Traffic

Traffic police have a selected amount of land to cover throughout the region. Their role is to Provide an emergency response, Reduce road collision casualties, Minimise disruption to the free flow of traffic, provide any possible assistance and reassurance to road users, Provide specialist support services to the force and Ensure that the division makes the most efficient use of all its resources. In all the traffic cars the patrol cars have been fitted with specially designed suspension and brakes to cope with the extra load and the varied and demanding conditions they are exposed to. Motorcycle officers also have a specialist role in the policing of major public events, such as football matches, and providing a police escort for VIPs. They co-ordinate roadwork’s, speeding complaints and monitor local collision trends.

Rapid Response Ambulance

Rapid response ambulance is specified to attend emergency incidents, ideally within eight minutes of notification. The Trophy Yellow estate cars, with green reflective Battenburg livery, incident equipment carried on the vehicles includes; oxygen therapy, cardiac defibrillators, entonox, maternity and paediatric pack, burns bag, cervical collars, splints and first aid bag. Plans for major incidents, site maps, body bags, triage cards and contacts for agencies and hospitals are also carried. Additional special items include the light roof bar, radio communications and a reverse-decal ‘Ambulance’ livery on the bonnet and ‘RESPONDER’ on its tailgate. These cars aren’t stationed at the hospital; they are located in areas close to the region boarders making their response time a lot quicker. Their role is to attend emergencies, be first on the scene and aid injured people.

Both services are required to attend incidents within a short period of time. To be able to make these deadlines, they are both authorized to use their sirens and lights to make other road users aware that they are responding to an emergency. In many cases both rapid responses are linked together. If theirs an RTA the rapid response would be first on scene that would then get the ambulance service called out if anyone is injured. The rapid response ambulance may take that call if it’s within their area, which would attend and wait for ambulance to attend from the hospital to take casualties to hospital.

Criminals target vehicles, New cars are automatically fitted with some sort of device attached immobiliser, tracker or alarm. The ideas of these security devices are outlined beneath. Immobilising system, which is automatically activated when the ignition key is removed. The way it works is the device transmits a radio-frequency signal every time the engine is started, sending a different password to the system. Insuring the car cannot be started any other way without the key. Electronic engine immobilisers prevent your car from starting and are the best way to stop thieves.

Car alarms can deter thieves from not only stealing your car, but also taking items from it. Older cars are criminals prime targets due to the lack of security protection fitted to them. Steering wheel locks are a cheaper alternative to engine immobilisers use them every time you leave your car. Locking wheel nuts easy to fit and stop thieves from taking your wheels. Have your car registration number or the last seven digits of your Vehicle Identification Number etched onto all windows, both windscreens and your headlamps. Mark all your car equipment, like your car stereo, with your vehicle registration number.

Having any of these security measures reduces the attractiveness of the car to thefts. Analysis of driver’s attitude whilst travelling on the roads. Due to no one having the same characteristic everyone is different, with his or her own style of driving technique. With this in mind people tend to act differently on the roads. Road rage is the biggest form of driver’s attitude on the roads and they aren’t necessarily the person behind the wheel either. People speeding, acting irresponsible and general behaviour of others on the roads can cause road rage.

Older citizens push the blame onto younger citizens for the way that they drive, younger citizens reverse the blame. There are business people who due to road rage drive more dangerously and faster blaming traffic and deadlines as their excuse. Parents who want to pick children up, but cant park near schools due to heavy congestion around the school. There are people who drive for living truck drivers, van drivers and public transport drivers who are consistently on the roads, that travel through all the peak times of the days. There are the rush hour periods during the day that make everyone less tolerable to waiting calmly. Speeding is mostly influenced by other people speeding, thinking if they can break the limit then so can they, which causes many other problems on the roads.

After researching speeding I found that in Northampton there was a work shop for people who had broken the speed limit, where people can analysis there own behaviour on the roads. After the workshop results showed that: 92 per cent of respondents who had been on a Speed Workshop said that they were now more likely to keep to the speed limit. Of those who had received a speeding ticket, but hadn’t been on a Speed Workshop, 53 per cent of respondents said that it was not acceptable to exceed the speed limit. After the Workshop, this increased to 78 per cent.

Drink driving in England is unacceptable especially around the Christmas period where more than the average drink. The UK legal limit for drivers is 80 mg of alcohol per 100 ml of blood but there is no failsafe guide to the amount of alcohol that a driver can safely consume. The amount and type of alcoholic drink, the weight, sex and metabolism of the driver all play a part. But any amount of alcohol affects driving ability. A motorist’s ability to judge speed and distance may be impaired, their reaction times may be slowed and their judgement of risk seriously affected.

Advice from the drink-driving site has given this structure for drinking:

• Immediately before driving: Men should consume no more than 4 units, women no more than 3
• When drinking the night before driving: Men should consume no more than 10 units, women no more than 7. (This assumes that no alcohol is consumed after 11.30 pm, and that driving does not take place before 8 am the following morning)

Cambridge county council have published that in the last three years there have been 324 drink drive accidents involving death and injury. Drink driving may cause the driver not able to judge the speed and distance accurately; the driver may become more overconfident whilst driving endangering other road users. With all these people on the roads, there is no wonder so many people are involved in accidents. Accidents can also be caused by people’s personal preferences. A driver may like to drive slower than the person in the car behind due to not feeling confident on the roads or just being cautious.

Many drivers on the road don’t have enough breaks during travelling that could make the driver tired, irritable and likely to become a danger to themselves and others. Business people travelling in their own car are likely to have mobiles in use, without hands free or microphone the drive by law has to stop where safe and answer the call. As this is unlikely event to happen most people fit attachments in the car to prevent committing an offence.

Parents with children should to prevent the driver being distracted, entertain children with some sort of music or equipment that will entertain the children while in their baby seats or whilst they are belted up in the back seats. Using this sort of attitude whilst making a journey will decrease the chance of a common traffic offence and in case of an accident reduce the chance of critical accident.

Poster on tiredness – I did a surveyed on ten people asking what they do during long journeys, five people said they don’t stop but tend to differ the speed, play music and have sweets in the car. Two people said that they stop every two hours at a pre-selected break while the other three said that it depends on the weather and whether they know where they are going.

After showing the poster to the five that don’t stop, the drivers have changed their opinion and have agreed to wither stop for a stretch, swap drivers if able to and plan their journey that stop every hour to two hours. Poster on mobile phones – whilst driving, proves that people aren’t multi-skilled that means driving and using a mobile will divide there attention running higher risk of an accident. Surveying the same ten people that I did for the tiredness poster, I asked how many have their mobiles switched on and how they would deal with the driving if they’re mobile started ringing.

Three people said that they don’t have their phone on at all through journeys. Two people said that due to the nature of the business that they have hands free kits and one person said that their company installed a microphone set to avoid missing calls whilst on the road. Four people said that they would only use there mobile whilst sitting in traffic or when they are driving on roads that wont cause the driver distraction.

After showing the poster and asking them to read it out, they found it very hard and took a few seconds to work out that the transcript was engaging two different statements. After this experiment, all of the drivers that I surveyed that said that they would at least get some equipment installed in their car to avoid causing accident. Even using hand free kits and microphones aren’t advised, but they aren’t against the law and they have reduced the amount of accidents. Not everyone can avoid using their mobile whilst travelling due to their job but this does reduce the amount of accidents for the time being.

Traffic monitoring and parametric quantities estimation from urban to battlefield environment traffic is fast-emerging field based on acoustic signals. This paper considers the job of vehicular traffic denseness appraisal, based on the information nowadays in cumulative acoustic signal acquired from a roadside-installed individual mike. The happening and mixture weightings of traffic noise signals (Tyre, Engine, Air Turbulence, Exhaust, and Honks, etc) are determined by the prevalent traffic denseness conditions on the route section. In this work, we extract the short-run spectral envelope characteristics of the cumulative acoustic signals utilizing MFCC (Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients). The (Scaly Conjugate Gradient) SCG algorithm, which is a supervised acquisition algorithm for network-based methods, is used to calculate the second-order information from the two first-order gradients of the parametric quantities by utilizing all the preparation datasets. Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy classifier is used to pattern the traffic denseness province as Low (40 Km/h and supra), Medium (20-40 Km/h), and Heavy (0-20 Km/h). For the development geographicss where the traffic is non-lane driven and helter-skelter, other techniques (magnetic cringle sensors) are unsuitable. Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy classifier is used to sort the acoustic signal sections crossing continuance of 20-40 s, which consequences in a categorization truth of 95 % for 13-D MFCC coefficients, ~95 % for first order derived functions, and ~95 % for 2nd order derived functions of cepstral coefficients.

Keywords: Acoustic signal, Noise, Traffic, Density, Neuro-Fuzzy.

Introduction

As the figure of vehicle in urban countries is of all time increasing, it has been a major concern of metropolis governments to ease effectual control of traffic flows in urban countries. Particularly in first-come-first-serve hours, even a hapless control at traffic signals may ensue in a long clip traffic jam doing a concatenation of holds in traffic flows and besides CO2 emanation. Density of traffic on roads and main roads has been increasing invariably in recent old ages due to motorisation, urbanisation, and population growing. Intelligent traffic direction systems are needed to avoid traffic congestions or accidents and to guarantee safety of route users.

Traffic in developed states is characterized by lane driven. Use of magnetic cringle sensors, picture cameras, and velocity guns proved to be efficient attack for traffic monitoring and parameter extraction but the installing, operational and care cost of these detectors significantly adds to the high operational disbursal of these devices during their life rhythms. Therefore research workers have been developing several Numberss of detectors, which have a figure of important advantages and disadvantages relative to each other. Nonintrusive traffic-monitoring engineerings based on ultrasound, radio detection and ranging (Radio, Laser, and Photo), picture and audio signals. All above present different features in footings of hardiness to alterations in environmental conditions; industry, installing, and fix costs; safety ordinance conformity, and so forth.

Traffic surveillance systems based on picture cameras cover a wide scope of different undertakings, such as vehicle count, lane tenancy, velocity measurings and categorization, but they besides detect critical events as fire and fume, traffic jams or lost lading. The job of traffic monitoring and parametric quantity appraisal is most normally solved by deploying inductive cringles. These cringles are really intrusive to the route paving and, hence cost associated with these is really high. Most video analytics systems on main roads focus on numeration and categorization. Using general intent surveillance cameras for traffic analysis is demanding occupation. The quality of surveillance informations is by and large hapless, and the scope of operational conditions (e.g., dark clip, inclement, and mutable conditions) requires robust techniques. The usage of route side acoustic signal seems to be good attack for traffic monitoring and parametric quantity appraisal intent holding really low installing, operation and care cost; low-power demand; operate in twenty-four hours and dark status.

Conventional pattern categorization involves constellating developing samples and tie ining bunchs to given classs with restrictions of lacking of an effectual manner of specifying the boundaries among bunchs. On the contrary, fuzzed categorization assumes the boundary between two neighbouring categories as a uninterrupted, overlapping country within which an object has partial rank in each category. In brief, we use fuzzed IF-THEN regulations to depict a classifier.

Assume that K forms, p= 1,. K is given from two categories, where is an n-dimensional chip vector. Typical fuzzed categorization regulations for n = 2 are like

If is little and is really big so = ( ) belongs to C1

If is big and is really little so = ( ) belongs to C2

Where are the characteristics of form (or object) P, little and really big are lingual footings characterized by appropriate rank maps. The firing strength or the grade of rightness of this regulation with regard to a given object is the grade of belonging of this object to the category C.

