Agriculture

How many of these Issues were you aware of before? I was aware of global warming; however I was not aware of what the contributing factors were, how severe it was, and how we as Americans are bad consumers and our decisions are effecting our environment. 2. What did you learn? Pick two issues mentioned and describe how they are related. I learned that thousands of years ago, the energy needed to grow our crops and feed our animals was limited by the dally unlighted falling on the earth and we were sustaining but now we use the energy equivalent to hundreds of years of sunlight every single year.

Americans now consume twice as much oil than Europeans; nine times more than a Chinese person, fifteen times more than an Indian, and fifty times more than someone from Kenya and in doing so, the level of greenhouse gases and emissions increase pollution and affect the climate which contributes to global warming. It also further puts demands on the economy to produce oil, which is very expensive and dangerous to manufacture. 3. How Is business connected to the environment? Name two ways.

The movie talks about “resource curse” when interviewing the young woman from Africa. It was said that finding oil increases countries poverty because as oil wealth is concentrated in the hands of few; the agriculture, education, and health system of the country become neglected and often collapse. Due to the political system, the 13% of revenue that Is supposed to be spent on community development is lost. Profit will always proceed when you have a demand for a product regardless of how It effects an environment.

The movie explained that “flares” emit about 70 million tons of carbon dioxide every year which is more than the annual emission from ten million British homes and is the leading cause of asthma, bronchitis, skin disease, and cancer in areas where oil is found, yet it is easy to transport and sell so business is continued. 4. What do you feel are relevant and useful approaches to Innovation that can make a preference to the direction our planet is going (in relation to information shared here)?

And how might we improve that, or build on that? Incorporating and taking advantage of alternative methods of energy such as solar panels, green products, electric cars that don’t require fuel/oil and using the remaining oil we have and building a society that can function without It Instead of using tens of billions of barrels each day. As Americans we need to become better consumers and downsize n things we really do not need.

The movie talked about consumerism and how it is a continuous cycle of wasting resources we really do not have. In order to improve or build on approaches to innovation, we first must educate ourselves about things like preventing deforestation, and reducing carbon dioxide emissions. 5. Find an example of innovation, from any source, to substantiate your idea. (cite your source). Be ready to share this In class. Californians climate Is expected to become considerably warmer

LESSON PLAN GRADE 11 HISTORY. TOPIC: BANTU MIGRATIONS INTO CENTRAL AFRICA BEFORE 1800. OBJECTIVES: Pupils should be able to: Define the term “ Bantu” Define the term “ Migration” Explain the origin of the Bantu. Explain the causes of the migration and settlement of the Bantu Describe the ways of life of the Bantu. ORIGIN Bantu is a common term used to refer to the over 400 different ethnic groups of Africa stretching from south of the Sahara desert to South Africa that have similar languages and to some extent customs. Their movements are called migrations their large scale movements over long distances.

It is important however to understand that these movement did not occur at once. They took place in phases. The Bantu speaking people were part of the Iron Age people from the Middle East. They settled along the banks of the River Nile. Later, they moved to North Africa and occupied some areas in the Sahara grasslands. From here, they moved to the area around Lake Chad, Nigeria and the Cameroon highlands area called the Benue-Cross region. However, some settled in the great lakes region in east Africa. These people were given the name ‘Bantu’ because of the imilarities that were noticed in their languages. For example, the prefix ‘ba-’ and the suffix ‘-ntu’ was common among the languages they spoke. To illustrate this, look at the table below which shows translations of the word ‘person’ and ‘people’ into some Zambian Bantu languages: 1 Language Lozi Tonga Bemba Kaonde Tumbuka Singular Mutu Muntu Umuntu Muntu muntu Plural Batu Bantu Abantu Bantu antu CAUSES The drying up of the Sahara grasslands. This led the groups that practiced agriculture to migrate in search of new fertile land and water for farming. There was population increase.

