Vietnam

Buddhism has greatly influenced present day Vietnam. The rise of its civilization can be traced through the effect of Buddhism on the different dynasties. The early wars won by Vietnam can be associated with Buddhist leaders and even the faith that kept the people together during the years of suffering was Buddhism. It has been proclaimed before as the national religion of the country because of its contribution to society and it is only fitting that it be included in the education of Vietnamese children.

To gain a better understanding of the development of Buddhist education in Vietnam, we need to know first the roots and development of Buddhism as a religion, what are its beliefs, how it affected the lives of the Vietnamese populace, how it was integrated to education and from thereon discuss the developments that went through up to contemporary times. Buddhism: Origin and Teachings Buddhism originated from southern Nepal around 530 B. C. as an offshoot of Hinduism. Gautama Buddha, “a prince who bridled at the formalism of Hinduism as it was being interpreted by the priestly caste of Brahmans” , was its founder.

He spent years meditating and wandering as an ascetic until he discovered the path of enlightenment to nirvana. Nirvana according to him is “the world of endless serenity in which one is freed from the cycle of birth, death, and rebirth. ” Buddhism espouses that there are four noble truths – man is born to suffer in successive lives, earthly pleasures and possessions are the cause of this suffering, man shall be delivered from suffering upon cessation of this craving, and following the eight fold path, man shall achieved deliverance – and through this he shall receive salvation.

The foundation of the Buddhist concept of morality and right behavior, the eightfold path, consists of right views, or sincerity in leading a religious life; right intention, or honesty in judgment; right speech, or sincerity in speech; right conduct, or sincerity in work; right livelihood, or sincerity in making a living; right effort, or sincerity in aspiration; right mindfulness, or sincerity in memory; and right concentration, or sincerity in meditation”. It is the most important religion in Vietnam.

Unlike other religions, “Vietnamese Buddhism stays on earth rather than ascends up to heaven, attaches to exorcism and prayers for wealth, happiness and longevity rather than heads toward nirvana. ” Most Vietnamese practice Mahayana Buddhism rather than its Hindu counterpart. The doctrinal distinction between the two consists of their differing views of Gautama Buddha: the Mahayana school teaches that Gautama was only one of many “enlightened ones” manifesting the fundamental divine power of the universe; the Theravada school teaches that Gautama was the one-and-only enlightened one and the great teacher, but that he was not divine.

The Mahayana sect holds further that laypersons can attain nirvana, whereas the Theravada school believes that only ordained monks and nuns can do so. The beginnings of Buddhism in Vietnam The early beginnings of Buddhism may be traced back from as early as 300 B. C. It was said that Therevada Buddhism have been “imported directly into Vietnam from India through sea routes since the 2nd century A. D. ” Although some believe that “Buddhism spread first from China to Vietnam’s Red River Delta region in approximately the second century A.

D. , and then from India to the southern Mekong Delta area at some time between the third and the sixth centuries” , evidence shows that Buddhism reached Vietnam even before it entered China. In the past, Vietnam was very much like the intersection between India and China. At that time, either walking, or by boat, people made a trip from India to China or vice versa, in doing so they must cross Vietnam. Vietnam, therefore, was a good place to stop by for foreign business people as well as Buddhist monks.

Back to 3rd century BC, after King Asoka organized the Third Council -a Conference to Collect the Dharma- at Pataliputra, India, he sent 9 Buddhist monk delegates overseas. The monks went from Afghanistan to the Mediterranean to teach Dharma. One of these, lead by Sona and Uttara went to Burma then Indochina, including Viet Nam. Now, in Haiphong -60miles north east of HaNoi- there is a memorial tower to commemorate King Asoka that was built by local Vietnamese Buddhists at that time to express their gratitude to King Asoka.

From that evidence, we may come up with conclusion that Buddhism came to Vietnam as early as 300 years BC, even before China. Then in the second century, Buddhism in Vietnam became more popular and developed with the contributions of Marajivaka, K’Ang Seng Houei, Tchi Kiang Liang three great Buddhist monks who came from India and a local scholar, Mecu Fo. Because Mecu Fo is a key character in Buddhism’s development in Vietnam, we should take a closer look at him. He was Vietnamese or might have been born and raised in a great Chinese-Vietnamese family.

We must take into consideration that his place of birth was not originally a Chinese territory, it was just annexed to China from Vietnam. Since he was skilled in Chinese education, he used this skill in order to convert more people into Buddhism. Mecu Fo was mandarin and took advantage of his position to teach his people about Buddhism. Due to his contributions in the propagation and spread of Buddhism in Vietnam, he is considered as the first ever Buddhist lay man in Vietnam. Buddhism: Its Role in Liberation and Its Golden Age

During the Ly and the Tran dynasties, Buddhism achieved a golden age in Vietnam. It was during the time of Emperor TRAN NHAN TONG that the first Vietnamese Meditation, Truc Lam Yen Tu was founded , this however did not come until 1010 several decades after Vietnam’s independence from China. However, it is accurate to say that Buddhism was a very important element in the country’s fight for freedom. For several centuries, the Chinese conquered Vietnam and ruled the people with an iron hand.

The Chinese’s main objective was to transform Vietnam into another Chinese territory and annex it afterwards to mainland China. In order to achieve their goal, great atrocities were done to the people both physically and psychologically, the Chinese even employed Sinicization or cultural invasion in order to uproot Vietnamese culture from its citizens and replace it with theirs to ease the annexation. Despite the suffering, there was one thing that kept the Vietnamese people from breaking down and it was their religion.

By living on the teachings of Buddhism, the people believed that the wicked shall eventually be punished and that they should keep on surviving until that day comes. During the Chinese rule, revolutions such as that led by two sister trung aimed at liberation were attempted but to no avail. In these revolts, Buddhism also played a great role, its temples became the common meeting grounds for freedom fighters and the perfect place to mobilize troops. Finally, in 939 a Vietnamese general named NGO QUYEN, led the Vietnamese people to victory over the Chinese on the decisive battle on Bach Dang river thus ending the Chinese rule.

After the war, Buddhist monks in coordination with the newly established government tried to build the kingdom. To show his gratitude, the emperor Dinh Tien Hoang helped organize the Shangha and named Khuong Viet and Phapthuan, both Buddhist monks, as his national security adviser and Secretary of State respectively. Another major milestone for Buddhism during this dynasty was that it was declared as the national religion by the emperor, who was himself a Buddhist.

The establishment of the kingdom was coupled with several hardships, the most crucial of all is the threat of another Chinese invasion. Although at first was a mere thought among the people, it became clear when a Chinese spy disguised as a delegate for diplomatic relations entered Vietnam to size up its military power. Upon entering Vietnam, the first person the delegate met was a ferry-man who was to take him to the capital, he was however surprised when the ferry-man was able to converse with him at a level worthy of government office.

When the delegate arrived and conversed with Vietnam’s national Security adviser, he concluded based on his meeting with the ferry man and Khuong Viet that Vietnam was well-prepared for an invasion and that invading it would be disastrous. Apparently, the ferry-man who amazed and confused the delegate with the level of learning of a mere ferry-man was Phaptuan in disguise. In the end, the two highest-ranking monks were responsible for averting a possible attack through their diplomatic skills and it forever went on in history as the first diplomatic war won by Vietnam.

After more than 30 years, the Chinese began to strengthen its military force on the borders of Vietnam resulting to an election of a fitting leader to decide on the course of action on the said threat. The leader chosen was a talented, kind and high moral man, he was the Commander in Chief of the army and is known as Ly Cong Uan, thus started the Ly Dynasty. Ly Cong Uan was a Buddhist monk raised by Zen Master Van Hanh in a Buddhist temple who then became his national adviser. Under his reign, 300 Buddhist temples were built and the Sangha was well organized with over 1000 monks. He incorporated Buddhist teaching in all aspects of governance.

Buddhism has been present in Vietnam for almost two thousand years. Buddhism is an offshoot of Hinduism. It originated in Nepal in 530 B. C. A Hindu price, Gautama who did not like the idea of Hindu caste system, was the founder of Buddhism. Gautama did not believe that any man could be superior to the other and as Hinduism Brahmans are considered superior, he left this religion . Gautama had spent many years wandering and meditating. In the end he found answers to all his questions and hence found the path of enlightenment, “nirvana”. According to Buddhism, nirvana is the path to endless serenity.