Most of the categorization jobs consist of medium and large-scale datasets, illustration: familial research, character or face acknowledgment. For this different methods, such as nervous webs (NNs), support vector machines, and Bayes classifier, have been implemented to work out these jobs. The network-based methods can be trained with gradient-based methods, and the computations of new points of the web parametric quantities by and large depend on the size of the datasets. One of the network-based classifiers is the Neuro-Fuzzy Classifier (NFC), which combines the powerful description of fuzzed categorization techniques with the larning capablenesss of NNs.

The Scaled Conjugate Gradient (SCG) algorithm is based on the second-order gradient supervised learning process. The SCG executes a trust part measure alternatively of the line hunt measure to scale the measure size. The line hunt attack requires more parametric quantities to find the measure size, which consequences in increasing preparation clip for any learning method. In a trust part method, the distance for which the theoretical account map will be trusted is updated at each measure. The trust part methods are more robust than line-search methods. The disadvantage associated with line-search method is eliminated in the SCG by utilizing the trust part method.

We start with a word picture of the route side cumulative acoustic signal which consisting several noise signals (tyre noise, engine noise, air turbulency noise, and honks), the mixture weightings in the cumulative signal varies, depending on the traffic denseness conditions. For low traffic conditions, vehicles tend to travel with medium to high velocities, and therefore, their cumulative acoustic signal is dominated by tyre noise and air turbulency noise. On the other manus, for a to a great extent congested traffic, the acoustic signal is dominated by engine-idling noise and the honks. Therefore, in this work, we extract the spectral characteristics of the wayside acoustic signal utilizing Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients (MFCC), and so Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Classifier is used to find the traffic denseness province (low, Medium and Heavy). This consequences in 95 % truth when 20-30 s of audio signal grounds is presented.

We begin with description of the assorted noise signals in the cumulative acoustic signal in Section II. Overview of past work based on acoustic signal for traffic monitoring is provided in Section III, followed by characteristic extraction utilizing Mel-Frequency Cepstral Coefficients in IV. Finally, the experimental apparatus and the categorization consequences by SCG-NFC are provided in Section V, and the decision is summarized in Section VI.

Vehicular acoustic signal

A vehicular acoustic signal is mixture of assorted noise signals such as tyre noise, engine tick overing noise, noise due to wash up, engine block noise, noise due to aerodynamic effects, noise due to mechanical effects (e.g., axle rotary motion, brake, and suspension), air-turbulence noise and the honks. The mixture weighting of spectral constituents at any location is depends upon the traffic denseness status and vehicle velocity. In former instance if we consider traffic denseness as freely fluxing so acoustic signal is chiefly due to tyre noise and air turbulency noise. For medium flow traffic acoustic signal is chiefly due to broad set thrust by noise, some honks. For heavy traffic status the acoustic signal is chiefly due to engine tick overing noise and several honks. A typical vehicle produces assorted noise depends on its speed, burden and mechanical status. In general, estimate can be done as vehicular acoustic signal is categorized as,

Tyre noise

Tyre noise refers to resound produced by turn overing Sur as an interaction of turn overing Sur with route surface. The tyre noise is besides considered as chief beginning of vehicle ‘s entire noise at a velocity higher than 50 kilometers per hours. Tyre noise has two constituents: air noise and vibrational noise. Air noise dominant in the frequence ranges between 1 KHz to 3 KHz. On the other manus vibrational noise is dominant in the frequence scope 100 Hz to 1000 Hz. Effect is generated by route and Sur, which forms a geometrical construction that amplifies the noise (elaboration consequences in tyre noise constituent in the frequence scope 600 Hz to 2000 Hz), produced due to tyre-road interaction. The directionality of horn depends upon tyre geometry, tyre yarn geometry, weight and torsion of Sur. The entire Sur noise power along with horn consequence lies in the frequence scope 700-1300 Hz.

The Sur noise is caused by three different factors:

1. The Sur hitting the land
2. The quiver of the air through the tread form
3. The quivers go throughing through the Sur

Engine noise

Engine noise is produced due to internal burning of engine. Engine noise contains a deterministic harmonic train and stochastic constituent due to aerate intake. The fuel burning in engine cylinder leads to deterministic harmonic train where lowest harmonic tone refers to cylinder fire rate. On the other manus stochastic constituent is mostly due to the turbulent air flow in the air consumption, the engine chilling systems, and the alternator fans. The engine noise varies with velocity and the acceleration of vehicle. A stationary vehicle produces distinguishable engine tick overing noise whereas traveling vehicle produces different engine noise in correspondence with cylinder fire rate. In the recent old ages, makers designs quieter engine to stamp down the noise degree. So engine noise might be strong on front side of auto compared to other waies.

Exhaust noise

The exhaust noise is produced due to full fumes system. The system goes from the engine burning compartment through exhaust tubings to the exhaust silencer nowadays at the dorsum of the vehicle bring forthing exhaust noise. The exhaust noise is straight relative to burden of the vehicle. The exhaust noise is characterised by holding power spectrum around lower frequences. Exhaust noise is affected by turbo coursers and after ice chest.

Air Turbulence noise

Air turbulency noise is produced due to the air flow generated by the boundary bed of the vehicle. It is outstanding instantly after the vehicle base on ballss by the detector (e.g. mike). It produces typical drive-by-noise or whoosh sound. The Air turbulency noise depends on the aeromechanicss of the vehicle, wind velocity and its orientation.

Acoustic signals for traffic monitoring

Today ‘s urban environment is supported by applications of computing machine vision techniques and pattern acknowledgment techniques including sensing of traffic misdemeanor, vehicular denseness appraisal, vehicular velocity estimate, and the designation of route users. Currently magnetic cringle sensor is most widely used detector for traffic monitoring in developing states. However traffic monitoring by utilizing these detectors still have really high installing and care cost. This non merely includes the direct cost of labour intensive Earth work but besides, possibly more significantly, the indirect cost associated with the break of traffic flow. Besides these techniques require traffic to be orderly flow, traffic to be lane driven and in most instances it should be homogenous.

Mentioning to the developing parts such India and Asia the traffic is non lane driven and extremely helter-skelter. Highly heterogenous traffic is present due to many two Wheelers, three Wheelers, four Wheelers, auto-rickshaws, multi-wheeled coachs and trucks, which does non follow lane. So it is the major concern of metropolis authorization to supervise such helter-skelter traffic. In such environment the cringle sensors and computer-vision-based trailing techniques are uneffective. The usage of route side acoustic signal seems to be good option for traffic monitoring intent holding really low installing, operation and care cost.

Vehicular Speed Appraisal

Doppler frequence displacement is used to supply a theoretical description of individual vehicle velocity. Premise made that distance to the closest point of attack is known the solution can suit any line of reaching of the vehicle with regard to the mike.

Feeling techniques based on inactive sound sensing are reported in. These techniques utilizes microphone array to observe the sound moving ridges generated by route side vehicles and are capable of capable of supervising traffic conditions on lane-by-lane and vehicle-by-vehicle footing in a multilane carriageway. S. Chen et Al develops multilane traffic feeling construct based inactive sound which is digitized and processed by an on-site computing machine utilizing a correlativity based algorithm. The system holding low cost, safe inactive sensing, unsusceptibility to adverse conditions conditions, and competitory fabrication cost. The system performs good for free flow traffic nevertheless for congested traffic public presentation is hard to accomplish.

Valcarce et Al. work the differential clip holds to gauge the velocity. Pair of omnidirectional mikes was used and technique is based on maximal likeliness rule. Lo and Ferguson develop a nonlinear least squares method for vehicle velocity appraisal utilizing multiple mikes. Quasi-Newton method for computational efficiency was used. The estimated velocity is obtained utilizing generalized cross correlativity method based on time-delay-of-arrival estimations.

Cevher et Al. uses individual acoustic detector to gauge vehicle ‘s velocity, breadth and length by jointly gauging acoustic moving ridge forms. Wave forms are approximated utilizing three envelop form constituents. Consequences obtained from experimental apparatus shows the vehicle velocities are estimated as (18.68, 4.14) m/s by the picture camera and (18.60, 4.49) m/s by the acoustic method. They besides had estimated a individual vehicle ‘s velocity, engine ‘s unit of ammunitions per minute (RPM), the figure of cylinders, and its length and breadth based on its acoustical moving ridge forms.

Traffic Density Estimation

Time appraisal for making from beginning to finish utilizing existent clip traffic denseness information is major concern of metropolis governments. J. Kato proposed method for traffic denseness appraisal based on acknowledgment of temporal fluctuations that appear on the power signals in conformity with vehicle base on ballss through mention point. HMM is used for observation of local temporal fluctuations over little periods of clip, extracted by ripple transmutation. Experimental consequences show good truth for sensing of transition of vehicles

Vehicular Categorization

Classification learning strategies normally use one of the undermentioned attacks:

• Statistical classifiers based on Bayes determination theory, assume an implicit in chance distribution for unknown forms, e.g. maximal likelihood appraisal, maximal posterior chance appraisal, Gaussian mixture theoretical accounts, concealed Markov theoretical accounts or k-nearest neighbour method.
• Syntactic or structural classifiers based on additive or nonlinear interrelatednesss of characteristics in the characteristic vector lead to linear/non-linear classifier.
• Acoustic characteristic coevals are chiefly based on three spheres: clip, frequence, and both time-frequency sphere.
• Time sphere characteristic coevals offers really low computational demand, but characteristics are frequently hampered by environmental noise or air current effects.
• Frequency sphere characteristic coevals see a stationary spectrum in a given clip frame. As traveling vehicles are non-stationary signals, the influence of Doppler effects and signal energy alterations either have to be neglected or the investigated clip frame must be chosen short plenty to afford quasi stationary signal behaviour.
• Time-frequency sphere characteristic coevals see the non-stationary signal behaviour of go throughing vehicles and it lead to accurate steps of signal energies in clip and frequence sphere at the same time, these attacks are holding a high computational complexness.

Feature extraction using MFCC

An omnidirectional mike was placed on the prosaic pavement at approximately 1 to 1.5 m tallness, and it recorded the cumulative signal at 16000 Hz trying frequence. Samples were collected for clip continuances of around 30s for different traffic denseness province conditions (low, medium and heavy). The assorted traffic denseness states induce different cumulative acoustic signals. To turn out the above statement, we have examined the spectrograph of the different traffic province ‘s cumulative acoustic signals.

For the low denseness traffic status, we merely see the wideband drive-by noise and the air turbulency noise of the vehicles. No honks or really few honks are observed for low denseness traffic status.

For the medium denseness traffic status, we can see some wideband drive-by noise, some honk signals, and some concentration of the spectral energy in the low-frequency ranges (0, 0.1  of the normalized frequence or equivalently (0, 800) Hz.

For the heavy denseness traffic status, we notice about no wideband drive-by engine noise or air turbulency noise and are dominated by several honk signals. We note the several harmonics of the honk signals, and they are runing from (2, 6) kilohertz.

The end of characteristic extraction is to give a good representation of the vocal piece of land from its response features at any peculiar clip. Mel-Frequency cepstral coefficients (MFCC), which are the Discrete Cosine Transform (DCT) coefficients of a Mel-filter smoothed logarithmic power spectrum. First 13-20 cepstral coefficients of a signal ‘s short clip spectrum compactly capture the smooth spectral envelope information. We have decided to utilize first 13 cepstral coefficients to stand for acoustic signal for matching traffic denseness province. These coefficients have been really successfully applied as the acoustic characteristics in address acknowledgment, talker acknowledgment, and music acknowledgment and to vast assortment of job spheres. Features extraction utilizing MFCC is as follows,

Pre-emphasis

Pre-emphasis stage emphasizes higher frequences. The pre-emphasis is a procedure of go throughing the signal through a filter. It is designed to increase, within a set of frequences, the magnitude of some (normally higher) frequences with regard to the magnitude of the others (normally lower) frequences in order to better the overall SNR.

