feedback.  Moreover, timely and accurate feedback is critical, because if employees do not get feedback on their performance, it is impossible to know what behaviours to continue in order to achieve the similar goals in future. (Porter, Lawler 308)

Similarity and Difference Among Expectancy and Goal Setting Theories

Expectancy theory and goal setting theory are all classified as cognitive theories, because they are collectively attempt to understand the thought processes that people usually go through in determining their behaviours in the workplace and thereby helping to leads motivation. (Denny) However, each theory takes a slightly different view towards motivation.  Under expectancy theory, people’s behaviour however is motivated by the expectations that effort and performance will lead to desired outcome.  In order to be motivated, individual need to be committed in achieving goal under goal setting theory, in other words, goals direct one’s thoughts and actions. (Shamir 425)

Moreover, managers need to take different approaches in order to best use of each motivation theories.  Under expectancy theory suggested that employee is only motivated to their desired rewards, however, different employee desire different rewards, managers should try to match the rewards with what their employees really want, otherwise, failed in motivation.  In contrast, under goal setting theory the critical factor is goal, but there are many obstacles that might decrease motivation, for example, when goals are vague, too difficult to attain and related to rewards. Thus, it is very important for mangers to participate in the goal setting process with employees, and also it allows communication and provides feedback. (Steers 382)

Conclusion

To conclude, both the expectancy theory and goal setting theory can help explain the motivation of managers in order for them to achieve maximum results and performance for the company. According to Vroom’s expectancy theory, motivation is dependent on how much someone wants something, and the likelihood of that person actually being able to get it.  This helps explain the motivation of managers to some degree as it shows the direction of the individual and what makes them motivated, although being able to apply a value to this is questionable. The goal theory is also extremely useful because it organises the efforts of the manager, however a limit of the goal theory is that it can be a time consuming process. This is because it takes time to set specific goals, accomplish them, and to complete them within a given time. Nevertheless the goal setting theory is more useful than otherwise because it is able to explain the motivation of managers to a greater extent.

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The status of TG. Language is a means of forming and storing ideas as reflections of reality and exchanging them in the process of human intercourse. It’s social by nature and inseparably connected with people. It develops with the development of society. The language consists of 3 parts: the phonological system (i. e. sound system), the lexical system (set of naming means of language) and the grammatical system. The principles of systemic approach to language and its grammar were developed in the linguistics of the 20th century after the publication of the works by Beaudoin de Courtenay and Ferdinand de Saussure (they demonstrated the difference between lingual synchrony and diachrony). The 1st characteristic feature of Grammar is its abstract character (it abstracts itself from particular & concrete and builds its rules & laws, taking into consideration only common features of groups and words).

The 2nd characteristic feature of Grammar is stability (laws & categories of Grammar exist through ages without considerable changes). The main object of Grammar is the grammatical structure of language (i. e. the system of the laws of word changing & sentence building). There’re 2 types of Grammar: Normative and Theoretical. Normative Grammar is the collection of rules of the given language, manual of practical mastering the Grammar. It’s of a prescriptive character.

Theoretical Grammar is the branch of linguistics, which studies the forms of the words & their relations in sentences in more abstract way, giving the profound description of existing grammatical laws & tendencies; looks inside into the structure of parts of language & expose the mechanisms of their functioning, i. e. the mechanism of the formation of utterances out of words in the process of speaking. The aim of TG is to present a scientific description of a certain language. It’s of a descriptive character. “The aim of TG is to present a theoretical description of its grammatical system, i. . to analyze scientifically and to define its grammatical categories and study the mechanisms of grammatical formation of utterances out of words in the process of speech making. ” Essential notions of morphology: morph, allomorph, morpheme, word-form. Traditionally, the course of Grammar is divided into two parts: Morphology and Syntax. Syntax includes the sentence & the parts of the sentence; it makes the study of ways of connection words & word combinations in the sentences. Morphology deals with forms of words. It includes: parts of speech & their morphological categories.