It is free from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Moreover, a person will achieve salvation if he believes in the four noble truths. These four noble truths are that a man suffers in all his consecutive lives; the reason for his sufferings is his wants for earthly things, when the person frees himself from all the wants of earthly things he then achieves deliverance. The last noble truth says that a person can achieve deliverance by following the eightfold noble path . BUDDHIST SCHOOLS Buddhism spread in Vietnam through China in second century A. D. In third and sixth century it came from India.

Buddhism came through Vietnam’s Red River Delta region and Mekong Delta area. Mahayana Buddhism came from China and became more famous than Theravada (or Hinayana) Buddhism. Theravada Buddhism came from India and was accepted by people in the Southern delta region. Both of these have different views about Gautama Buddha. According to Mahayana Buddhism, Buddha was one of many enlightened people. They also believe that out of all these people Buddha was the divine one. Theravada Buddhism believes that Buddha was the only enlightened one and that there was no other than him.

However they think that Buddha cannot be called as the divine one. The Mahayana school also believes that any person can achieve nirvana and that who ever follows the right path will be able to reach nirvana but Theravada school says that only monks and nuns can attain nirvana. These two schools of Buddhism are actually different interpretations of one basic belief. These are the earliest schools in Vietnam. Why did Mahayana become more accepted? It is because the Mahayana ritual and imagery attracted the Vietnamese. Its ceremonies were in conformity with original Vietnamese beliefs and rituals.

This school of Buddhism also combined folklore with Taoist teachings. The enlightened ones in Buddhism were respected as animist spirits. In 7th century C. E, Mahayana school became a little more developed. It was then called Vajrayana. This had an influence of Hinduism also but had similar teachings as of Mahayana. The aim of Vajrayana is the same as that in Mahayana, that is to attain Buddhahood, but the tantric practices showed a quick way to achieve this end . BUDDHISM BEFORE UNIFICATION Before the country was unified, Buddhism was the state religion. When the communist gained power, Buddhism religion came under continuous hostility.

Later, the Patriotic Buddhist Liaison Committee was formed. This committee tried to separate real collaborators from opponents. It promoted the idea that all Buddhist wanted to build a new society. This society was free from the feudal and neo-colonialist influences. This committee tried to prove that all Buddhist were involved in this committee and that they were trying to put a halt to independent Buddhist clergy’s activities to a halt. The communist in those times tried to pressure the monks and nuns to lead their life in such a way that they do not oppose their worldly desires.

However the main aim of Buddhism is to lead a secular life, hence whoever disobeyed these communists was placed under house arrest or imprisoned. All their holdings were confiscated most of their religious places were turned in to public use. Trainings of monks and nuns were stopped. In 1981, a Buddhist church was formed in Vietnam which represented all Buddhists. Though Buddhists activities were taking place in some remote areas but each and every pagoda in the country had been destroyed. The main aim of these communists was to stop any religious growth of Buddhists.

Whatever Buddhists remained were practicing their religion but no new monks and nuns were allowed to be ordained. When the Buddhist church was formed in 1981, it helped train a new generation of monks and nuns. Two Buddhists academy were formed one in Hanoi and another in Ho Chi Minh City. BUDDHIST EDUCATION The education system in Vietnam is of great importance as it declares the identity of a nation. This identity is also characterized by the culture and religion and is the core element in cooperation with other nations. The culture might makeup the identity of a nation.

This culture is influenced by the education of the country and more importantly the higher education. From very early period Buddhists are concerned about education. In third century almost 9 Dhamma missionaries were sent to different areas of south East Asia in order to teach people about Buddhism . This is the oldest example telling Buddhists concern about Buddhist studies. These 9 Dhamma missionaries started a wave of missionaries. These were sent to Sri Lanka, Thailand and china etc. Today, due to these missionaries and Buddhist schools, Buddhists are present in very corner of the world.

Vietnamese Buddhist education leaders are very much concerned about the global demands and needs of Buddhist education. In 1975, when the country got united, there already was a higher education institution in South; it was named Van Hanh University. This university was popular internationally and had close interaction with many other universities of the world. After 1980s two advanced schools were established in Ha Noi and Ho Chi Minh City. These schools trained monks and nuns at B. A level. Due to growing demand these two higher education schools were later turned in to universities.

These now trained monks and nuns at not only undergraduate level but also postgraduate level. In 1997, one more Buddhist university was formed, this time in Hue city. Today, there are almost 40, 000 monks and nuns. There are almost six colleges and 31 high schools teaching Buddhism . In past few years many Buddhist colleges have been made. These Buddhist colleges give Buddhist education at B. A level. Many monks and nuns have been sent to other countries like India, China, Taiwan, Japan, Thailand and United States, in order to have higher education. These students come back with PhDs and master degrees.

This will help improve the quality of education and increase the number of teaching staff in the country. These students not only spread the good name of Buddhism but also help impart their knowledge to other Buddhist students in Vietnam. Though Buddhism is present in every corner of the world and is considered on of the global religions, it has never tried to alter or threaten the cultures and traditions of any place. The main reason for this is that Buddha’s original teachings never tried to alter anyone’s culture. It was with the doctrine of dependent origin (Paticcasamuppada).

They have a general formula which says that nothing exists independently. Moreover, the Chinese Hua Yen school believes in the theory of totalism. This theory says that all the things in the universe have their own qualities. These are fully present within or without Dhamma. Hence, we can say that Buddhists studies believe that all existence in the world is interdependent regardless of their faith, nation or religion. This attitude of Buddhist studies has helped Buddhism spread throughout the world. Education can be called a tool which helps a human being grow, transform and learn.

Education in many areas of the world is a social liability, but never can we see that it illuminates the light of truth and goodness like Buddhist education. The prime responsibility of Dhamma schools is to transform a character. A person has values which are responsible for his character. These values come from ideals. Buddhist educators determine these ideals and teach students about a proper Buddhist life. There are five qualities that Buddhism education brings from the teachings of Buddha. The first one is concerned with emotions of a human. Second is related to education and wisdom.

Others relate to better living styles like avoid killing, stealing, sexual abuse and drinking. The Buddhist education transforms a character in real terms. The character and intelligence, both are tried to be balanced. The entire Buddhist education comes from the studies of Buddha, who is the supreme teacher. All of the studies root from saddha, which is the faith in triple Gem. Depdnding upon these studies the students are taught according to the five rules. The students should know the rules, their reason and their appliance in daily lives. Most importantly, they should appreciate all these rules and believe in them.

The students should know what is generosity and self sacrifice. These are essential elements that help the students overcome their worldly desires, their selfishness and greed. These five moral rules are dependent on each other. A student can gain by suta, which is by extensive reading of Buddhism texts. According to Buddhist studies the knowledge of a person is dependent on his inside belief of truth i. e. Dhamma. Calm and insight are the two main elements of any Buddhist teaching. In Buddhist education tasks and wisdom are dependent on each other. A student can attain wisdom by deep investigation, discussion and intelligence.

This wisdom was the basic instruments which lead Buddha to salvation. This wisdom is the crown of all educations of Buddhism. Without wisdom, education is incomplete. Before French, people were chosen based on their education. These were officials known as “mandarins”. Learning was very important in those times. It was not just education but it lead a person to intellectual understanding, social standing, wealth and power. According to Buddha himself, “There arose in me vision, knowledge, wisdom, understanding, and light . ” Today, Buddhist monasteries still give Buddhist education to scholars.

Buddhist relics are found all over Vietnam. These relics indicate that there were Buddhists present there in one time or the other. Religious education was provided to masses, and every nook and corner of Vietnam had places for Buddhist education. During rainy seasons the monks rested in viharas, which was also their place of meditating. The Stupa is also a place where Buddhist education can be taught. Usually in a stupa there is a large place which can hold the teacher student class. Sometimes there are stone benches and a place on the wall used as a writing board.

Sometimes there are cubicles which are all around the hall. In olden days Buddhist scholars were taught in stupas. The academic day in a Buddhist school starts with paying of obeisance to Buddha. “Siddham namah” is recited till today and it means “I bow to Buddha ”. Older Buddhists usually write these words when starting to write any text. Vietnamese Buddhists are trying hard to encourage people to learn Buddhism. They are conveying the message of peace as Buddhism is a religion of peace and mental development. Buddhism has contributed a lot to Vietnam’s development.