Framing and Windowing

Typically, address is a non-stationary signal; therefore its statistical belongingss are non changeless across clip. The acquired signal is assumed to be stationary within a short clip interval. The input acoustic signal is segmented into frames of 20~40 MS with optional convergence of 1/3~1/2 of the frame size. Typically each frame has to be multiplied with a overacting window in order to maintain the continuity of the first and the last points in the frame. Its equation is as follows,

W [ n ] = ( 2 )

Where N is frame size

Y [ n ] = X [ n ] * W [ n ] ( 3 )

Where Y [ n ] = Output signal

Ten [ n ] = Input signal

W [ n ] = Hamming Window

Due to the physical restraints, the traffic denseness province could alter from one to another ( low to medium flow to heavy ) over at least 5-30 min continuance. Therefore, we decided to utilize comparatively longer primary analysis Windowss of the typical size 500 MS and displacement size of 100 MSs to obtain the spectral envelope.

DFT

Normally, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) is used to calculate the DFT. It converts each frame of N samples from clip sphere into frequence sphere. The calculation of the FFT-based spectrum as follow,

Ten [ k ] = ( 4 )

Where N is the frame size in samples, x [ n ] is the input acoustic signal, and. X [ k ] is the corresponding FFT-based spectrum.

Triangular bandpass filtering

The frequences range in FFT spectrum is really broad and acoustic signal does non follow the additive graduated table. Each filter ‘s magnitude frequence response is triangular in form and equal to integrity at the Centre frequence and diminish linearly to zero at centre frequence of two next filters. We so multiply the absolute magnitude of the DFT samples by the triangular frequence responses of the 24 Mel-filters that have logarithmically increasing bandwidth and cover a frequence scope of 0-8 kilohertz in our experiments. Each filter end product is the amount of its filtered spectral constituents. Following equation is used to calculate the Mel for given frequence degree Fahrenheit in HZ:

F ( Mel ) = 2595 * log 10 [ 1+f/700 ] ( 5 )

The ith Mel-filter bank energy ( is obtained as

( = ( * , thousand ˆ ( 0, N/2 ) ( 6 )

Where ( is the triangular frequence response of the ith Mel-filter. These 24 Mel-filter bank energies are so transformed into 13 MFCC utilizing DCT.

DCT

This is the procedure to change over the log Mel spectrum into clip sphere utilizing DCT. The consequence of the transition is called Mel Frequency Cepstral Coefficient. The set of coefficient is called acoustic vectors.

= cos ( ?j ) , j ˆ ( 0, 12 ) ( 7 )

Data energy and Spectrum

The acoustic signal and the frames alterations, such as the incline of a formant at its passages. Therefore, there is demand to add characteristics related to the alteration in cepstral characteristics over clip.

Energy=? X2 [ T ] ( 8 )

Where X [ t ] = signal

Adaptive neuro fuzzy classifier

An adaptative web is a multi-layer feed-forward web where each node performs a peculiar map based on incoming signals and a set of parametric quantities refering to node. Fuzzy categorization systems, which are founded on the footing on fuzzy regulations, have been successfully applied to assorted categorization undertakings. The fuzzed systems can be constituted with nervous webs, and attendant systems are called as Neuro-fuzzy systems. The Neuro-fuzzy classifiers define the category distributions and demo the input-output dealingss, whereas the fuzzed systems describe the systems utilizing natural linguistic communication. Nervous webs are employed for developing the system parametric quantities in neuro-fuzzy applications. An ANFC consist of input, rank map, fuzzification, defuzzification, standardization and end product beds.

Membership bed: The end product of the node is the grade to which the given input satisfies the lingual label associated to this node. Normally, bell-shaped rank maps are chosen to stand for the lingual footings.

( U ) = exp [ – ( ) 2 ] ( 9 )

Where [ ai1, ai2, bi1, bi2 ] is the parametric quantity set.

The bell-shaped maps vary harmonizing to alterations in the values of these parametric quantities, therefore exhibiting assorted signifiers of rank maps on lingual labels Ai and Bi. In fact, any uninterrupted, such as trapezoidal and triangular-shaped rank maps are besides campaigners for node maps in this bed. The initial values of the parametric quantities are set in such a manner that the rank maps along each axis satisfy ˆ-completeness, normalcy and convexness. The parametric quantities are so tuned or trained with a descent-type method.

Fuzzification bed: Each node generates a signal corresponding to the conjunctive combination of single grades of lucifer. All nodes in this bed are labelled by T, because we can take any t-norm for patterning the logical and operator. The nodes of this bed are called regulation nodes.

Experimental Consequences

We have collected the route side cumulative acoustic signal samples from chhatrapati square to T-point of Nagpur metropolis. Datas were collected with 16 KHz trying frequence. These informations covered three wide traffic denseness categories (low, medium and heavy). Feature extraction is done utilizing MFCC where primary window size is 500 MS and displacement size is of 100 MS.

Decision

This paper describes a simple technique which uses MFCC characteristics of route side cumulative acoustic signal to sort traffic denseness province as Low, Medium and Heavy utilizing Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Classifier. As this technique uses simple mike (cost: 500 Rs) so its installing, operational and care cost is really low. This technique work good under non lane driven and helter-skelter traffic status, and is independent of illuming status. Classification truth achieved utilizing Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy classifier is of ~95 % for 13-D MFCC coefficients, ~95 % for first order derived functions and ~95 % for 2nd order derived functions of cepstral coefficients.

The research on vehicular acoustic signal which is mixture of engine noise, tyre noise, noise due to mechanical effects etc. expands from vehicular velocity appraisal to denseness appraisal. The usage of route side acoustic signal seems to be an alternate, research shows acceptable truth for acoustic signal. Vehicular categorization with Acoustic signals proved to be first-class attack peculiarly for battleground vehicles, and besides for metropolis vehicles.

Clearer definitions of scenarios and applications are required to bring forth a more consistent organic structure of work. New application countries are likely to emerge for traffic signal timings optimisation utilizing cumulative acoustic signals and besides categorization of bikes proved to be emerging country for research. Finally the categorization systems can be extended in a manner that extracted characteristics are utilised as characteristic fingerprints, which affords trailing of vehicles over multiple detector nodes.

Noise and noise induced hearing loss is job of immense magnitude in the Armed forces all over the universe. The forces of the ground forces, navy and the air force are exposed to really high strength noise produced as a consequence of the arms that they use, the mechanical conveyance, aircraft and ships that they use. The nature of their business exposes them to resound degrees that can endanger their hearing. The members of Armed Forces and para-military organisations are exposed to a combination of steady province noise and impulse noise of really high strengths and their unprotected ears are vulnerable to extensive hearing harm. In armed forces, forces functioning in certain subdivisions and trades are more vulnerable. In the ground forces, those functioning in the foot, heavy weapon, armoured corps and corps of applied scientists are at high hazard of developing NIHL. In the air force pilots, air animal trainers and air trade care forces are at high hazard. Similarly in the naval forces, engine room crewmans, gunnery crew, air trade bearer forces, frogmans and submariners are at high hazard of developing NIHL due to the nature of their occupations [ 55 ] . Kessar, in an audiometric study on heavy weapon forces of Indian Armed forces reported that 50.8 % heavy weapon forces had changing grades of NIHL compared to 14.1 % of controls [ 56 ] . In the same survey 86.5 % gunnery crew with more than 10years of service had moderate to severe NIHL. Raiet Al reported that 85.5 % naval gunnery crew evaluated audiometrically had NIHL [ 57 ] . In another survey noise degrees of 120 dubniums were recorded in the engine suites of naval ships and 78 % of engine room forces were found to hold NIHL of changing grades. Pawa KL, Singh VK and Venkatesh MD reported an extended study of noise degrees on board Indian Naval ships and recorded an norm of 105 dubniums noise degrees in engine suites and besides reported that 70 % of the engine room crewmans evaluated were found to hold NIHL [ 58 ] . The badness of hearing loss increased linearly with length of service. Theyobserved increased exposure of frogmans to audiovestibular disfunction and noise is one the major subscribers to hearing loss in frogmans and submariners. An audiometric study of Indian Air Force forces revealed an overall prevalence of 22.9 % of NIHL [ 59 ] .

Clinical characteristics of NIHL are frequently identical from other causes of SNHL. The diagnosing is based on elaborate history, physical scrutiny and appropriate audiometric rating. It is stressed that the diagnosing of NIHL is circumstantial and would necessitate a careful elaborate occupational history, household history and history sing recreational exposure to resound. From a medicolegal facet guidelines have been defined to help in ‘labeling a instance ‘ as NIHL [ 60 ] . Another facet to maintain in head is that the people who are susceptible to NIHL can besides endure from other otological diseases like CSOM, Meniere ‘s disease, otosclerosis, familial hearing loss etc and therefore all attempts at naming these conditions should be made before imputing the hearing loss to inordinate noise exposure. In a big series of NIHL in Ontario, 5 % of the survey group had other ear diseases as major cause for their hearing loss [ 61 ] . Any history, physical marks or audiometric findings suggestive of cochlear or retro-cochlear hearing loss in a patient will necessitate extended rating to get at a diagnosing. However, with a good history, physical scrutiny and a pure tone audiogram, it is possible to get at a diagnosing of NIHL and besides arrive at a decision that the hearing loss is attributable to resound [ 2 ] . NIHL and acoustic injury are constantly associated with tinnitus which is frequently raging. Many patients of chronic NIHL will hold tinnitus as their chief ailment.

Audiometric Configuration

The 4 KHz notch is frequently considered a typical audiometric characteristic in NIHL regardless of the frequence scope of the noise beginning. However, more frequently than non, the so called 4 KHz notch occurs in the scope of 3-6 KHz. [ 20 ] ( Fig. 10.12 and 10.13 ) . The most plausible account for the 4 KHz notch in pure tone audiogram is the resonance features of ear canal to sounds of different frequences with maximum harm happening one octave above the Centre of frequence scope of the noise. The wide set industrial noise is concentrated at 3 KHz due to peculiar anatomical constellation of EAC and hence maximum harm occurs in 4 KHz country of cochlea. It needs to be kept in head nevertheless that the absence of a notch does non except the diagnosing of NIHL [ 20 ] . Though NIHL is frequently described as bilateral and symmetrical, asymmetrical hearing losingss is non uncommon. In one survey 15 % of patients of NIHL had asymmetrical hearing loss. This may be because of other ear diseases, asymmetrical noise exposure or sometimes non interpretable [ 62 ] . Pure tone audiology forms the footing of diagnosing and for compensation intents in NIHL. International standard 1999 ( ISO ) , has formulated guidelines for finding whether an audiogram conforms to the parametric quantities of NIHL. Electric response audiology may be of great aid in observing overdone hearing loss in compensatory claims. All other supra- threshold trials and speech audiology in NIHL would demo characteristics of cochlear hearing loss.