Morphological categories are represented in word forms. It studies the system of forms of word change. E. g. : the case & the number of the noun; person, number, mood of the verb etc. I. P. Ivanova says that the word is the basic unit of morphology. The word – is a nominative unit of language; it is formed by morphemes; it enters the lexicon of language as its elementary component (i. e. a component indivisible into smaller segments as regards its nominative function); together with other nominative units the word is used for the formation of the sentence – a unit of information in the communication process”. M. Y. Blokh). The morph is a minimal sequence of sounds, possessing certain meaning and regularly occurs in some environments. The morph is a minimal meaningful textual unit, the textual representative of a morpheme, i. e. a morph is a variety of a morpheme: e. g. the variant in- of the negative prefix un- is its morph. The morpheme is the elementary meaningful lingual unit built up from phonemes and used to make words. It has meaning, but its meaning is abstract, significative, not concrete, or nominative, as is that of the word. Morphemes constitute the words; they do not exist outside the words.

The morpheme is a group of one more morphs united by the same meaning and complementary distribution. Allomorphs are speech variants of morphemes (the plural morpheme -(e)s [s], [z], [iz]). Classes of morphemes:  Free (root) morphemes.  Bound (affixes) morphemes.  Word-morphemes (e. g. to give up): a) lexico-grammatical morphemes: He gave up the idea; b) grammatical morphemes: He has given me the book. Roots express the concrete, “material” part of the meaning of the word and constitute its central part. Affixes specify, or transform the meaning of the root. ay be of two kinds: of lexical or grammatical character. So, according to the semantic criterion affixes are further subdivided into lexical, or word-building (derivational) affixes, which together with the root constitute the stem of the word, and grammatical, or word-changing affixes (inflections), expressing different morphological categories, such as number, case, tense and others. With the help of lexical affixes new words are derived, or built; with the help of grammatical affixes the form of the word is changed. in-just-ice-s (prefix+ root+ suffix+ inflection)

Word-form is the unity of the stem and inflection: e. g. smiled = smile + ed. The other name for the word-form is lemma. We may play lemmas in the language: e. g. He went his came . Came is a word-form. Types of word-formation (derivation). Affixation: He rooms here. Sound alternation: foot-feet, speak-spoke. Suppletive formation: good-better-the best; go-went-gone. Analytical word-formation: I am coming; She is sleeping. Here the so-called problem of the analytical word-form arises. There are several approaches to the problem.

In order to solve this problem we should answer the question: How many auxiliaries are there in English?  The first approach (the traditional one) represents the principle of homonymy: should – modal: e. g. You should come to the classroom in time; should – Subj. : e. g. If I saw Helen tomorrow I should speak to her; should – Future-in-the-Past Tense: e. g. I told her mother that I should be happy to receive her here. The second approach is represented by R. Quirk. According to Quirk analytical word-forms are those which include only have, do, be, all the rest are modal verbs and phrases, which are polysemantic.

The third approach is usually connected with the name. He said: “We deal with the analytical word-form if we have auxiliary + the verb with inflection”: auxVing: am going; is working. A form-class is a set of word-forms which differ by the stems but have the same inflection. There are 8 form-classes in English:

1. Pl. noun – s;
2. Case noun – s;
3. Pres. Simple, person verb – s;
4. Degrees of comp. adv. , adj. – er, est;
5. Past simple verb – ed;
6. Past part. verb – ed;
7. Aspect verb – ing;
8. Present part. verb– ing.

Grammatical category is constituted by the opposition of at least two sets of form-classes contrasted to each other on the basis of some certain grammatical meaning: e. g. book – books (plurality), the category of number. The opposition within a category is necessary. The opposition is a generalized correlation of lingual forms by means of which a certain function is expressed. The correlated elements (members) of the opposition must possess two types of features: common features and differential features. There are 3 main qualitative types of oppositions:

• privative;
• gradual;
• equipollent.

By the number of members contrasted, oppositions may be binary (two members) and more than binary (ternary, quaternary, etc. ). The binary privative opposition is formed by a contrastive pair of members in which one member is characterized by the presence of a certain differential feature (“mark”), while the other member is characterized by the absence of this feature. In morphology the example is – the category of number: book – books. Here the differential feature of the opposition is “plurality”.