Buddhists monks are brought together from inside and outside the country. VBS, also known as Vietnam Buddhist Sangha is the only representative of Buddhism in Vietnam . They have worked very hard in order to spread and teach Buddhism. Today there are almost 15,000 worship places in Vietnam and 10 million Buddhist followers. Almost 40,000 monks and nuns have studies Buddhism. Though there were a few schools in the country and only one Buddhist institute names Van Hanh in Ho Chi Minh City. Today there are four institutes, six colleges and 31 high schools which teach Buddhist education.

Almost 200 monks and nuns went abroad to study Buddhism. Each and every one of them either got a PhD or a master’s degree. Many thousand students are studying Buddhism in Vietnamese schools. VBS runs almost 1,000 classrooms for disadvantaged children. There are almost 36 Buddhist orphanages all across the country. Almost 10 vocational training schools have been built by VBS. These schools train people free of charge. Buddhist education system is indeed prospering and when a nation’s education system is that well it certainly has an impact on other walks of life also.

Buddhists Monks and nuns organize a large number of humanitarian works. They have campaigns to raise funds for flood victims, build charity houses and provide medical care to the poor and disabled. Over past 5 years VBS has raised almost $25 million for charity works. Due to Buddhists scholars going abroad for learning, there has been a deep integration of Buddhist education in the international economies also. Many Buddhist students from all over the world come to Vietnam to study Buddhism. It ahs become an international arena and attracts Buddhist scholars from all over the world.

Though Vietnam is a poor country with low per capita income yet it has one of the highest literacy rates. The literacy rate in Vietnam in 1997 was 92%. There are over 2 million pupils all over the country. In 2000, the budget share for education was almost 15%, out of which almost 80% was paid to the teachers . In 2008, Birth anniversary of Buddha will be held in Vietnam for the first time. Already almost 100 countries have registered so far. Indeed Buddhist education in Vietnam has opened the gates to the world’s community. People now from all over the world come to Vietnam to study religion.

Vietnamese education system is one of the oldest and yet most advanced. Though there were no universities teaching Buddhism as a subject, today there are several universities which have Buddhist studies as their main subjects. CONCLUSION Buddhism is one of the most important religions of the World and has become one of the fastest spreading religions also. The materialistic nature of human is the root of all evil and as Buddhism shows human that there existence is not for these worldly pleasures but for the attainment of nirvana, it is becoming popular.

More people are now turning to Buddhism. These people want to find the true spiritual reason for the existence of humans. These spiritual values are one major thing that all other western religions lack. An innovation and reformation is occurring in all the study areas of the world. Globalization is becoming a new trend. Buddhists students are also not confined to Vietnam alone, but they go to many other countries in order to educate themselves. These students then come back and teach many other students who are eager to learn Buddhism.

Due to new trends, Vietnam has also reformed its educational structures and strategies in order to conform it to global changes. Buddhism as a whole has under gone structural changes in higher education so that Buddhist universities can reach international standards . Many scholars suggest that educational institutions teaching Buddhism in Vietnam should have and entrepreurial structure but others say that a heuristic approach would help more. Here is a list of some Vietnamese Universities giving Buddhist education . • Ho Chi Minh City College for Buddhist Studies, Thien Minh Temple, Do Xuan Hop

• Hanoi College for Buddhist Studies , Non Nuoc Temple, Xa Phu Linh, Huyen Soc Son, Ha Noi. • Hue College for Buddhist Studies, Bao Quoc Temple,Hue. • Can Tho College for Buddhist Studies, Chua Buu An, Quan Ninh Kieu, Can Tho • Lam Dong College for Buddhist Studies, Linh Son Temple, 120 Nguyen Van Troi. Da Lat • Ba Ria – Vung Tau College for Buddhist Studies, Dai Tong Lam Monastery. Tan Thanh. Ba Ria Vung Tau • Bac Lieu College for Buddhist Studies, 3/234 Tinh lo 38, P. 5, Bac Lieu, Ca Mau • Advanced School for Dharma Dissemination, Hoa Khanh Temple, 215 Phan Van Tri, Binh Thanh, HCMC

• Khmer Theravada Academy for Buddhist Studies, Pothisomron Temple, O Mon, Can Thos References Asia Recipe. (2000). Vietnam Education. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://asiarecipe. com/vieteducation. html Brough, John. (n. d). Gandhari Dharmapada. India (n. p). B. Seshagiri Rao. (n. d) Andhra Karnata Jainism, Madras Dan, Nhan. (2007). Vietnam Buddhist Sangha on journey with nation. The Buddhist Channel. International Association of Buddhist Universities (2007). List of universities and colleges. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://www. iabu. org/ListOfUniversity. aspx

Lang, Nguyen. (n. d. ). History Of Buddhism in Vietnam. Viet Nam Phat Giao Su Luan Marginson, S. and Rhoades, G. (2002). Beyond National States, Markets, and Systems of Higher Education: A Glonacal Agency Heuristic, Higher Education. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. The Buddhist society. (2007). Schools and Traditions; spread of Buddhism. Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. thebuddhistsociety. org/resources/index. html The Buddhist World. (2007) The Buddhist Schools. (n. p). Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. buddhanet. net/e-learning/buddhistworld/vietnam-txt.

htm Truyen, Chanh Tri Mai Tho (n. d). Buddhism in Vietnam. Vietnam news agency (2007). Vietnam Buddhist sangha in journey with the nation. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://www. vnagency. com. vn/Home/EN/tabid/119/itemid/227191/Default. aspx Vietnam News (VNS). (2006). 2006 a significant year for Buddhists. Retrived January 2, 2008 from: http://vietnamnews. vnagency. com. vn/showarticle. php? num=01REL270106 Van Hein, Vietnam. (2001) Vietnamese culture. Education. .Retrieved January 2, 2008 from: http://www. saigoninfo. com/vanhoa/education. php

Almost 85% of the entire population of Vietnam is Buddhist . The main reason for this vast acceptance of Buddhism is its very early entrance in Vietnam. Buddhism entered Vietnam in the beginning of second century. This was the Common Era and can be called as the first phase of the Buddhist education in Vietnam .

The very first Buddhist education was given by a Taoist named Meou-Po, who later converted to Buddhism . According to many historians, even before this Taoist, some form of Buddhist education could be seen when the Chinese missionaries came to Vietnam .

The Chinese missionaries came in Vietnam during the rule of Si-Nhiep. Later, two Indian monks also came from India to Vietnam, in order to practice and preach Buddhism. Ma Ha Ky Vuc and Khau Da La stayed in Vietnam for some time, later Khau Da La left whereas Ma Ha Ky Vuc stayed. Ma Ha Ky Vuc was a very religious man and used to fast for several days. According to him this helped purify his body and soul. These two Buddhist monks first came to Northern Vietnam, which was called as Giao-Chi at that time. Mau-Bac, a Chinese Buddhist later came to Vietnam, in order to preach his religion.

At that time China was the centre of a serious political conflict, hence many scholars in order to learn and preach at peace, came to Vietnam. This was a breakthrough for the Buddhism. These were the first people ever to bring in Buddhism in Vietnam. They were refugees from China and Pilgrims from India. As time passed by Buddhism became more accepted and most practiced religion in Vietnam. BEGINNING OF BUDDHIST EDUCATION A Hindu price, Gautama who did not like the idea of Hindu caste system, was the founder of Buddhism.

Gautama did not believe that any man could be superior to the other and as Hinduism Brahmans are considered superior, he left this religion . Gautama had spent many years wandering and meditating. In the end he found answers to all his questions and hence found the path of enlightenment, “nirvana”. According to Buddhism, nirvana is the path to endless serenity. It is free from the cycle of birth, death and rebirth. Moreover, a person will achieve salvation if he believes in the four noble truths.

These four noble truths are that a man suffers in all his consecutive lives; the reason for his sufferings is his wants for earthly things, when the person frees himself from all the wants of earthly things he then achieves deliverance. The last noble truth says that a person can achieve deliverance by following the eightfold noble path . So how did Buddhism actually spread? During the time Si-Nhiep ruled Giao-Chi, it was considered as a safe place. Mau-Bac came to Vietnam looking for peace and tranquility. After coming to Vietnam, he studied Buddhism from an Indian monk named Ksudra .