Otoacoustic Emission ( OAE ) in NIHL

The measuring Otoacoustic emanation ( OAE ) has become a simpler, non-invasive and nonsubjective tool to mensurate OHCs map, the primary mark cell in NIHL. Both TAOAE and DPOAE have been studied in acoustic injury and NIHL. Some studies suggest that the amplitude of OAE lessenings even before there is noticeable pure tone threshold displacement in noise injury [ 63 ] . Early NIHL is characterized by unnatural OAE constellation corroborating some cochlear disfunction or harm with normal or near normal pure tone audiograms [ 64 ] . This has an of import bearing in the early diagnosing of NIHL and can even be utilized to observe single susceptibleness to NIHL [ 65 ] . The multiple advantages of OAEs are that they are extremely sensitive, site specific, nonsubjective and speedy to analyze and hence are ideal tools for supervising NIHL. DPOAEs are particularly well-suited for monitoring as the frequence scope of analysis extends beyond 8 KHz, which is good beyond the 3-6 KHZ scope affected by NIHL. Therefore with a good DP gm one can confidently predict whether the hearing loss is due to resound exposure or non [ 66 ] ( Fig. 10.14 & A ; 10.15 ) . OAE analysis is a really sensitive index for presence or absence of hearing over 35-40 dubniums and can be a really helpful testing tool for observing NIHL and exaggerated hearing loss.

Newer Research Trends in NIHL

Some exciting research trends that offer more insight into basic pathophysiology of NIHL and possible development of newer curative schemes are:

( a ) Hair cell regeneration

( B ) Genetic and molecular footing for NIHL

( degree Celsius ) ” Toughening ” or “ preparation ” protocols by pre-exposure to low strength sounds anterior to exposure to high strength noise.

( vitamin D ) Antioxidant therapy for NIHL and acoustic injury

It is now an established fact that avian hair cells can renew undermentioned harm due to resound and ototoxic drugs [ 67 ] . Similar surveies on neonatal biddies have shown that hair cell regeneration occurs from back uping cells under the influence of acoustic harm [ 68 ] . A more recent mammalian survey has shown the ability of mammalian cochlea to renew hair cells following ototoxic harm [ 69 ] . The function of growing factors is being evaluated in act uponing this regeneration [ 70 ] .Recent research besides demonstrated the functional capableness of such regeneration [ 71 ] . Further research in this way appears rather promising and offers a possible healing intervention of noise and drug induced hearing loss. Antioxidants in the intervention of noise injury have been used with good consequences in the ague puting [ 22, 72, 73 ] . Clinical tests to formalize their usage are awaited. The function of “ conditioning ” or ‘toughening ” of the ear by anterior exposure to low strength noise before exposure to damaging noise has been tried and carnal theoretical accounts have shown singular protection of interior ear hair cells, presumptively by increasing anti-oxidant degrees [ 74 ] . Though they have shown great promise in inventing newer remedy and preventative protocols against NIHL, they have limited practical applications at nowadays.

Attempts are on to happen out if there are familial factors in the susceptibleness to NIHL. It has been seen that some strains of inbred mice are more susceptible to NIHL than others. Scientists are seeking to insulate a NIHL cistron to a chromosomal venue. Recently a recessionary cistron ( ALI ) that is responsible for premature age-related hearing loss has been shown to be related to inordinate susceptibleness to NIHL [ 75 ] . If such familial linkage can be established in human existences it opens up new views for testing for susceptibleness for NIHL and possible intervention of NIHL.

Non Auditory Effects of Noise

A big figure of non- audile effects of NIHL that adversely affect the wellness of an person have been described. Important nonspecific effects of NIHL are intervention with communicating, hapless efficiency and work end product, crossness and irritation, perturbation of slumber and remainder and early fatigability. Some major systemic unwellnesss like high blood pressure, peptic ulcers, emotional agitation and mental unwellnesss have associated with NIHL. However, there is limited grounds to back up these associations.

Treatment of NIHL

As is true for all types of sensorineural hearing losingss, NIHL unluckily can non be cured but it likely is the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss all over the universe. The pronouncement “ Prevention is better than remedy ” holds true in NIHL and preventative steps and personal hearing defenders are discussed later.

As with any disease, where the pathogenesis is multifactorial, multiple intervention modes have been tried for NIHL with varying and at times conflicting consequences. Most intercessions would look to work for acute jobs like acute acoustic injury and NITTS where published literature abounds. However, the job is compounded by the greatly varied rates of self-generated declaration. The function of hyperbaric O therapy ( HBOT ) has been evaluated and reported of benefit if commenced early [ 76 ] . The function of HBOT in acute acoustic injury is better studied and recommended where executable [ 77 ] . Some studies of acoustic injury being treated with a mixture of 10 % carbondioxide and 90 % O ( Carbogen ) are available in the literature. It is suggested that the vasodilatory consequence of carbogen prevents or reduces noise induced PTS following acoustic injuries [ 78 ] . The writers in their personal experience of handling acute acoustic injury with carbogen have found it utile in restricting the hearing loss. The function of accessory Vit E with Carbogen has shown to hold benefit in NITTS [ 73 ] . The fact that Magnesium can perforate the hematocochlear barrier and its comparative deficiency of side effects have led to research in istusease for acute acoustic injury with encouraging consequences [ 79 ] . The function of steroids have been investigated in NIHL besides. As with the intervention of sudden SNHL, intratympanic steroids appear to cut down outer hair snake pit loss in rats exposed to acute noise [ 80 ] . There is deficiency of conclusive grounds in the clinical use of intratympanic steroids though a recent study has shown good consequences [ 81 ] . Recent research has hovered in researching anti-oxidants to cut down the abuse to cochlea with promoting carnal surveies [ 72 ] .

For more lasting threshold jobs, most intercessions do non demo any benefit and rehabilitation with hearing AIDSs is an first-class option in bettering the communicating position of people enduring from NIHL. Advanced digital and programmable hearing AIDSs offer really good quality of hearing betterment and should be liberally prescribed.

NIHL- Magnitude of job in developing states

Noise pollution is a planetary job of great magnitude and NIHL is possibly the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss. In developed states it is the biggest compensatable occupational jeopardy and histories for about one tierce of all individuals enduring from hearing damage. Most of the developed states are bit by bit conveying noise under control. However in developing states the industrial and urban societal noise is on the rise and is doing serious environmental noise pollution. The hazard of NIHL from societal noise is increasing twenty-four hours by twenty-four hours for immature people in most underdeveloped states. This is due to rapid industrialisation, unchecked proliferation of cars particularly two Wheelers and autorickshaws with two shot engines. In many developing states there is a deficiency of statute law against noise pollution and, when nowadays, these Torahs are ill implemented. Therefore bar of occupational and environmental noise pollution must take top precedence in public wellness direction.

Some of the studies from developing states of South Asia and South East Asia sing urban societal noise and its deductions are dismaying [ 82 ] . In Pakistan unchecked urbanisation has increased the noise degrees in metropoliss like Karachi, Lahore and Faisalabad. Road traffic particularly autorickshaws which do non hold silencers produce noise degrees up to 100 -110 dubnium. The mean ambient noise degree in the busy streets of Karachi was found to be above 90 dubnium. There is a high incidence of NIHL in the major industries of Pakistan particularly textile Millss and sheet metal industries. Though statute law against noise pollution and hearing preservation exists, it is ill implemented.

In India thorough statute law for allowable ambient noise degrees in assorted countries, work topographic point noise criterions and noise criterions for motor vehicles exist but there is serious deficiency of execution [ Tables 10.25, 10.26, 10.27 ] . Traffic noise in busy intersections of larger metropoliss frequently reaches 100 dubnium. There is increasing incidence of NIHL in a big population that is at hazard. In a survey carried out in the metropolis of Pune in 2000 by the Department of ENT, Armed Forces Medical College revealed a traffic noise between 87-97 dubnium in busy intersections of the metropolis [ 83 ] . An audiometric study carried out by Singh VK, Mehta AK of 421 traffic police officers the metropolis of Pune, showed that 81.3 % of them showed some grade of NIHL and badness of NIHL increased linearly with length of service. In the same survey 225 autorikshaw drivers who are routinely exposed to loud traffic noise were besides audiometrically reviewed and 81.1 % of them were found to hold NIHL [ 84 ] . In a similar survey conducted on traffic police officers in 2000, 74.3 % of 207 police officers were found to hold NIHL of changing grades [ 83 ] . Thus sociacusis is going a major job in developing states and the job needs to be tackled on war terms.

Damage hazard standards

Hazard of NIHL has been found to hold a definite relationship between strength of sound and continuance of exposure. Burns and Robinson [ 86 ] brought forth the construct of equal energy which suggests that lasting harm to hearing is related to entire sound energy which is merchandise of strength of sound in assumed name and continuance of exposure. They assumed that equal sum of energy causes equal hearing loss and concluded after extended research that the equal energy construct could be applied to finding day-to-day safe degrees of strength and exposure continuance to assorted noises. This translates into 8 hours day-to-day exposure to 90dB ambient noise and for every addition of 3 dubnium, the continuance of exposure is halved. For e.g. a 93 dubnium noise degree will allow merely 4 hours of exposure. This is the recognized norm in most European states. There is a suggestion that if the noise exposure is intermittent as in most industries, the ear has clip to retrieve from noise injury and hence a 4 dubnium halving and doubling is more suited [ 11 ] . In the United States of America a 5 dubnium halving and doubling has been suggested by CHABA ( Committee on hearing, Bioacoustics and Biomechanics ) in mid 60 ‘s. OSHA ( US occupational safety and hearing criterions ) permits a 5 dubnium halving and doubling of exposure and the criterion is known as LOSHA and the European criterion of 3 dubnium doubling and halving is known as Leq ( Table 10.28 ) . 90dBA has been universally accepted as safe strength of exposure up to 8 hours but there is instance for cut downing this bound to 85 dubnium and to originate hearing preservation programme from 85 assumed names flat [ 85 ] . These criterions can merely be adapted for steady province uninterrupted noise. Appropriate criterions for impact noise are non universally available.

Hearing preservation Programme

Noise is the individual largest cause of preventable hearing loss and with of all time increasing degrees of noise in all walks of life NIHL has attained a planetary importance. NIHL can non be cured with the current province of medical cognition. However it can be reduced and minimized, if non wholly prevented, by effectual hearing preservation programme. An effectual hearing preservation programme is a multi-disciplinary attempt necessitating enforceable statute law from the authoritiess, managerial engagement, technology and medical engagement. Alberti has suggested an ideal hearing preservation programme for occupational hearing loss that has eight stages [ 2 ] :

( a ) Noise jeopardy designation

( B ) Technology controls

( degree Celsius ) Personal hearing protection

( vitamin D ) Monitoring audiometry

( vitamin E ) Record maintaining

( degree Fahrenheit ) Health instruction

( g ) Enforcement

( H ) Programme rating

Hazardous noise degrees in the industry and work topographic point can be identified with preciseness sound degree metres. Periodic sound degree monitoring over moderately long periods to place potentially risky work topographic point environment and effectual technology controls to cut down the degree of noise by alteration in the engineering or replacing or redesigning of machinery and other technology intercessions to cut down the noise degrees. Administrative controls like rigorous enforcement of prescribed clip of exposure depending on the sound degrees, proviso of less noisy work environment and effectual and periodic wellness instruction of workers sing bar of NIHL. However personal hearing defenders are most critical for bar of NIHL. A big assortment of personal hearing defenders like ear stoppers, ear muffs and canal caps are available with changing grades of fading. The most of import facet of personal hearing defenders is the regularity of usage. Unless the workers use them on a regular basis, they will be of no usage. Therefore, it is most indispensable to educate the workers. The most of import facet of taking a hearing defender device is worker comfort and the assurance of the worker utilizing it [ 88, 89 ] . The usage of single audiodosimeters are besides of importance in particular fortunes when it is required to measure the cumulative noise exposure of a individual exposed noise. The logging dosemeter integrates sound force per unit area over clip and a day-to-day noise degree with regard to current 90 dB/8hours per twenty-four hours exposure [ 14 ] .