The gradual opposition is formed by a contrastive group of members which are distinguished not by the presence or absence of a feature but by the degree of it. In morphology the example is – the category of degrees of comparison of adjectives: clean – cleaner – the cleanest. The equipollent opposition is formed by a contrastive pair or group in which the members are distinguished by different positive features. The basis of morphological equipollent opposition is suppletivity, i. e. the expression of the grammatical meaning y means of different roots united in one and the same paradigm, e. g tense forms of the irregular verbs (go/went). Grammatical categories: N (number, case gender, V (the opposition of finite, non- finite forms; categories of person, number, tense, aspect, voice, mood), adj and adv. (degrees of comparison).  Classes of words: the criteria of classification. The words of language, depending on various formal and semantic features, are divided into grammatically relevant sets of classes. The traditional grammatical classes of words are called “parts of speech”.

In modern linguistics, parts of speech are discriminated on the basis of the three criteria: semantic; formal; functional. The semantic criterion presupposes the evaluation of the generalized meaning, which is characteristic of all the subsets of words constituting a given part of speech. The meaning is understood as the “categorial meaning of the part of speech (of a class). The formal criterion provides for the exposition of the specific inflectional and derivational (word-building) features of all the lexemic subsets of a part of speech.

It deals with word-building affixation pattern and word-form affixation (grammatical paradigm). The functional criterion concerns the syntactic role (function) of words in the sentence typical of a part of speech and distribution (combinability). We can also speak about these categorial characterizations of words as meaning, form, function. 4. The field properties of word- classes. Field is a set of units which have a dominant integral feature which unites them and certain distinctive features allow a variation. A field approach helps to clarify many disputable points in the traditional classification of parts of speech.

The border lines between the classes of words are not rigid; instead of border lines there’s a continuum of numerous intermediary phenomena, combining the features of two or more major classes of words. Field theory states that in each class there’s a core, the bulk of its members that possess all the characteristic features of the class, and a periphery (marginal part), which includes the words of mixed character, intermediary between this class and other.

The three criteria of defining of defining grammatical classes of words in English may be placed in the following order: function, form meaning. Charles Frese divided all the words according to their functional syntactic features. He believed that all the words which can occupy the same position in the sentence must belong to the same class. He used the technique of substitution in the so called test-frames. He used 3 main test-frames. For his materials Charles Fries chose tape-recorded spontaneous telephone conversations comprising about 250,000 word entries (50 hours of talk).The concert was good. the structures meaning is thing and its quality at given time) The clerk remembered the tax. (actor, action & thing acted upon) . The team went there. (actor, action & direction of the action) Charles Fries used the technique of substitution: all the words that can substitute for the word ‘concert’ with no change of structural syntactic meaning would belong to one class. Using this technique Charles Frese pointed out 4 classes: noun, adjective, verb, adverb. As for the rest of the words, he distributed them into 15 functional groups by means of the same method in extended test-frames. The general characteristics of the noun. The Noun is considered to be the central nominal unit of language. The features of the noun are the following:

1. the categorial meaning of substance (“thingness”);
2. the changeable forms of number and case; the specific suffixal forms of derivation (prefixes in English do not discriminate parts of speech as such);
3. the substantive functions in the sentence (subject, object, substantival predicative); prepositional connections; modification by an adjective Nouns denote things and other entities presented as substances (beauty, progress).

The only category on nouns which is generally accepted is the category of number. Many scholars think that the notion of case applies to English pronouns, but not to nouns. Gender distinctions aren’t marked morphologically. The most characteristic function of a noun in the sentence is that of the subject. The function of object is also typical. Nouns are related by conversion with verbs (an eye – to eye) and with adjectives (native – a native) Nouns are characterized by some special types of combinabiliyty. Typical of noun is the prepositional combinability with another noun, a verb, an adj, an adv. an entrance to the house, to turn round the corner, red in face, far from its destination) Noun groups of the type N+N (stone wall, car roof), often called stone-wall constructions, take an intermediately position between nouns and noun phrases. Multicomponental structures are typical of newspaper and scientific style: ambulance staff pay dispute.