Ma Ha Ky Vuc who also came to Vietnam got together with Mau-Bac and started preaching their religion. Ksudra also started helping them, hence people in Vietnam, who never knew what Buddhism was, started learning and accepting it. These were the very first people to start preaching and teaching Buddhism. Their teaching is the very early form of teachings found in Vietnam. After these, many Buddhist monks came to Vietnam. Khang Tang Hoi and Cuong Luong Lau were two monks who made a lot of difference. They translated many Buddhist books into Chinese.

As Vietnamese culture at that time was influenced a lot by Chinese and Chinese was the official language used , hence translating these books made a lot of difference to people who could not read or write other languages . PHASES OF VIETNAMESE BUDDHISM The history of Buddhist education in Vietnam can be studied by dividing it into four separate phases or periods. – The formation of Buddhism in Vietnam. This started from the common era and lasted till the end of Chinese dominion – Climax of Buddhism. Buddhism was at its peak during the independence – The decadence after the Le Dynasty

– Revival period. This started in the beginning of the 20th century and has not ended yet. The period before the Common Era lays the foundation for the beginning and development of Buddhist education in Vietnam. It was the time when Siddhartha Gautama, who will later attain enlightenment and will be called as ‘Buddha’ was born. As he was born in India, Indians were the first to learn Buddhism. Later when Buddhism came to China, many Chinese monks went to Vietnam in order to spread Buddhism. However, it believed that the Chinese and Indian merchants came to Vietnam for trading.

They brought monks with them saying that the monks were the “calmer of the sea” These monks started preaching their religion in Vietnam. It was easy for them to teach their religion to many people at a time, as Luy-Lau, later known as Ha-Bac was the centre of all trading activities. All the merchants who came here to trade, and merchants who were travelling between India and China, stopped here to rest, therefore, monks were able to spread their religion very easily. Many missionary activities were started as a result. Monasteries were built and Buddhism became important.

This was the first time ever in the history of Vietnam, that monasteries were built . The next period or phase proved to be best for Vietnamese Buddhism. In this period Buddhist studies were at their peak and many famous people and rulers converted to this religion. It was when King Dinh Tien Hoang came in to power. Buddhism has its own hierarchy of monks and priests who were accepted by the court. Buddhism was now supported by the royal court and this helped many positive changes to take place. Buddhists were now respected and were considered as learned people.

They were asked advice by the royal court and the rulers before taking decisions. This helped them get involved in many political and religious decisions and hence providing many decisions to be taken according to them. This era truly proved to be the best for Buddhist studies and it became one of the most predominant religions. After this, many kings and emperors converted to Buddhism. Many laws came into practice in this era, which were influenced by Buddhism, and hence were in favor of the Buddhists. Van Hanh became a Buddhist in this period.

He is known as the meditation master and has influenced many people to convert to Buddhism. Any ruler who was not Buddhists was at least the supporter of Buddhism and this was a very positive point for the Buddhists. In 1010 A. D, almost eight monasteries were built in Ha Bac. All other monasteries and Buddhist temples were also repaired. Tripitaka texts, which were in China initially, were brought in Vietnam. Thousands of Buddha statues and paintings were made and set up. Festivals were set up. Many new monasteries such as Sung Kharh monastery and monastery at Mount Ba were built. In 1086 A.

d Dai Lam monastery was built in Ha Bac. Later in 1118 A. D Thien Phat was built which had almost 1,000 Buddha statues . BUDDHIST STUDIES The entire Buddhist education comes from the studies of Buddha, who is the supreme teacher. All of the studies root from saddha, which is the faith in triple Gem. Depdnding upon these studies the students are taught according to the five rules. The students should know the rules, their reason and their appliance in daily lives. Most importantly, they should appreciate all these rules and believe in them. The students should know what is generosity and self sacrifice.

These are essential elements that help the students overcome their worldly desires, their selfishness and greed. These five moral rules are dependent on each other. A student can gain by suta, which is by extensive reading of Buddhism texts. According to Buddhist studies the knowledge of a person is dependent on his inside belief of truth i. e. Dhamma. Calm and insight are the two main elements of any Buddhist teaching. In Buddhist education tasks and wisdom are dependent on each other. A student can attain wisdom by deep investigation, discussion and intelligence.

This wisdom was the basic instruments which lead Buddha to salvation. This wisdom is the crown of all educations of Buddhism. Without wisdom, education is incomplete. Before French, people were chosen based on their education. These were officials known as “mandarins”. Learning was very important in those times. It was not just education but it lead a person to intellectual understanding, social standing, wealth and power. Buddhism came directly from India, hence there are many words in Vietnamese Buddhism which are influenced or are taken directly from India. The word Buddha is also taken as it is.

However, as the Vietnamese culture is influenced a lot from the Chinese, hence when Chinese monks came to Vietnam, the word Buddha was replaced by the word Phat. In those days, Buddhism in Vietnam was influenced by Theravada Buddhism. It was seen as religion which helped good people and punished the bad. It was very difficult to teach Buddhism at that time as very little literature was available. Vietnamese had no written script; hence a few translations were made in Chinese. The era between 544 and 602 was an independent era and was helpful in spreading Buddhism

A History of How American Culture Lead Us Into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did, by Loren Baritz, was published by The Johns Hopkins University Press in 1998. It runs to 400 pages in paperback. Baritz has held administrative positions in numerous universities in the United States. He went to the Amherst campus of the University of Massachusetts in the early 1980s as Provost and served as Chancellor for a time in 1982. He is a noted historian and well respected in his field.

This book is a different sort of history from the usual in that it deals with the clash of cultures and the differences between those of the United States and those of Vietnam. Baritz shows the mindset of the American leadership, which was instrumental in leading us down the path to a disastrous war that was not winnable from the outset. In three parts Bartitz explains why it was the myths of our invincibility and our belief that a Christian god watched over all of our endeavors which convinced us to continue the war.

He quotes Herman Melville’s lines concerning the American condition (Baritz 1998 p 26). He paints a portrait of a nation lulled by its own perceptions of righteousness and how apple pie, motherhood and love of Old Glory caused us to think we had the moral right and obligation to foist our system of beliefs on others on the other side of the globe. He shows that the idea of a separate South Vietnam was a total fabrication and had ever had any basis in fact.

We intervened in a civil matter between one nation and the egos of our leaders prevented us from admitting it was all a mistake, apologizing and withdrawing with our 58,000 plus dead still alive. We failed to win because we did not understand the mind of the Vietnamese. Baritz says, “Vietnam finally won its war because it was willing to accept more death than we considered rational,” (325). We had trained a South Vietnamese army to fight like American soldiers, making them totally dependant on American supplies and materials.

Therefore, says Baritz, the South Vietnamese were never capable of sustaining the fight on their own. Baritiz’s thesis is that the entire war was doomed from the outset because the American government never understood why the North was fighting or to what lengths they would go to continue the fight. They would never have stopped had we paved the jungle and decimated them. Because of their cultural beliefs the North Vietnamese may not have been capable of stopping. The reunification of their nation was more than a holy war, it was a living, breathing tangible of what they were as a race and a nation.

It was imbedded in their psyches that losing was never an option. We never understood that they would fight to the last man standing. In proof of his thesis Baritz says that while our enemy was fighting a war of nerves, using politics and psychology to attack us, along with every other method at their disposal, including the use of women and children, America was lulled, by the idea that this country is the New Camelot, where justice and righteousness are dispensed to all, whether or not they wish to be recipients of our largess.

Baritz believes that as the winners of World War II we see ourselves as the champions of democracy, as the New Israel, as God’s chosen. Therefore we believe that with God on our side we are blessed in all of our endeavors. We became the city on a hill (29). We fought the war, Baritz says, in the classic Ugly American way, which is how we conducted foreign policy in Southeast Asia. We did not advise, we commanded, and expected them to obey, for we believed that whether or not they would admit it, all nations wish to be us.

Baritz argument is constructed in tiers, giving the read a quick insight into the oriental mind from the first page where he begins by relating the tale of Colonel Chuc who, in 1972, while in a temple in South Vietnam, was given a revelation. “…Colonel Chuc sank into a trance and received a battle plan and a magical sword from the spirit of the Vietnamese general who defeated Kublai Khan’s Mongols seven hundred years earlier” (3). That this was effective illustrates just some of the cultural differences between our two countries.