Hearing showing is besides a really of import measure in bar of occupational hearing loss. The map of hearing showing is to place those workers with hearing loss, place those whose hearing shows declining and to measure the effectivity of hearing testing programme [ 2 ] . Therefore periodic audiometric appraisal of workers at hazard is of paramount importance for early sensing of NIHL. Any alteration of 10 dubnium or greater in any frequence or an mean alteration of 10 dubnium or more in all frequences warrants a audience with ENT man for farther rating. The importance of record maintaining and periodic regular wellness instruction of workers about the hurtful effects of noise and utilize personal hearing defenders can non be ignored in any hearing preservation programme.

In developing states, bar of NIHL must be taken as a serious public wellness job and appropriate stairss demands to be taken on a precedence footing at the national degree. A WHO study suggests following steps in this respect [ 86 ] :

( a ) National programme for bar of noise-induced hearing loss should be established in all states and integrated with primary wellness attention. This should include environmental and medical surveillance, noise decrease, effectual statute law, review, enforcement, wellness publicity and instruction, hearing preservation, compensation and preparation.

( B ) Prevention of NIHL must be appropriate, equal, acceptable and low-cost.

( degree Celsius ) Most of the population in developing states is nescient of the jeopardies of inordinate noise exposure. Awareness must be increased about the harmful effects of noise and about its bar and control of NIHL

( vitamin D ) There is an acute deficit of dependable epidemiological informations on prevalence, hazard factors and costs of NIHL from developing states. There is an pressing demand of structured and controlled surveies in this respect.

( vitamin E ) Research needs to be focused on pathophysiology, proficient steps for noise decrease, bettering personal hearing defenders and low cost medicines for bar

( degree Fahrenheit ) Communication and coaction should be strengthened between developed and developing states to ease research and development in this field.

Decisions

Without uncertainty NIHL is the individual most of import cause for preventable hearing loss in this universe today. This job of noise pollution is turning and is presuming epidemic proportions in many developing states. It is to be appreciated that it is practically impossible to cut down noise degrees in industry and in our metropoliss to safe adequate degrees for infinite exposure. Educating people about inauspicious effects of noise and its bar and the usage of personal hearing protective devices are the major schemes against NIHL. There is an pressing demand to rush research on the cardinal mechanisms involved in NIHL so that preventative and healing steps to cut down or extenuate the lasting hearing harm due noise are evolved.

I am very much thankful to him. I benefited a lot discussing with him. I am also thankful to my parents who encouraged me and provided such a motivation, so I became able to perform this. I am also thankful to all my friends and those who helped me directly or indirectly in completion of my project. CONTENTS •Introduction •Crime Definition •Laws that have been violated •Possible Punishments (IT ACT + INTERNATIONAL LAWS) •Unlawful Losses and Gains •Working of Attacks •Description of Tools INTRODUCTION This term paper is based on “attacking wifi nets with traffic injection” also nown as packet injection which simply means the hacking of wireless networks with different techniques to send extra amount of traffic (packets, frames, duplicate copies) on a network by which a hacker can able to access the information and identity that a client is using. Some techniques are wireless network sniffing, DOS (denial of service attack), Man in the middle attack etc. Attacks on wireless LANs (WLAN’s) and wireless-enabled laptops are a quick and easy way for hackers to steal data and enter the corporate network.

Many types of tools are used to perform hacking. Some of them are named as aircrack-ng, airjack etc. thts paper will later give brief information on tools used , working of tools ,losses and gains with hacking etc. These type of attacks are known as INTEGRITY attacks. Wireless networks broadcast their packets using radio frequency or optical wavelengths. A modern laptop computer can listen in. Worse, an attacker can manufacture new packets on the fly and persuade wireless stations to accept his packets as legitimate. We already know 802. 11 networks are weak.

Open networks are prone to any well-known LAN perimeter attack WEP is vulnerable. Traffic injection has changed things like •Increased DoS (denial of service) capabilities •Dramatically decreased WEP cracking achievement time •Allows traffic tampering •Allows stations attacks CRIME DEFINITION Cyber Crime –A crime where the computer is used as a tool or target. Cyber crime encompasses any criminal act dealing with computers and networks (called hacking). Additionally, cyber crime also includes traditional crimes conducted through the Internet.

For example; hate crimes, telemarketing and Internet fraud, identity theft, and credit card account thefts are considered to be cyber crimes when the illegal activities are committed through the use of a computer and the Internet. Hacking – Traffic injection attacks comes under hacking. It is defined as whomever with the intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause wrongful loss or damage to the public or any person destroys or deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes its value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means, commits hacking.

Hacking may also occur when a person willfully, knowingly, and without authorization or without reasonable grounds to believe that he or she has such authorization, destroys data, computer programs, or supporting documentation residing or existing internal or external to a computer, computer system, or computer network. Besides the destruction of such data, hacking may also be defined to include the disclosure, use or taking of the data commits an offense against intellectual property.

This paper is a survey of wireless attack tools focusing on 802. 11 and Bluetooth. It includes attack tools for three major categories: confidentiality, integrity, and availability. Confidentiality attack tools focus on the content of the data and are best known for encryption cracking. Integrity attacks tools focus on the data in transmission and include frame insertion, man in the middle, and replay attacks. Finally, availability attack tools focus on Denial of Service (DoS) attacks. Law That Have Been Violated

The laws that have been violated are section 43,65 and 66 of IT ACT 2000. Section 43 of IT ACT 2000, defines as If any person without permission of the owner or any other person who is in charge of a computer, computer system or computer network, — (a) Accesses or secures access to such computer, computer system or computer Network; (b) Downloads, copies or extracts any data, computer data base or information from such computer, computer system or computer network including information or data held or stored in any removable storage medium; c) Introduces or causes to be introduced any computer contaminant or computer virus into any computer, computer system or computer network; (d) Damages or causes to be damaged any computer, computer system or computer network, data, computer data base or any other programs residing in such computer, computer system or computer network; (e) Disrupts or causes disruption of any computer, computer system or computer network; (f) Denies or causes the denial of access to any person authorized to access any computer, computer system or computer network by any means; g) Provides any assistance to any person to facilitate access to a computer, computer system or computer network in contravention of the provisions of this Act, rules or regulations made there under; (h) Charges the services availed of by a person to the account of another person by tampering with or manipulating any computer, computer system, or computer network, Section 65 of IT ACT 2000, defines as, Tampering with computer source documents

Whoever knowingly or intentionally conceals, destroys or alters or intentionally or knowingly causes another to conceal, destroy or alter any computer source code used for a computer, computer programs, computer system or computer network, when the computer source code is required to be kept or maintained by law for the time being in force, shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both. Section 66 of IT ACT 2000, defines as, (1) Whoever with the intent to cause or knowing that he is likely to cause rongful loss or damage to the public or any person destroys or deletes or alters any information residing in a computer resource or diminishes its value or utility or affects it injuriously by any means, commits hacking. (2) Whoever commits hacking shall be punished with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both. POSSIBLE PUNISHMENTS (IT ACT + International laws) Cyber crime is a type of crime that not only destroys the security system of a country but also its financial system. One supporter of legislation against cyber crime, Rep.

Lamar Smith (R-Texas), stated, “Our mouse can be just as dangerous as a bullet or a bomb. ” Cyber attackers should be penalized and punished severely and most cyber crimes have penalties reflecting the severity of the crime committed. Although in the past many laws against cyber crimes were insufficient, law enforcement agencies and governments have recently proposed many innovative plans for fighting cyber crimes. Punishment Cybercrime must be dealt with very seriously because it causes a lot of damage to businesses and the actual punishment should depend on the type of fraud used.

The penalty for illegally accessing a computer system ranges from 6 months to 5 years. The penalty for the unofficial modification on a computer ranges from 5 to 10 years. Other penalties are listed below: Telecommunication service theft: The theft of telecommunication services is a very common theft and is punished with a heavy fine and imprisonment. Communications intercept crime: This is a Class-D crime which is followed by a severe punishment of 1 to 5 years of imprisonment with a fine.

Other cyber crimes like telecommunication piracy, offensive material dissemination, and other cyber frauds also belong to this category. Information Technology Act-2000: According to this act, different penalties are available for different crimes. Some of the penalties are as follows: Computer source document tampering: The person who changes the source code on the website or any computer program will get a punishment up to 3 years of imprisonment or fine. Computer hacking: The individual who hacks the computer or computer devices will get an imprisonment up to 3 years or a fine.

Government protected system: An act of trying to gain access to a system which is a protected system by the government, will result in imprisonment for 10 years and a heavy fine. The introduction of such penalties have lead to a drastic reduction in the cyber crime rates as more and more criminals are becoming aware of the penalties related to them. Spreading the word about the penalties of cyber crime can serve as a deterrent against such crime. Penalties relating to cyber crime will vary depending on the country and legislation in place. Punishments according to IT ACT 2000

The person who commits the crime shall be liable to pay damages by way of compensation not exceeding one crore rupees to the person so affected according to section 43 of IT ACT. The person who commits the crime shall be punishable with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both according to section 65 of IT ACT. Whoever commits hacking shall be punished with imprisonment up to three years, or with fine which may extend up to two lakh rupees, or with both according to section 66 of IT ACT 2000 INTERNATIONAL LAWS In USA section 18 U. S. C. § 1030 A) a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than ten years, or both, in the case of an offense under subsection (a)(1) of this section which does not occur after a conviction for another offense under this section, or an attempt to commit an offense punishable under this subparagraph; and (B) a fine under this title or imprisonment for not more than twenty years, or both, in the case of an offense under subsection (a)(1) of this section which occurs after a conviction for another offense under this section, or an attempt to commit an offense punishable under this subparagraph; In Canada

The person who commits the crime is guilty of an indictable offence and liable to imprisonment for a term not exceeding ten years, or is guilty of an offence punishable on summary conviction. UNLAWFUL LOSSES AND GAINS Losses due to hacking Hackers targeted major companies including Sony, RSA Security, and Citigroup, but also governmental websites and smaller firms. Many companies could have prevented the attacks. Because of their vulnerabilities, they not only lost money, but also risked losing clients, prestige and market share. Multitudes of people were affected by their security breaches Recent reports showed hackers earned $12. billion in 2011, mainly by spamming, phishing, and online frauds. Some companies have made their financial losses public, while others chose not to disclose them. Here’s a top 5 of the declared losses caused by hackings from last year until present. Undeclared losses may even exceed these ones. 1. $171 million – Sony Hacked in April to June 2011, Sony is by far the most famous recent security attack. After its Playstation network was shut down by LulzSec, Sony reportedly lost almost $171 million. The hack affected 77 million accounts and is still considered the worst gaming community data breach ever.

Attackers stole valuable information: full names, logins, passwords, e-mails, home addresses, purchase history, and credit card numbers. 2. $2. 7 million – Citigroup Hacked in June 2011, Citigroup was not a difficult target for hackers. They exploited a basic online vulnerability and stole account information from 200,000 clients. Because of the hacking, Citigroup said it lost $2. 7 million. Just a few months before the attack, the company was affected by another security breach. It started at Epsilon, an email marketing provider for 2,500 large companies including Citigroup.