Noun subclasses Nouns fall into several subclasses which differ as to their semantic and grammatical properties: -common – proper (on the basis of type of nomination) -concrete- abstract countable – uncountable (on the basis of quantative structure) -animate – inanimate ( on the basis of for,, of existence) -personal –non personal (human – non-human) on the basis of personal quality Lexico-semantic variants of nouns may belong to different subclasses: paper – a paper. The class of nouns can be described as a lexico-grammatical field. Nouns denoting things constitute the centre, nucleus of the field. Nouns denoting processes, qualities, abstract notions are marginal peripheral elements of the field. The noun: the category of number. The category of number is expressed by the opposition of the plural form of the noun to the singular form of the noun. The strong member of this binary opposition is the plural. Its productive formal mark is the suffix (inflection) –(e)s [-z, -s, -iz] as presented in the forms dog-dogs, clock-clocks, box-boxes. The non-productive of expressing the number opposition are vowel interchange (man-men, tooth-teeth), the archaic suffix –(e)n (ox-oxen, child-children, brother-brethren), the correlation of individual singular and plural suffixes in a limited number of borrowed nouns (phenomenon-phenomena, criterion-criteria).

In traditional linguistics grammatical time is often represented as a three-form category consisting of the “liner” past, present,and future forms. The future -in –the- past does not find its place in the scheme based on the liner principle, this system is considered to be deficient, not covering all lingual data. Linguists build up a new system of tenses in order to find a suitable place in them for future -in –the- past. Some of them deny the independent status of future tenses while others exclude from the analysis future -in –the- past forms. In English there exist 2 tense categories.

The 1-st category- the category of primary time- expresses a direct retrospective evaluation of the time of the process denoted, due to which the process receives an absolutive time characteristic. This category is based upon the opposition of “the past tense” and “the present tense”, the past tense being its strong member. The 2-nd tense category is the category of “prospective” time, it is based upon the opposition of “ after-action” and “non- after-action”the marked member being the future tense. The category of prospect is relative by nature, it characterizes the action from the point of view of its correlation with some other action.

The verb acquires 2 different future forms: the future of the present and the future of the past. The future of the past is doubly strong expressing the strong member of the category of primary time and the category of prospect. 19 The verb: the category of aspect The category of aspect represented by 2 sets of forms in modern English: non-continuous (indefinite, simple), continuous (progressive). The categorical meaning of the continuous form is defined as the meaning of duration, while the indefinite form may be interpreted as having no spective meaning ( Ivanova), as a form having a vague content(Vorontsova), as a form stressing the fact the performance of action( Smirnitsky) Some linguist interpret the opposition of the perfect/ non-perfect forms as respective,others as opposition of tense forms( Sweet, Korsakov). Smirnitsky proved that perfect and non-perfect make up a category of time correlation. In eng. there exist 2 aspective categories: the category of development (based on the opposition of continuous and non- continuous forms)and the category of retrospective coordination( based on opposition of perfect and non- perfect forms)

The opposition of continuous and non- continuous forms can be neutralized and transponized . The opposition of perfect and non- perfect forms can undergo only the process of neutralization, transposition being alien to it. The grammatical category of time-correlation (of order, of phase) is represented by binary opposition, constituted by 2 form classes: perfect and non-perfect. The perfect is the marked member of the opposition both in form and in meaning. The non-perfect is a weak member of the opposition both in form and in meaning as a rule. -/++ Non-perfect. Perfect riteshas written wrotehad written will writewill have written This category shows whether the action is viewed as prior to other actions or irrespective of other actions. Linguists disagree as to the category of the perfect belongs. Some grammarians think that it forms part of the aspect system (the resultive aspect). Other linguists treat perfect as belonging to the tenses. Smirnitsky was the first to draw attention that the forms represent a grammatical category which is different from the category of tense, though it is closely connected with it. E. g. She has come. priority to the act of speech. She had come before he phoned over. – priority to the act of his phoning over. Thus the perfect forms express priority, whereas non-perfect lays the action unspecified. 20 The verb: the category of voice The grammatical category of voice is represented by a binary privative opposition constituted by 2 from classes, active & passive, in which passive voice is the marked member of the opposition both in form “to be +participle II” and in meaning. Active voice is a weak member both in form & meaning.