Baritz leads the reader through the American administrations from Kennedy to Nixon, and gives insight into the games our bureaucrats played with such figures as the body count of enemy dead. Though Baritz points out that time after time, when government decisions were made there was no follow-up to determine the outcome of those policies, and whether or not they were a success. Still the reader is left with the belief that much of Baritz’s argument, while sound and acceptable, is not as fully documented as it could be.

Some of what he has to say seems to be based on well- educated speculation that his ideas are positively the way things occurred during the divisive and disastrous war. His argument that the American people had no hatred of the enemy and quickly wearied of the entire operation seems too obvious to dispute, prima facie, yet how is such an assertion proven? It seems to be an assumption. Baritz’s book is an easy and enjoyable read, though scholarly in concept and execution. He appears to be emotionally attached to his subject, but this works in his favor and makes the book more believable.

I would think that while this work does not contain all of the nuts and bolts of history, it is still a valuable treatise on the cultural clashes and is gives us a lesson in cultural differences which may have escaped the minds of today’s leadership. Officials in policy-making positions should read this as a matter of course. I believe it was worth my time, and should be used in classrooms. Works Cited Baritz, L. 1998 Backfire: A History of How American Culture Led Us into Vietnam and Made Us Fight the Way We Did Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press

The Allied Forces won the Second World War. Democracy was restored. Peace soon reigned worldwide. But the victory became short-lived. Another ideology surfaced. A former ally, the Soviet Union spearheaded the campaign of communism globally. “In 1946 President Harry Truman gave voice to the new geopolitical position of the United States by stating that America would, “assist all free peoples against threats of revolution and attack from without” (Wiest, 2003). The Soviet menace continued. Russian troops gradually gobbled most countries in Eastern Europe into submission.

The United States government fortified its military capability. The Soviet nation did the same. And the Cold War began. Communism spread like fire. Although the main focus of the threat was in Europe, destabilization plots escalated among some nations in South East Asia. Prior to the Second World War, France dominated most of the continent. Its colonies included Laos, Cambodia and Vietnam. When Japan entered the war, the French government lost its hold and influence. When events settled down, France wanted to regain the lands it formerly occupied.

With the Japanese threat out of the picture, French exerted its influence all over again. Vietnam, being a former colony, came on the French list first. The colonizers controlled the Third World country before the Second World War. They thought that it would be easy to put Vietnam back under their fold. It was a different story this time. THE ROAD TO WAR Vietnam surprised the French effort to subdue and control them. A charismatic leader named Ho Chi Minh led the revolution against the foreign conquerors. Given a small chance of winning their independence, the Vietnamese guerilla group retreated to the jungles to regroup.

The firepower of the French troops proved to be too much against the ill-equipped and ill-trained forces of Ho Chi Minh. Refusing to engage the enemy head on, the Vietnamese looked forward to a long harassing war that would soon exhaust and later discourage their foes to simply fold up. The confrontation escalated and surprised the foreign legion about the strong determination of a small band of resistance. Significant events began to unravel in 1949. Mao Che-tung challenged the rule of democracy in China. The North Koreans battled the South for supremacy over the peninsula.

“President Dwight Eisenhower put the new position of the United States into words in his inaugural address in 1952 when he remarked that, “the French in Vietnam are fighting the same war we are in Korea” (Wiest, 2003). The United States felt the need to stretch its hands to prevent a communist takeover over the rest of the world. The uprising within the region inspired Ho Chi Minh and his followers. They fought back and inflicted serious casualties on the French side. Reeling from defeat after defeat, France loosened it hold on the colony. The situation divided Vietnam.

The communist supporters rallied around the North while the South directed its efforts to strengthen its grip on democracy. As communism gained momentum, Ho Chi Minh directed an attack against South Vietnam with the purpose of uniting the country once and for all. When France decided to give up its position in the war-torn nation, the United States Administration assumed the role of driving back the communist threat. “The United States first became directly involved in Vietnam in 1950 when President Harry Truman started to underwrite the costs of France’s war against the Viet Minh” (http://www.

cyberessays. com/History/168. htm). In the beginning, the communist leader of Vietnam never intended to draw the Americans into a bloody engagement. But the involvement of the U. S. simply left Vietnam with no choice but to defend itself. As American troops gradually increased its number in the South, the Vietcong from the North instituted yet again a guerilla tactic to tire out the enemy. The U. S. government reasoned out that the main reason why it participated in the Vietnam debacle was to stave off the ideological threat of communism.

With the withdrawal of the French forces after a series of stinging defeats, America had no choice but to intervene for the sake of democracy. AMERICAN INTERVENTION The Vietnam War was another thorn on the America’s pathway. At around that period, the government dealt with the instability brought about by racism, bigotry and equality. Upholding the human rights became the battle cry among the citizens throughout the country. Despite all the internal problems hounding the nation, the U. S. government solidified its stand in checking the communist threat.

America knew that if the new found ideology remained unchecked, the world would be in peril. With no other country willing to challenge the Soviet aggression, the U. S. found enough reason to assume the responsibility in protecting democracy. Nations with strong and direct links with the United States reluctantly supported the drive against communism. However, their involvement came in a variety of ways. Many countries pledged their support in ways other than committing combat troops. America contended itself with the medical and engineering battalions from cooperative nations to back its cause in Vietnam.

As the United States went deep in its mission to prevent a communist takeover in the South, the number of troops it brought to the worsening war increased. Public outcry blasted the American policy in handling the situation in Vietnam. . “Starting with teach-ins during the spring of 1965, the massive antiwar efforts centered on the colleges, with the students playing leading roles” (http://www. cyberessays. com/History/168. htm). PUBLIC SENTIMENT In the beginning, the public were inspired by democratic ideals to defend freedom in every part of the globe. Support came rushing all over the states.

American sentiments, limited primarily inside the corners of the homes of its citizens, eventually spilled out in the streets. Rallies and demonstrations soon became a common sight on the newspapers and the television. The media did a good job in motivating a public outcry. U. S. involvement in Vietnam inspired a spirit of nationalism on two fronts. Setting aside its internal racial discourse, the Americans worked together in its bid to eliminate the communist ideology in Asia once and for all. However, things became uneventful and the U. S. took on a new meaning for the word nationalism.

Never since the attack on Pearl Harbor did the United States found itself rallying around the flag in its involvement in Vietnam. The government fueled talks about America’s new role in shaping the events and situations around the world. It went on to say that the U. S. Armed Forces had a duty and responsibility to fulfill not merely to the American people but to the entire humanity in general. Being the most sophisticated and most advanced nation globally, America must look at the bigger picture. No country wanted to fill in the shoes of promoting and maintaining peace and progress on earth.

Most regimes simply wanted to reinforce its hold on power than do anything of significance and value. Americans took pride in uplifting their potentials and ideals to a level of unmatched ability. People valued their freedom too much. Because of this, they willed to do anything against the rule of oppression. These individuals believed in enforcing order all throughout the society. Only through a nation under control would growth and development materialize. The United States always looked ahead of its time. The future remained to be a distant goal.

The citizens were willing to risk anything to fulfill its vision of a free and united country. When the Vietnam War erupted, many critics downplayed its significance to the star-pgled nation. But its modern role to promote global stability was too big to ignore. The spread of communism risked freedom to be conquered. Due to this grave danger, America was compelled to fight an external conflict. The citizens understood this, at least primarily, and supported the move in disarming the communist threat. The American people believed in its supremacy.

It believed that the entire nation could achieve whatever there was out there to achieve. The government promised the citizens that the country was fighting a war far larger than it was widely perceived. It could never be denied that a victory of a communist regime would be a big blow to democracy. Being the leading staunch supporter of democratic ideals, the United States must assert its claim in proclaiming the freedom that the nation stood for. Every direction that the country steered itself into reflected the united front instilled among the Americans.

It would be unfair if communism remained nullified and misunderstood in its concept. The ideology believed in the equal distribution of wealth and resources in the community. This vision of equal partake of the pie would be a welcome development if only it could be applied. Communism was patterned from the Socialist manifesto coined by Karl Marx. There was a preconceived notion that a communist rule would be progressive. Since the government controlled everything, its citizens were poised to be given equal rights and equal chances to shine in the society.