Specialists estimated that the Epsilon breach affected millions of people and produced an overall $4 billion loss. 3. $2 million – Stratfor Last Christmas wasn’t so joyful for Stratfor Global Intelligence. Anonymous members hacked the US research group and published confidential information from 4,000 clients, threatening they could also give details about 90,000 credit card accounts. The hackers stated that Stratfor was “clueless…when it comes to database security”. According to the criminal complaint, the hack cost Stratfor $2 million. 4. $2 million – AT&T The US carrier was hacked last year, but said no account information was exposed.

They said they warned one million customers about the security breach. Money stolen from the hacked business accounts was used by a group related to Al Qaeda to fund terrorist attacks in Asia. According to reports, refunding costumers cost AT&T almost $2 million. 5. $1 million – Fidelity Investments, Scottrade, E*Trade, Charles Schwab The most recent declared losses were in a brokerage scam. A Russian national was charged in the US with $1. 4 million in computer and hacking crimes. $1 million was stolen from stock brokerages Fidelity Investments, Scottrade, E*Trade, and Charles Schwab.

The rest of the money was taken from fraudulent tax refunds, with the stolen identities of more than 300 people. Gains To Hackers * To use your computer: * as an Internet Relay Chat (IRC) server – hackers wouldn’t want to discuss openly about their activities on their ‘own’ servers * as Storage for Illicit Material (ex. pirated software, pirated music, pornography, hacking tools etc) * as part of a DDoS Attack – where many computers are controlled by hackers in an attempt to cause resource starvation on a victim’s computers or networks * To steal services and/or valuable files For thrill and excitement * To get even – maybe an IT staff who was terminated, or other parties you’ve ‘wronged’ * As a publicity stunt – an example of which was reported in 1998 by Jim Hu in MTV “hack” backfires * Knowledge/Experiment/Ethical – some hackers probe a computer system to find its security vulnerabilities and then inform the system administrator to help improve their security * Another possible reason is that the hackers might suffer from a disease called Asperger syndrome (AS).

They are people who are very good with numbers and at focusing on a problem for a very long period of time, but are not good in social relationships. How AS can possibly be linked to hacking behavior was discussed more thoroughly by M. J. Zuckerman in his ‘USA Today’ article, What fuels the mind of a hacker? * Curiosity * To spy on friends, family members or even business rivals * Prestige – bragging rights in their social circle (particularly if they’ve hacked high-profile sites or systems) * Intellectual Challenge Money – although most hackers are not motivated by financial gain; many professional criminals make money by using hacking techniques either to * set up fake e-commerce sites to collect credit card details * gain entry to servers that contain credit cards details * engage in other forms of credit card fraud WORKING OF ATTACKS Before studying about how traffic injection attacks works there are some basic terms we shoud have to know WEP Wired Equivalent Privacy (WEP) is a shared-secret key encryption system used to encrypt packets transmitted between a station and an AP.

The WEP algorithm is intended to protect wireless communication from eavesdropping. A secondary function of WEP is to prevent unauthorized access to a wireless network. WEP encrypts the payload of data packets. Management and control frames are always transmitted in the clear. WEP uses the RC4 encryption algorithm. The shared-secret key is either 40 or 104 bits long. The key is chosen by the system administrator. This key must be shared among all the stations and the AP using mechanisms that are not specified in the IEEE 802. 11. FRAMES Both the station and AP radiate and gather 802. 1 frames as needed. The format of frames is illustrated below. Most of the frames contain IP packets. The other frames are for the management and control of the wireless connection. There are three classes of frames. The management frames establish and maintain communications. These are of Association request, Association response, Reassociation request, Reassociation response, Probe request, Probe response, Beacon, Announcement traffic indication message, Disassociation, Authentication, Deauthentication types. The SSID is part of several of the management frames.

Management messages are always sent in the clear, even when link encryption (WEP or WPA) is used, so the SSID is visible to anyone who can intercept these frames. Authentication Authentication is the process of proving identity of a station to another station or AP. In the open system authentication, all stations are authenticated without any checking. A station A sends an Authentication management frame that contains the identity of A, to station B. Station B replies with a frame that indicates recognition, addressed to A. In the closed network architecture, the stations must know the SSID of the AP in order to connect to the AP.

The shared key authentication uses a standard challenge and response along with a shared secret key. Traffic injection quick HOWTO •1 Insert adapter •2 Load driver and activate adapter •3 Set driver into monitor mode (real 802. 11 mode) •4 Set appropriate channel •5 Open PF PACKET/RAW socket on interface (Linux only) •6 Use your socket and play • Still, you need a 802. 11 stack over your socket and/or good libs • and tools so you can communicate WORKING – This phase of term paper describes the working of attack by using one tool called INJECTION WIZARD

Injection Wizard is an application for injecting traffic into WEP-protected Wi-Fi networks, like aireplay-ng, but it’s much more easy to use and it can work with worse conditions (for example, more interferences, weaker transmitted/received signals, more restricted access points, etc). The higher the traffic of the network, the earlier we will be able to crack a WEP key with tools like aircrack-ng, airsnort, dwepcrack, weplab, WEPAttack, WEPCrack, etc. However, injecting traffic is not easy because you must build or capture a frame that causes a response frame in any other station (that is, a wireless node).

This application carries out automatically all the needed actions to build a frame that causes a response in other station. These actions can be summarized in the following sequence of steps: 1. The application scans Wi-Fi networks and shows a list of WEP-protected networks, then it allows the user to select one of them. 2. It joins the selected network and monitors that network in order to find a data frame. 3. It tries to extract a keystream prefix from the captured frame and then it tries to extend the keystream up to 40 bytes by means of the W.

A. Arbaugh’s inductive chosen plaintext attack. 4. It tries to find a host (for example, a connected computer, a network device, etc), which has an IP address belonging to a predefined range, by injecting forged ARP packets. 5. After finding an active host, it injects ARP packets targeted at that host. Some of the benefits of this application are easiness of use (due to its graphical interface, automatic operation, etc) androbustness (detection/management of network disconnections, repetition of failed actions, etc).

Moreover, the Arbaugh’s inductive attack can be performed by any Wi-Fi interface supporting injection in monitor mode, because the interface driver doesn’t need any additional patch as it’s usual to happen with the Bittau’s fragmentation attack. Besides its higher applicability, this attack is generally more reliable than Chop-Chop attack for recovering a keystream of a given size, because it doesn’t have to inject any frame larger than needed. This application is distributed under the terms of the GNU General Public License version 2 (read the license. tm file for more details) and comes with absolutely no warranty. The author assumes no responsibility derived from the use or the distribution of this program. The copyright of this application is owned by Fernando Pablo Romero Navarro (May 2010). Injection Wizard has made use of (with convenient modifications) the following free software applications: * scapy (version 2. 0. 1), distributed under the license: GNU GPL version 2. Copyright: Philippe Biondi,2009 (http://www. secdev. org/projects/scapy). * python-wifi (version 0. 3. 1), distributed under the license: GNU LGPL version 2. 1.

Copyright: Roman Joost, 2004-2008 Software Requirements For the client application (graphical interface): •Any system with a recent Java virtual machine: JRE version 1. 6 or later. For the server application: * A Linux box with a recent kernel, so it should support Wireless Extensions version 22 or later (since kernel version 2. 6. 21) and the mac80211 stack for Wi-Fi interfaces (since kernel version 2. 6. 24, it is supported by many Wi-Fi adapter drivers). * A Wi-Fi network interface driver supporting injection in monitor mode (sometimes it’s required to patch the driver for supporting this feature). The iw system command, if it’s not provided by your Linux distribution you can get it by installing the aircrack-ng package or by compiling the source code that can be downloaded from: http://wireless. kernel. org/download/iw. * A Python interpreter with version 2. 5, later versions might also work. Instructions 1. Uncompress the injwiz. zip file. 2. Copy the client directory on a system with a Java virtual machine accessible from the command path (for example, launch a shell, enter the client directory, execute the command: java -version and check the command outputs the JRE version number). .

Copy the server directory on a Linux box. If the client and server directories weren’t copied on the same machine, you should edit the runserver. sh script (in the server directory) and replace the IP address: 127. 0. 0. 1 with the IP address of the Linux box’s network interface that is attached to the same network that the client machine (i. e. the computer that hosts the clientdirectory). 4. Enter the server directory and run the script: . /runserver. sh (the Python interpreter should be accessible from the command path. You can check this by running: ython -V from the command line and verifying that the interpreter version is showed). 5. On the client machine, enter the client directory and run either the script: . /runclient. sh (for Linux or Unix-like operating systems providing a shell compatible with the Bourne shell and whose path for the executable file is: /bin/sh) orrunclient. bat (for Windows). DESCRIPTION OF TOOLS The tools used for packet injection purposes are divided into two categories Hardware and software 1. Software Serious hackers usually use Linux-based open source penetration test tools from which to launch their attacks.

This section details some of the more popular tools that can be used to search out and hack wifi networks. •Aircrack-ng: This suite of tools includes 802. 11 WEP and WPA-PSK key cracking programs that can capture wireless packets and recover keys once enough information been captured. Aircrack-ng supports newer techniques that make WEP cracking much faster. This software has been downloaded over 20,000 times. •Airjack: An 802. 11 packet injection tool, Airjack was originally used as a development tool to capture and inject or replay packets.

In particular, Airjack can be used to inject forged deauthentication packets, a fundamental technique used in many denial-of-service and Man-in-the-Middle attacks. Repeatedly injecting deauthentication packets into a network wreaks havoc on the connections between wireless clients and access points. •AirSnort: AirSnort is wireless LAN (CLAN) tool which recovers WEP encryption keys. AirSnort works by passively monitoring transmissions, and then computing the encryption key when enough packets have been gathered.

After that point, all data sent over the network can be decrypted into plain text using the cracked WEP key. •Cain ;amp; Able: This is a multi-purpose tool that can intercept network traffic, using information contained in those packets to crack encrypted passwords using dictionary, brute-force and cryptanalysis attack methods, record VoIP conversations, recover wireless network keys, and analyze routing protocols. Its main purpose is the simplified recovery of passwords and credentials. This software has been downloaded over 400,000 times. CommView for WiFi: This commercial product is designed for capturing and analyzing wifi network packets. CommView for WiFi uses a wireless adapter to capture, decode, and analyze packets sent over a single channel. It allows hackers to view the list of network connections and vital IP statistics and examine individual packets. •ElcomSoft Wireless Security Auditor: This is an all-in-one cracking solution that automatically locates wireless networks, intercepts data packets, and uses cryptanalysis techniques to crack WPA/WPA2 PSKs.

This software displays all available wireless networks, identified by channel number, AP MAC address, SSID, speed, load, and encryption parameters. While these capabilities can be found in open source tools, ElcomSoft provides a more polished product for professional use by wireless security auditors. •Ettercap: Ettercap can be used to perform man-in-the-middle attacks, sniff live connections, and filter intercepted packets on the fly. It includes many features for network and host analysis. This shareware has been downloaded nearly 800,000 times. Firesheep: This is a plug-in to the Firefox browser that allows the hacker to capture SSL session cookies sent over any unencrypted network (like an open wifi network) and use them to possibly steal their owner’s identities. It is extremely common for websites to protect user passwords by encrypting the initial login with SSL, but then never encrypt anything else sent after login, which leaves the cookie (and the user) vulnerable to “sidejacking.

” When a hacker uses Firesheep to grab these cookies, he may then use the SSL-authenticated session to access the user’s account. Hotspotter: Like KARMA, Hotspotter is another wireless attack tool that mimics any access point being searched for by nearby clients, and then dupes users into connecting to it instead. •IKECrack: This is an open source IPsec VPN authentication cracking tool which uses brute force attack methods to analyze captured Internet Key Exchange (IKE) packets to find valid VPN user identity and secret key combinations. Once cracked, these credentials can be used to gain unauthorized access to an IPsec VPN. KARMA: This evil twin attack listens to nearby wireless clients to determine the name of the network they are searching for and then pretends to be that access point. Once a victim connects to a KARMA evil twin, this tool can be used to redirect web, FTP, and email requests to phone sites in order to steal logins and passwords. •Kismet: Kismet takes an intrusion detection approach to wireless security, and can be used to detect and analyze access points within radio range of the computer on which it is installed.

This software reports SSIDs (Service Set Identifiers – used to distinguish one wireless network from another) advertised by nearby access points, whether or not the access point is using WEP, and the range of IP addresses being used by connected clients. •NetStumbler: This tool turns any WiFi-enabled Windows laptop into an 802. 11 network detector. NetStumbler and dozens of similar “war driving” programs can be used with other attack tools to find and hack into discovered wifi networks. •WireShark: WireShark is a freeware LAN analyzer that can be used to passively capture 802. 11 packets being transmitted over a wifi network.

This software has been downloaded millions of times. 2. Hardware •For hackers that prefer a turn-key package, there are also hardware wireless hacking tools available. We’ve highlighted one called WiFi Pineapple. It’s a simple, small, portable device that can be carried into any hotspot and used to attract any laptop trying to find a wifi access point. The Pineapple uses a technique called an Evil Twin attack. Hackers have used tools like KARMA to do the same thing for years, but with Pineapple, now you can buy a piece of hardware for only $100 that allows you to become a hacker without downloading or installing any software. Here’s what their website says: “Of course all of the Internet traffic flowing through the pineapple such as e-mail, instant messages and browser sessions are easily viewed or even modified by the pineapple holder. ”

REFERENCES http://www. cse. wustl. edu/~jain//cse571-07/ftp/wireless_hacking/index. html http://www. cs. wright. edu/~pmateti/InternetSecurity/Lectures/WirelessHacks/Mateti-WirelessHacks. htm#_Toc77524642 http://www. webopedia. com/TERM/C/cyber_crime. html http://www. wi-fiplanet. com/tutorials/article. php/3568066 file:///C:/Users/jsk/Desktop/Wireless%20Hackers%20101. htm

ESTABLISHMENT OF AN AUTOMATIC CAR WASH STATION IN OLONGAPO CITY OUTLINE: I. PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING A. Introduction B. Statement of the Problem C. Objectives D. Significance of the Study E. Locale of the Study F. Definition of Terms II. REVIEW OF RELATED STUDIES A. Relation of the Review Material to the Present Study III. METHODS AND PROCEDURES A. Research Methodology B. Data Gathering (Hypothetical) IV. PRESENTATION ANALYSIS AND INTERPRETATION A. Marketing Aspect B. Financial Aspect C. Socio – Economic Aspect V.

SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATION A. Summary B. Conclusion C. Recommendation D. Bibliography I. PROBLEM AND ITS SETTING A. Introduction The study is a partial completion of project feasibility study. The intention of putting an automatic car wash station is to meet the necessity of car owners in the city. The project was chosen in expectation of certainties of economic development in Subic Bay Freeport Zone, and also to provide maintenance and efficiency of vehicles that will create access on different location in the area.

To be able to cope up with the growing transportation vehicle in Olongapo City, especially at Rizal Avenue, East Tapinac beside Olongapo Wesley School and second rotunda where at least 2,000 private vehicles were passing a day. This project when fully developed, deserves a superior attention in all its primary operation and therefore it is assured to have a greater chance of success. B. Statement of the Problem This project study analyzes the possibility of establishing an automatic car wash station that is located at Rizal Avenue, East Tapinac near Olongapo Wesley School and second rotunda.

Car wash station is needful to the transport business. Moreover, there is no existing automatic car wash station to readily serve the needs of vehicle owners here in the city. Its operation will be a big help in giving good services which will benefit the vehicle owners of Olongapo City as well as the visitors or tourists from nearby cities and provinces. It aims to determine the ability to live, grow and develop an automatic car wash station in Olongapo City. Specifically, this study seeks to answer the following questions: 1. How much proceed will be generated? 2.

What is the ratio of car wash stations and private vehicle in Olongapo City? C. Objectives The intention of the feasibility study is to analyze some of the factors that may affect the viability of the said project of putting up an automatic car wash station. To discover the marketing possibility of an automatic car wash station to the customers, the type of market competition, promotion or advertisement and pricing. To determine the financial viability of the project considering the initial working capital and the operating cash requirements, cash flows and profitability.

To enhance our knowledge in project implementation and to provide the viable activity which would improve the present socio – economic standing of our country. D. Significance of the Study The study is significant to the following: 1. Car Owners -To lessen the time of waiting for their cars to be cleaned or to be fixed. The washing station could complete the task of washing a car in 20 minutes. Service charge to be paid is also less. 2. Entrepreneurs -To consider the feasibility of pursuing an automatic car wash station project. 3. Car Wash Station Owners -To determine the type of marketing competition of this industry.

A stakeholder is a person, group, or organization that has a direct or indirect stake in an organization because it can be affected by the organization’s actions, objectives, and policies. In a business, there are many people and organizations who are able to support and have responsibility to keep the business survive. Stakeholders are one of them. They are people who have an interest in the activities of a firm or business, however, they do not have to own any finance in that business. There are two types of stakeholders –Internal and External stakeholders.

The external stakeholders in construction project are: Local, and National authorities and government, Social organizations, Political organization, Local communities, the General public, Environmentalists, Interests groups, Real estate owners, Nearby residents, Trade and industry, Social Services (schools, Hospitals etc. ), Media, anyone else who believes he or she has a stake in the project. Internal stakeholders are: Project owners, Client organization, Project Management team, Customer user, Suppliers contractors’ subcontractors, Employee, Financiers, and Creditors.

Major stakeholders for the big dig project are: the Massachusetts Highway Department, the Massachusetts Turnpike Authority (MTA), the Metropolitan Highway System (MHS), Bechtel/Parsons Brinckerhoff (B/PB), and the General public. The main direct stakeholders who are benefiting from the completion of the project are the Boston commuters. The main objective of the Big Dig project is relieving highway traffic congestion, reducing traffic jams in Downtown Boston, and decreasing the accident rate. The elevated Central Artery had been designed to carry up to 75,000 vehicles per day when it opened in 1959.

However, the size of traffic continued to increase, with traffic mounting to 200,000 vehicles per day, and approximately 190,000 of those going over the Charles River crossing in the 1990s. The two tunnels under Boston Harbor between downtown Boston and East Boston/Logan Airport were facing the same problem. The accidents were concentrated around exits from the elevated highway onto local streets in downtown Boston, and this was linked to the lack of an ‘Inner Belt’ highway that was supposed to complete the Central Artery design.

Such an Inner Belt was never built because of community opposition to the construction of an additional highway, which would have required displacing thousands of residents and businesses. Through the years, it became clear that without major improvements to the Central Artery and the harbor crossings, the congestion was only going to get worse. The annual costs from this congestion were significant, including wasted fuel from idling due to still traffic and related deficiencies to air quality, as well as charges for delayed deliveries.

All of these were estimated to cost $500 million per year. In addition, Boston’s North End and Waterfront neighborhoods were cut off from the downtown, limiting these areas’ ability to participate in the city’s economic life. The success factors are the contributions made by the management towards a successful project. These can be classified into five groups as follows: •The project manager: Having a project manager is not going to guarantee the success of a project. The person needs to have an array of skills under his arm to use during the project.

He must guide the rest of the team to successfully complete all the objectives. •The project team: Project managers are very lucky if they have the option to choose their project team. More often, their team is inherited to the project from various sectors of the organization. The team needs to consist of variety of skills and experience. Collectively as a team, success is easy to achieve with proper guidance. All members of the project team must be committed to the success of the project and the overall mission of the company. Project: The scope and timeline of the project are crucial. For example, if a project is urgent, the critical factor in that case is time. •The organization: Top management support is the principal success factor for many independent research groups. The organization needs to provide support to both the project manager and the project team. •External environment: External environment can be the political, economic, socio-culture and technological context in which the project is executed.

Factors like the weather, work accidents or the government’s favorable or unfavorable legislation can affect the project in all of its phases. External constraints should not affect the project. Back up plans need to be in place in case daily tasks cannot be carried by the team. Yes, the project is successful. The economic impacts of the projects are as follows: •There has been approximately 62% improvement in the traffic flow, which exceeded project expectations. •A 12 percent reduction in citywide carbon monoxide levels was achieved. Improvements and substantial reductions in traffic delay is providing approximately $168 million annually in time and cost-saving for travelers. •Average travel times from the I-90/I-93 interchange to Logan Airport during peak periods have decreased between 42% and 74%, depending on direction and time of day. •Average afternoon peak hour northbound travel time on I-93 through downtown has dropped from 19. 5 minutes to 2. 8 minutes. •The opening of the I-90 connector to Logan International Airport has added 800,000 residents to the 1. million who can access the airport within a 40-minute drive of their home. Overall, the project is successful as can be seen from the above economic impacts of the project. The major objective to relief the traffic has been successful and there is a much better traffic flow now. This project gives us a good idea about the success criteria used here and gives us a practical example of the required contributions by the management and employees to make the project successful.

Fork Lift Safety Purpose Material handling is a significant safety concern. During the movement of products and materials there are numerous opportunities for personal injury and property damage if proper procedures and caution are not used. This chapter applies to all powered industrial tucks, hoists & lifting gear. The information in this chapter shall be used to train prospective industrial truck operators and provide the basis for refresher and annual retraining. OSHA reference for Powered Industrial Trucks is 1910. 178. Pre-Qualifications for Powered Industrial Truck (PIT) Operators

All candidates for PIT operators must meet the following basic requirements prior to starting initial or annual training: | Must have no adverse vision problems that cannot be corrected by glasses or contacts | No adverse hearing loss that cannot be corrected with hearing aids | No physical impairments that would impair safe operation of the PIT | No neurological disorders that affect balance or consciousness | Not taking any medication that affects perception, vision, or physical abilities Training Training for Powered Industrial Truck (PIT) Operators shall be conducted by an experienced operator, selected by Management.

All operational training shall be conducted under close supervision. All training and evaluation must be completed before an operator is permitted to use a Powered Industrial Truck (forklift, etc) without continual & close supervision. Training consists of: Trainees may operate a powered industrial truck only: w Under the direct supervision of persons, selected by management, who have the knowledge, training, and experience to train operators and evaluate their competence; and w Where such operation does not endanger the trainee or other employees. Training Content

Training consists of a combination of formal instruction, practical training (demonstrations performed by the trainer and practical exercises performed by the trainee), and evaluation of the operator’s performance in the workplace. Initial Training: Powered industrial truck operators shall receive initial training in the following topics: Truck-related training topics: 1. Operating instructions, warnings, and precautions for the types of truck the operator will be authorized to operate 2. Differences between the truck and the automobile 3. Truck controls and instrumentation: where they are located, what they do, and how they work 4.

Engine or motor operation 5. Steering and maneuvering 6. Visibility (including restrictions due to loading) 7. Fork and attachment adaptation, operation, and use limitations 8. Vehicle capacity 9. Vehicle stability 10. Any vehicle inspection and maintenance that the operator will be required to perform 11. Refueling and/or charging and recharging of batteries 12. Operating limitations 13. Any other operating instructions, warnings, or precautions listed in the operator’s manual for the types of vehicle that the employee is being trained to operate. Workplace-related topics: 1.