But the truth was that a nation thrived not because of government intervention. No matter how good the governance of a country was, it would be difficult to subdivide opportunities equally. The growth and development of people relied on hard work. Government intervention maybe vital but prosperity resided in the ability of the citizens to make things happen. Freedom had no substitute. Unless suppressed, individuals have that capability to realize their dreams. America believed so much in their dreams. Its freedom was the vital factor in their progress as a nation.

The ability to move around and weigh their options was what kept the nation going. The law of the state shattered down all boundaries and borders which inhibit democratic ideals to pull through. Democracy valued the individual no end. The citizen was considered instrumental in making the wheels the freedom rolling. Regulations were enacted around the individual to allow a free reign of ideas to materialize. The American public openly supported its fight against communism. But as the Vietnam War drag on, the people saw that the situation was getting out of hand.

The number of body bags which were coming home had increased. Americans felt that resources were being wasted in a foreign situation without the end in sight. Numerous draftees left for Vietnam and few would eventually make it back home. ANTI-WAR MOVEMENT The American people supported their government’s involvement in Vietnam. They were motivated to help a nation contain the repression of freedom. But somewhere along the line, more and more young American soldiers were killed. Many groups and organizations felt the need to review the superpower nation’s objective in winning the war in Vietnam.

But the government hardly came up with a good explanation. The situation had gone bad to worst. And the public was looking at a war gone awry. The U. S. Administration could not address the different problems involved in the situation. Much more, it cannot give direct answers to the questions and concerns of the citizens. Numerous and contrasting groups around the United States rallied and gathered together each with causes of their own. Anti-government movements surfaced with the National Committee for a Sane Nuclear Policy when nuclear programs proliferated at the start of the Cold War.

But the most aggressive campaigns against government regulations began with the rise of the radical Student Peace Union in 1959 although it went out of contention five years later. A more active group, the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS) continued upholding the cause. The organization was meant to assist the laborers, the intellectuals and the oppressed people. SDS later was taken over by student radicals during the 1950s. Sensing the disorientation and listless significance of life among Americans, the group voiced out its concern against the government. It actively pursued in valuing human rights in the society.

It supported Lyndon Johnson in its bid for the presidency against Barry Goldwater in 1964. Social reforms were the main concern of the SDS. As the Vietnam War escalated, more and more young people were drafted from the Southern part of the country. The government also pulled out numerous individuals out from schools for a tour of duty in Vietnam. Civil Rights rallies continued to flourish. The public saw the gradual increase of enlisted men in the U. S. Armed Forces which revealed that American involvement in South East Asia was getting serious. Casualties began to pile up and replacements were seriously considered.

It was 1965. The anti-war movement which initially was limited inside the campus gained wide recognition throughout the country. “The history of that movement is not only one of demonstrations, teach-ins, rallies and hundreds of other actions. It was also a history of internal debate over how and for what purpose to mobilize mass sentiment against the war” (Lorimer, 1991). When the bombing in North Vietnam began, demonstrations increased and anti-government activities moved on swiftly. Rallies and anti-war sorties gained prominence on every avenue of the United States.

Faculty members joined the movement and immediately made an impact. A series of seminars were held to educate the public about the political, military and social effects of the Vietnam War. The march towards the capital city slowly gained numerous members. On April 1965, about 25, 000 people gathered in Washington D. C. to protest American involvement in Vietnam. Inspired by the turnout of events, campus editors formed a nationwide network of media organizations that would circulate and educate various information and activities in connection with the anti-war movement.

Pressure mounted on the Pentagon especially on Secretary of Defense Robert McNamara to end the war. The campaign gained more support from the religious community which sent out letters expressing their opinions and reactions about the turmoil in Vietnam. In 1966, the movement penetrated military branch and draft evasion became a major issue. Almost all sectors in the community had a hand one way or the other in keeping the youth out of the draft. Many individuals sought refuge in nearby countries such as Canada and Sweden to elude a trip to Vietnam.

“In a January 1967 article written for the Chicago Defender, Martin Luther King, Jr. openly expressed support for the antiwar movement on moral grounds. Reverend King expanded on his views in April at the Riverside Church in New York, asserting that the war was draining much-needed resources from domestic programs” (Barringer, 1999). His views were not limited to religious matters alone. He tackled the moral effects of the ongoing war. As the number of recruits from the South increased in number, King voiced out his concern about the plight of the African-Americans in the United States.

He assailed the government’s action to prolong the war by risking a huge chunk of the taxpayers’ money. The Johnson administration began feeling the pressure internally. McNamara was fired shortly after questioning the real objectives of the conflict. George Ball the Secretary of State handed out unsolicited advice to the president. The Vietnam War was taking too long. Cabinet members and government officials reviewed the political stance of the country. It was 1968. Election was on its way. Presidential candidates capitalized on the confusion of the current administration. The U. S.

government turned out to be divided in its opinion and decision about the Vietnam situation. With no end in sight for the Vietnam offensive, the Tet American public opinion revealed that majority of the population now opposed the conflict. The Johnson presidency continued drafting young citizens for a tour of duty in South East Asia. Its policies about the war remained unchanged. The situation infuriated the anti-war movement across the American nation. “The peace movement was often militant, and many on the campuses came to reject non-violence and fought heroically against the police” (http://www. chss.

montclair. edu/english/furr/Vietnam/riseandfall. html). Student activists clashed with police. The once peaceful rallies turned violent and blood spilled over. Protesters bloodied the streets and stormed the draft centers in different cities throughout the United States. President’s Johnson’s advisers reversed the administration’s position on the Vietnamese issue and the presidency bowed out of contention. Anti-war dissidents grew bolder in its actions. Fights soon erupted during public demonstrations. Protests continued and an estimated 500,000 people participated on the citizen’s second march to Washington.

Active members rose from the ranks and went to the frontlines to lead the movement. However, the new frontrunners in the anti-war campaign gained little recognition from the American society. It was an age of expression. Majority of the general public declined its support due to the unacceptable and disturbing behavior of the protesters. The anti-war movement introduced a lifestyle which bannered the Sex, Drugs and Rock n’ roll theme. The situation turned complicated because of behavioral concerns. The protesters disrespected soldiers returning from Vietnam. American support for the movement faded a bit.

Just when things subsided, an immediate turn of events angered the entire nation. Richard Nixon the newly-elected president planned the withdrawal of troops in 1970. But the war suddenly went ugly with a few shocking events. There was a public discomfort when news reported the involvement of American troops in the My Lai massacre. In addition, the United States entered a new trail in its bloody campaign when it invaded Vietnam’s neighboring country Cambodia. American sentiment across the nation was high. Academic institutions, Union groups and even some government agencies like the State department called for an end to hostilities.

Violence went full gear when the National Guardsmen in Ohio killed a number of protesters at Kent State University. The public outcry was further driven out of proportion when true stories and coverage about American troop activities were revealed in the New York Times. Incompetence, disorganization, neglect, cruelty and abuses were directly associated with the behavior of the American military contingent. It was hardly the news all American citizens wanted to hear. The Nixon administration was quick to grasp the impending doom of prolonging the conflict.

On January 1973, the president announced the official statement which ended the American involvement in the Vietnam War. The anti-war movement was not without resistance. It was during President Johnson’s presidency that protests and demonstrations rose to the public consciousness. The government conducted suppressive methods against the dissidents. Intelligence groups monitored the movements and activities of many protesters. The Central Intelligence Agency and the Federal Bureau of Investigation tracked down numerous figures involved with the demonstrations.

Investigations even came to the point that conspiracy theories were framed by the communist groups to promote turmoil in America as a means of confusing and disorganizing the government’s focus on the war. But none of the framed stories were actually true. When America got itself involved in the Vietnam situation, a huge number of the population supported the government’s decision to intervene. Two years later, the public’s backing percentage was down to around 30%. A surprising development soon emerged in the middle of the Vietnam conflict.

Many Americans denounced the activities of the anti-war movement. However, due to the opposition to the war, most of the citizens joined the demonstrators in pressuring the government to end the escalating engagement. It was the image of the marchers and dissidents which the American public never liked. Drugs, alcohol and rock n’ roll were too much to handle especially in supporting a serious matter like the Vietnam War. “The antiwar movement reached its zenith under President Richard M. Nixon. In October 1969, more than 2 million people participated in Vietnam Moratorium protests across the country.