Surface conditions where the vehicle will be operated 2. Composition of loads to be carried and load stability 3. Load manipulation, stacking, and unstacking 4. Pedestrian traffic in areas where the vehicle will be operated 5. Narrow aisles and other restricted places where the vehicle will be operated 6. Hazardous (classified) locations where the vehicle will be operated 7. Ramps and other sloped surfaces that could affect the vehicle’s stability 8. Closed environments and other areas where insufficient ventilation or poor vehicle maintenance could cause a buildup of carbon monoxide or diesel exhaust 9.

Other unique or potentially hazardous environmental conditions in the workplace that could affect safe operation Refresher training and evaluation. Refresher training, including an evaluation of the effectiveness of that training, shall be conducted to ensure that the operator has the knowledge and skills needed to operate the powered industrial truck safely. Refresher training in relevant topics shall be provided to the operator when: 1. The operator has been observed to operate the vehicle in an unsafe manner 2. The operator has been involved in an accident or near-miss incident 3.

The operator has received an evaluation that reveals that the operator is not operating the truck safely 4. The operator is assigned to drive a different type of truck 5. A condition in the workplace changes in a manner that could affect safe operation of the truck 6. Once every 3 years an evaluation will be conducted of each powered industrial truck operator’s performance. Safe Operating Procedures (SOP) & Rules | Only authorized and trained personnel will operate PITs. | All PITs will be equipped with a headache rack, fire extinguisher, rotating beacon, back-up alarm and seat belts.

Seat belts will be worn at all times by the Operator. | The operator will perform daily pre- and post-trip inspections. | Any safety defects (such as hydraulic fluid leaks; defective brakes, steering, lights, or horn; and/or missing fire extinguisher, lights, seat belt, or back-up alarm) will be reported for immediate repair or have the PIT taken “Out of Service”. | Operators will follow the proper recharging or refueling safety procedures. | Loads will be tilted back and carried no more than 6 inches from the ground. Loads that restrict the operator’s vision will be transported backwards. PITs will travel no faster than 5 mph or faster than a normal walk. | Hard hats will be worn by PIT Operators in high lift areas. . | Operator will sound horn and use extreme caution when meeting pedestrians, making turns and cornering. | Passengers may not ride on any portion of a PIT. Only the operator will ride PITs. “NO PASSENGERS” decals will be affixed on all PITs. | If PITs are used as a man lift, an appropriate man lift platform (cage with standard rails and toe-boards) will be used. | Aisle will be maintained free from obstructions, marked and wide enough (six foot minimum) for vehicle operation. Lift capacity will be marked on all PITs. Operator will assure load does not exceed rated weight limits. | When un-attended, PITs will be turned off, forks lowered to the ground and parking brake applied. | All PITs (with exception of pallet jacks) will be equipped with a multi-purpose dry chemical fire extinguisher. (Minimum rating; 2A:10B:C) | Operators are instructed to report all accidents, regardless of fault and severity, to Management. Management will conduct an accident investigation. | When loading rail cars and trailers, dock plates will be used.

Operators will assure dock plates are in good condition and will store on edge when not in use. | Rail cars and trailers will be parked squarely to the loading area and have wheels chocked in place. Operators will follow established Docking/Un-Docking Procedures. Changing and Charging Storage Batteries. | Battery charging installations shall be located in areas designated for that purpose. | Facilities shall be provided for flushing and neutralizing spilled electrolyte, for fire protection, for protecting charging apparatus from damage by trucks, and for adequate ventilation for dispersal of fumes from gassing batteries. A conveyor, overhead hoist, or equivalent material handling equipment shall be provided for handling batteries. | Reinstalled batteries shall be properly positioned and secured in the truck. | A carboy tilter or siphon shall be provided for handling electrolyte. | When charging batteries, acid shall be poured into water; water shall not be poured into acid. | Trucks shall be properly positioned and brake applied before attempting to change or charge batteries. | Care shall be taken to assure that vent caps are functioning. The battery (or compartment) cover(s) shall be open to dissipate heat. Smoking is prohibited in the charging area. | Precautions shall be taken to prevent open flames, sparks, or electric arcs in battery charging areas. | Tools and other metallic objects shall be kept away from the top of uncovered batteries. Trucks and Trailers. | The flooring of trucks and trailers shall be checked for breaks and weakness before they are driven onto. | The brakes of highway trucks shall be set and wheel chocks placed under the rear wheels to prevent the trucks from rolling while they are boarded with powered industrial trucks. Wheel stops or other recognized positive protection shall be provided to prevent railroad cars from moving during loading or unloading operations. | Fixed jacks may be necessary to support a semitrailer and prevent upending during the loading or unloading when the trailer is not coupled to a tractor. Operations | If at any time a powered industrial truck is found to be in need of repair, defective, or in any way unsafe, the truck shall be taken out of service until it has been restored to safe operating condition. | Trucks shall not be driven up to anyone standing in front of a bench or other fixed object. No person shall be allowed to stand or pass under the elevated portion of any truck, whether loaded or empty. | Unauthorized personnel shall not be permitted to ride on powered industrial trucks. | Arms or Legs shall not be placed between the uprights of the mast or outside the running lines of the truck. | When a powered industrial truck is left unattended, load engaging means shall be fully lowered, controls shall be neutralized, power shall be shut off, and brakes set. Wheels shall be blocked if the truck is parked on an incline. A safe distance shall be maintained from the edge of ramps or platforms while on any elevated dock, or platform or freight car. Trucks shall not be used for opening or closing freight doors. | There shall be sufficient headroom under overhead installations, lights, pipes, sprinkler system, etc. | An overhead guard shall be used as protection against falling objects. It should be noted that an overhead guard is intended to offer protection from the impact of small packages, boxes, bagged material, etc. , representative of the job application, but not to withstand the impact of a falling capacity load. A load backrest extension shall be used whenever necessary to minimize the possibility of the load or part of it from falling rearward. | Trucks shall not be parked so as to block fire aisles, access to stairways, or fire equipment. Traveling | All traffic regulations shall be observed, including authorized speed limits. A safe distance shall be maintained approximately three truck lengths from the truck ahead, and the truck shall be kept under control at all times. | The right of way shall be yielded to ambulances, fire trucks, or other vehicles in emergency situations. Other trucks traveling in the same direction at intersections, blind spots, or other dangerous locations shall not be passed. | The driver shall be required to slow down and sound the horn at cross aisles and other locations where vision is obstructed. If the load being carried obstructs forward view, the driver shall be required to travel with the load trailing. | The driver shall be required to look in the direction of, and keep a clear view of the path of travel. | Grades shall be ascended or descended slowly. When ascending or descending grades in excess of 10 percent, loaded trucks shall be driven with the load upgrade.

On all grades the load and load engaging means shall be tilted back if applicable, and raised only as far as necessary to clear the road surface. | Under all travel conditions the truck shall be operated at a speed that will permit it to be brought to a stop in a safe manner. | Stunt driving and horseplay shall not be permitted. | The driver shall be required to slow down for wet and slippery floors. | Dockboard or bridgeplates, shall be properly secured before they are driven over. Dockboard or bridgeplates shall be driven over carefully and slowly and their rated capacity never exceeded. Running over loose objects on the roadway surface shall be avoided. | While negotiating turns, speed shall be reduced to a safe level by means of turning the hand steering wheel in a smooth, sweeping motion. Except when maneuvering at a very low speed, the hand steering wheel shall be turned at a moderate, even rate. Loading. | Only stable or safely arranged loads shall be handled. Caution shall be exercised when handling off-center loads which cannot be centered. | Only loads within the rated capacity of the truck shall be handled. | The long or high (including multiple-tiered) loads which may affect capacity shall be adjusted. Trucks equipped with attachments shall be operated as partially loaded trucks when not handling a load. | A load engaging means shall be placed under the load as far as possible; the mast shall be carefully tilted backward to stabilize the load. | Extreme care shall be used when tilting the load forward or backward, particularly when high tiering. Tilting forward with load engaging means elevated shall be prohibited except to pick up a load. An elevated load shall not be tilted forward except when the load is in a deposit position over a rack or stack.

When stacking or tiering, only enough backward tilt to stabilize the load shall be used. Fueling Safety | Fuel tanks shall not be filled while the engine is running. Spillage shall be avoided. | Spillage of oil or fuel shall be carefully washed away or completely evaporated and the fuel tank cap replaced before restarting engine. | No truck shall be operated with a leak in the fuel system until the leak has been corrected. | Open flames shall not be used for checking electrolyte level in storage batteries or gasoline level in fuel tanks. Maintenance of Powered Industrial Trucks. Any power-operated industrial truck not in safe operating condition shall be removed from service. All repairs shall be made by authorized personnel. | Those repairs to the fuel and ignition systems of industrial trucks which involve fire hazards shall be conducted only in locations designated for such repairs. | Trucks in need of repairs to the electrical system shall have the battery disconnected prior to such repairs. | All parts of any such industrial truck requiring replacement shall be replaced only by parts equivalent as to safety with those used in the original design. Industrial trucks shall not be altered so that the relative positions of the various parts are different from what they were when originally received from the manufacturer, nor shall they be altered either by the addition of extra parts not provided by the manufacturer or by the elimination of any parts. Additional counter-weighting of fork trucks shall not be done unless approved by the truck manufacturer. | Industrial trucks shall be examined before being placed in service, and shall not be placed in service if the examination shows any condition adversely affecting the safety of the vehicle.

Such examination shall be made at least daily. Where industrial trucks are used on a round-the-clock basis, they shall be examined prior to use each shift. Defects when found shall be immediately reported and corrected. | When the temperature of any part of any truck is found to be in excess of its normal operating temperature, thus creating a hazardous condition, the vehicle shall be removed from service and not returned to service until the cause for such overheating has been eliminated. Industrial trucks shall be kept in a clean condition, free of lint, excess oil, and grease. Noncombustible agents should be used for cleaning trucks. Low flash point (below 100 deg. F. ) solvents shall not be used. High flash point (at or above 100 deg. F. ) solvents may be used. Safe Operation Procedure for Charging LPG Tank 1. No Smoking. 2. Move LPG PIT outside for refueling. 3. Turn off PIT. 4. LPG tanks will be removed in the following order: -shut off service valve -disconnect tank from hose -unbuckle and remove tank from bracket 5.

LPG tanks will be replaced in to following order: -place tank in bracket and re-buckle -reconnect hose to tank and tighten firmly -open valve slowly and assure proper seal NOTE: Federal Law Prohibits dispensing an improper fuel type into any Vehicle or into a non-approved fuel container. In Case of LPG Leaks or Tank Rupture 1. DO NOT start or move the PIT. 2. If fuel hose is leaking, Close valve immediately and place PIT “Out of Service” until repaired. 3. If tank ruptures, warn other, immediately leave the area (at least 50 feet) and notify Management.

Do not re-enter the area until cleared by Management. Powered Industrial Truck Pre-Use Checklist A check of the following items (as applicable) is to be conducted by the operator prior to use each shift. Lights Horn Brakes Leaks Warning Beacon Backup Warning Alarm Fire Extinguisher If any deficiencies are noted, the unit is to be placed OUT OF SERVICE until the problem has been corrected. Additionally, it is the operators responsibility to notify the immediate supervisor and fill out a maintenance request.