The following month, over 500,000 demonstrated in Washington and 150,000 in San Francisco” (Barringer, 1999). The Kent State shootings and the invasion of Cambodia fueled one of the biggest protests in recent history. Students from most universities and colleges joined hands with White House officials and blue collar workers to pressure the Nixon administration in ending the Vietnam War. Numerous arrests were made. Different groups came out in the open to lend their support. The complicated situation in the U. S. was coupled by the worsening American troop situation in Vietnam. Discipline vanished. Drugs became rampant.

The morale was down. The way the Americans dealt the communist situation in the South East Asian region turned out to be disastrous. Never did it occur to them that a rag-tag band of guerrillas would take chances with superior firepower of the United States. As more and more troops came back home, demonstrations and protests gradually subsided. Troop withdrawal began in 1971. It was almost completed in 1975. The remaining anti-Vietnam War crowd continued to hound the government about other issues related to the war. The after effects of the bombing in Vietnam, the situation of the Vietnamese civilians and the mismanagement of the U. S.

funding for the conflict were some of the arguments used by the activists in continuing their marches. CONCLUSION “The American movement against the Vietnam War was the most successful antiwar movement in U. S. history” (Barringer, 1999). The conflict became a modern test of character for its people. Although it wasn’t the United States’s finest hour, victory could still be claimed. It showed the strength of the American public. In times of turmoil and disorder, no matter what circumstances or events were there, as long the interest of the nation was at stake, individuals gathered together to show unity and support for the Motherland.

People owe so much to the land of their birth. It gave them life and liberty. Individuals from all corners settled their differences to unite and engage a common enemy. Americans portrayed a spirit of nationalism on two fronts. Primarily, citizens rallied around the flag right away when American involvement in Vietnam was announced. It was interesting to note how persons with different backgrounds could come together and work as one to achieve a specific objective. Americans held hands to fight for a cause. Citizens were instrumental in making the war possible.

It sacrificed thousands of young American soldiers to battle an ideological threat. Moreover, the American people were also a vital factor in ending the war. As the war took longer than expected, the individuals behind the anti-Vietnam War movement reversed its previous decision to go on fighting. With numerous lives at stake, a united American front retrieved its troops from Vietnam and ended the conflict right there and then. Nationalism valued every American soldier. The interest of the nation was what drives the citizens to excel.

No matter what was at stake, unity kept a country progressive and protected amidst the threat of external conflicts like the Vietnam War. “The outpouring of strong feelings and the tense atmosphere generated by the crisis make it easy to lose sight of some important aspects of this war–and all wars–which need to be dealt with on a personal and on a social level” (Stew, 1991). BIBLIOGRAPHY Barringer, M.. The Anti-war Movement in the United States. Oxford UP. 1999. 4 November 2007. http://www. english. uiuc. edu/maps/vietnam/antiwar. html Lorimer, D.. Lessons of the Anti-Vietnam War Movement.

New Course Publications. 1991. 4 November 2007. http://www. dsp. org. au/dsp/resist/r9viet. html Stew, C. The U. S. Soldier and the Anti-Vietnam War Movement. International Anarchism. 1991. 4 November 2007. http://flag. blackened. net/revolt/inter/seattle/vietnam. html Wiest, A.. The Vietnam War, 1956-1975. New York: Routledge. 2003. The Rise and Fall of the Anti-War Movement in the U. S.. 4 November 2007. http://www. chss. montclair. edu/english/furr/Vietnam/riseandfall. html Anti-Vietnam Movement in the U. S. 4 November 2007. http://www. cyberessays. com/History/168. htm

The course is designed to show in details the events that took place in America after the Second World War. That is the things that happened in America after 1945. There are many events that took place. The post war period start from 1945 when Manchukuo province was captured by the Soviet Union and the atomic bombs which were dropped by USA on the mainland of Japan. This essay is going to touch on the cold war ideologies and breakups of made during the time of the war.

Also the policies that were made during the cold war time, I will also discuss the events that took place in the 1950s: Politics and Culture, the liberal reforms of 1960s, reason why USA crashed with southern Asia and elaborate on the conservatism and the consensus politics. I will also discuss on the happenings of the 1970’s: Nixon’s politics and achievements and finally, I will also discuss on the 80s events: the cold war, its end and the reasons that led to the fall of the communism. The immediate post war period. The period after 1945(Farber D. , 1994) was a golden time of capitalism in America.

In 1946 the council of economic advisors was established. Its roles were to analyze and advice on various policies mostly in development and implementation of domestic and international economic policies. At around 1953 the council for economic advisors had come up with five policies. These were: economic quantitative targets were set. The “growth model” of economic replaced the “cyclical model”, full employment budget was drawn, fiscal drag theories were employed, taxation base and flexibility were widened and finally and a low aggregate demand replaced unemployment notion that had persisted.

In 1945 there emerged a crash in the course implementation between Edwin Nourse and Leon Keyserkling. Nourse believed that guns were to be dispensed for butter but Keyserling thought that by expanding economic it would promote expenditure without compromising the standards of living. During the inter war period economic depended on massive spending , raw materials control and price controls as well as the draft of 12 million military men with these reforms the quality of the lives of Americans continued to improve(Leslie B. , 1995) Culture Emergence and some Politics of 1940s and 1950s

During this period the quality of life was improved through social welfares. As the stock exchange market thrived uninterrupted from 1949 up to 1957 (Hardayal S. , 2001) the great depression status was reversed, the government embarked on social welfares and military industries complex as it was called by Dwight Eisenhower. It involved employing women in industrial places for manufacturing ammunitions. They were also employed in the military service. The war time experience of women working in military services shaped the future career of women.

Many women who were in the war went back to their house hold chores. This past experience led to later integration of women in to the working places in America. According to (Halliwell M. , 2007) the 1950s provides an account of the cultures in America. These were fiction, poetry, theatre, television and films performances, music, radio and visual arts. In this period the economic was still not good. For instance, there were about 3,288,000 people who were unemployed the average salary of the working class was 2,992 dollars.

This is the period that saw many young people who serve in the war comeback home to pick up their lives start new families and new jobs. With this new phase of experiences, American industries rose up to the challenge of meeting the rising demands of items. Americans began buying things they could not buy during the wartime. 1960s: The Liberal Reforms and Kennedy’s Visions. In 1960 a presidential election was held. This marked the end of Dwight Eisenhower as the president of America. He served his nation for a period of two terms.

At this time his vice president was Richard Nixon who had turned his office into a political base. In the elections of 1960s, John F. Kennedy- a democrat was the second one to have the presidential position as a Roman Catholic after a democrat Al smith . At this time the Soviet Union was far a head of America both militarily and economically. At this time Kennedy was young and inexperienced to be trusted with presidency and his victory margin was among the closest ever known in the history of America. This was attributed to his religious stand. It was believed that many Protestants did not vote him (Murray C.

, 1994) In 1950’s and 60’s both major political parties in USA were liberal and conservative factions. The Democratic Party had northern and Western liberals and on the other hand was the conservative Southern whites. For two decades the cold war liberalism was not that active and it only peaked in 1964 when Lyndon B. Johnson over Barry Gold water during the election. In 1948, Truman the then president of USA had outlawed desegregation in the armed forces and civil rights were strongly agitated for. These culminated in to the passage of 1964 civil rights act as well as the voting rights act of 1965.

During 1960s the relations between white liberals and civil rights leaders intensified. The later accused the former of hindering the progress it was during this time that Kennedy put federal troops to protect the African Americans who were being admitted to the University of Mississippi. In 1962 (Sitkof H. , 2000) f James Meredita and Martin Luther King junior staged a march to Washington in 1966. This emerged to be a very strong movement which was called the black power. The blacks in this movement accused the whites of trying to control the blacks’ agendas.

The opponents of the civil rights wanted blacks in America to stop following democratic machines and instead apply the ethnic model. The civil rights movements totally revolutionized the lives of blacks in America. Much of the credit goes to Martin Luther king. He was the leader of hundreds of Black people. He inspired the blacks greatly especially when he made his’ ’ to the multitude. It was all about racial harmony. This was done on the mail in Washington. In 1902, Kennedy announced that by the end of the 1960s decade USA would send a man on the moon in a spaceship and safety return him to earth alive.

This was the height of optimism because at this time its space program was in its infancy stage It was also at this time that president Johnson of America promised his people that he would fight poverty and ensures that the Americans would enjoy descent lives. This promise was actualized when social security fund was increased and as a result millions of Americans received improved health care. This 1960s became the turning point in the history of American. A lot were achieved at this time (Suman K. and Bery G. F. , 1997) 1970s: Outcomes of Vietnam Invasion and Lifestyles Change.

During the 1960s period, Richard Nixon in his presidential campaign promised to end the Americans involvement in the war again Vietnam if he was elected in office in 1969. This whole plan was called “Vietnamization” it meant that the United States would gradually withdraw itself from the Vietnam War and transfer its military duties to the Southern Vietnam. He wanted to reinforce the Eisenhower and Kennedy’s policies of helping the South Vietnamese but things did not go as they were expected. In 1969(Brad R. , 1991) the North Vietnamese communists intensified their attacks and through Laos and Cambodia supply lines.

As a result of these events Nixon invaded Cambodia and bombarded Laos. This initially was done secretly but sooner than later it was made public by Nixon who on 1970 April 30 announced on the television that he invaded Cambodia and wanted to recruit some 150,000 new soldiers . This decision was not welcomed by many Americans in fact it provoked many ant-war protests especially from college and campus students. In 1970 on May 4th the National Guard fined shots in to a crowd of demonstration at Kent state university and killed four of them and about nine wounded. This only increased outrage to people who turned against Nixon and Vietnam War.

Due to the increased pressure to put the war to an end an end (Goodwin J. , 2001) Nixon ordered the North Vietnam zone to be bombed. This act led to signing of an agreement which led to the termination of the war in March 1973. As America quit the war, it left the southerners to fight the northerners’ American indigence in the war caused it a big harm. About 55,000 American lives perished. Basically American gained very little from this war. It left Vietnam a devastated nation. 1980s: Cultural Influence and Economic Policies. In 1980s there was economic boom. The existing market was advancing in age and was financially becoming stable.

The society’s face changed demographically. People could live longer and seemed younger. New technologies replaced old ones or we can say that there was a technological change. These changes were celebrated by Richard Nixon and his wife with a fashionable clothes accompanied by social events that displayed affluence of American society (Minarik J. J. , 1990) During this time the whole world was in perpetual change for instance the USSR eased their roles and gave in to private enterprise the famous Berlin war came down and Western cloths found their way in eastern, countries.

There were some economic policies that were posed by the government. For instance it states that when market lack the in information on the quality of assets as well as true value of an institutions net worth then potential for crisis increased. 1990s: Revival of Cold War Period and Reagan’s Ideas. In the 1980s the cold war came to an end the eastern block had suffered economically. The cold war period of 1985-1991 came back to life with the ascension of Mikhail Gorbachev to power in 1991. In the same year on December 31, the USSR broke into 15 separate nations and this marked the end of the cold war period.

Conclusion. Having seen the effects of every action that has been done in America since 1945 and Judging by the way things stand currently, we can say that in the past ten years the politics of America will move to greater heights as the democrats and the republicans become more vibrant in addressing the things that are affecting the Americans right now. Culturally, Americans are very dynamic people who keep on inventing new ways of life. So, it is hard to predict what exactly will happen in the next ten years to come. But socially it seems people will be more integrated, interactive and united.

Americans are social and interact with their fellow people in a positive manner and that is why America is a united nation. Reference: Halliwell M. , 2007: American Culture in the 1950’s. Edinburgh University Press, United Kingdom. Farber D. , 1994: The Age of Great Dreams America in the 1960s, 1st Edition. USA. Goodwin J. , 2001: No Other Way Out: States and Revolutionary Movement 1945-1991 Cambridge University Press P. 5 Suman K. and Bery G. F. 1997: Preventing Banking Sector Distress and Crises in Latin America; Proceedings on a Conference Held in Washington DC, World Bank. Minarik J. J.

, 1990: Making America’s Budget Policies from the 1980’s to the 1990’s M. E. Sharpe. Murry C. , 1994: Loosing Ground; American Social Policy 1950- 1980, Basic Books 10th Anniversary Edition. Brad R. , 1991: Weapons Proliferation in the 1990s. MIT Press, Washington. Ciment J. , 2006: Postwar America: An Encyclopedia of Social Political Cultural and Economic History Sharpe New York. Sitkoff H. , 2000: Post War America a Student Companion, Oxford University Press. Leslie B. , 1995: The Cambridge History of Latin America, Cambridge University Press. Hardayal S. , 2001. Ambassadors of Culture. Princeton University Press.

Rise to globalism is an enlightened work by Stephen Ambrose that relates to development of American foreign policy from Second World War through Reagan administration. The book by Stephen Ambrose provides an overview American foreign policy evolution from 1938 to the present powerful status of America.

Stephen Ambrose tries to explain the trends in foreign policy adapted by America from isolationist attitude to global power position America holds today. He focuses on events that related to Second world War, Vietnam, Cuban missile crisis and to large extent SALT treaties.

The world today is faced with major problems such as communism, conflicts between Arabs and Israel, and third world development. These problems are attributed with Second World War and had an impact on American foreign policies.

The policies adopted by America had an impact on various countries around the world. Stephen Ambrose work tries to explain the modern American foreign policy as a development since the Second World War Foreign policy of United States is a policy through which the United States interacts with foreign nations.

United States has a lot of influence in the world through its economy and defense mechanism. Other character traits in America such racism, economic aggressiveness and fear of communism have shaped the countries emerging foreign policy.

The overview of events in America led to a rise of globalism which is a major development in American history. The World War II had a lot of influence in development of America which shaped its foreign policy. Liberation by Russia incorporated Eastern European states into satellite states which became the Soviet Union.

Another impact of the war was formation of natural governments which changed the status of the nations. Ambrose in his work showed each stage of the cold war, division of European continent and the arms race could have been avoided.

A major impact of the Vietnam War as was reflected in the cold war is the financial and economic disaster which related to the arms race. It is a situation that compromised the financial position of many nations involved in the war. The development of American foreign policy is a thorny issue which resulted from the cold war.

Incorporation of many countries in various treaties took a lot of time and forced nations to spend a lot of money so as to end such conflicts. The United States and other members of the Soviet Union were not willing to compromise their position in relation to minor matters.

This is because committing a lot of their time and finances in such petty issues could cost them a big deal in resolving major problems. For instance, involving in activities such as partitioning Berlin would be met with a lot of resistance and unnecessary demands.

On the other side, once the U.S.S.R tried to compromise, United States would seizure control of the situation so as to create stipulations on proposed agreements. One important and major concept during this period is that, there was no any meaningful agreement that sailed through.

Former United States presidents had the opportunities and chances to come to an agreement that would end the cold war but this never succeeded. In few instances that saw some of the head of state try to reach an agreement, participants were unwilling to come to a consensus.

As per Stephen Ambrose, resolution to certain problems during that period came after the book was written. Communism was replaced by democracy throughout most parts of Europe while in 1989 it was a time when U.S.S.R fell.

Most of the countries in Western Europe who constituted the satellite nations were liberated by United States and Great Britain which formally formed democratic governments. Split of east and west Europe as the beginning of the cold war. The acting presidents during this period late Jimmy Carter acted in respect to expectations of many Americans to achieve a peace agreement.

The agreement had little influence in resolving such conflicts but several treaties were formed which addressed the demand for concerned parties. Accomplishment of various agreements had impact on U. S whereby Arab-Israel hostilities were negotiated.

This was a major development in the history of America and it fits in the foreign policy. The impact of such agreement is seen in today’s policies developed by United States to extend their powers in trying to help developing nations. United States is a very powerful nation in the world and its strength can be attributed with agreements that resulted from the cold war.

Most of the developing nations have benefited from financial aid offered by United States of America. Signing certain treaties during the period of cold war was a very tough because neither side wanted to compromise their position which led to disagreement.

The subsequent American foreign policy has seen several nations, individuals and governments benefit. It is a very important development in the history of America since the Second World War to the current powerful situation in America. Work Cited Ambrose Stephen, Rise to Globalism, (American Foreign Policy since 1938), Douglas Brinkley book.