This created pressure on the causing others to migrate in search for new land. Occupation, agriculture, hunting, blacksmith etc. Succession disputes in some cases led to the migration of some groups. This normally happened when a king died and members of the royal family quarreled about who should succeed. Convicted people or criminals migrated in order to run away from being punished or killed. Tribal wars caused migrations as defeated tribes ran away from powerful ones for safety. Slave trade contributed to the migrations in that in order to avoid being ttacked and sold as slaves, some groups were forced to migrate to new areas. Some groups or individuals migrated merely for adventure. They did this so that they could explore and see what other lands were like.

Ambition Another reason that led to the Bantu migrations was that of expansion. Some rulers wanted to expand their kingdoms and therefore migrated in search of new areas. 2 THE COURSE AND EXAMPLES OF THE GROUPS THAT MIGRATED 1. = 3000 – 1500 BC origin 2 = ca. 1500 BC first migrations 2. a = Eastern Bantu, 2. b = Western Bantu 3. = 1000 – 500 BC Urewe nuclus of Eastern Bantu . – 7. southward advance 9. = 500 BC – 0 Congo nucleus 10. = 0 – 1000 AD last phase 3 First group Passed through Congo Forest, avoided Zaire River and settled in Katanga or Shaba. This was about the 5th century. They settled here because of the fertile land, good rainfall, minerals, and grazing land. Interacted with the Portuguese who introduced them to new crops like, maize, sweet potatoes, and bananas. Second group Migrated around the 14th century. Settled western side of Lake Malawi. The descendants of this group are the Tumbuka, Nsenga, Kamanga and Tonga of Malawi.

Another group of the Shona, Rozwi, and Karanga took a short cut, crossed the Zambezi River and settled in Mashonland. Third group This group had the Sotho and Nguni and went north east via Tanzania through the western side of Lake Malawi. They settled in Mashonaland. Here, they were forced out by the Rozwi, Shona and the Karanga. The group went to settle in South Africa. This was between 9th and the 14th century. 4 WAYS OF LIFE Economic The Bantu were agriculturists who grew crops like sorghum, millet, beans, maize, and sweet potatoes.

They were pastoralists who kept animals like cattle, pigs, goats. They were hunters who hunted wild game for meat. They were also smelters and also made farming implements Pottery makers, made channel decorated type. Made baskets and mats. 5 Social Lived in small households. Households were made of pole and daga. Roof was thatched with grass. Huts built in a secular form Kraal built in the middle for protection of the cattle. Diet included fish, meat, and vegetables. Bark of the tree used as cloth. Political Family household under eldest male member.

Family formed clans which formed villages. Villages headed by a headman. Villages formed a chiefdom or kingdom. Headed by a chief or king respectively. Religious Believed in a superior being. They called their superior being by different names. Their god would be approached by leaders who were semi-divine. Had different spirits for different problems. Religious ceremonies held on tombs, under the msoro tree or any other sacred place. Cattle and/or other animals would be killed only during such ceremonies. © One World Africa (Zambia) 2007 6

By the end of the course/unit the learner should be able to: I) Explain why Africa is the cradle of humankind. II) Describe the origin and development of Agriculture, mining and manufacturing. Ill) Discuss rise and fall of early civilizations of Egypt, More and Exam. V) Describe the emergence and spread of Bantu, Clutches and Entities v) Explain the growth of local and regional trade. V’) Discuss the economic contacts with the outside world vii) Discuss the coming and impact of Islam and Christianity in Africa viii) Discuss decentralized and centralized states in Africa. Content I) Early Man in Africa. ) The origin and development of Agriculture Where it originated from How it spread to Africa Theories of diffusion, evolution, innovation Importance of Agricultural Revolution In Africa “l) Orally and development of Iron Technology The theories and myths that surround origin and spread of Iron technology. Effects of Iron Technology on Africa v) The rise and fall of early civilizations of Egypt, More and Exam v) Emergence and spread of Bantu, Cushiest and Milestones VI) Growth of Local and regional trade vii) Economic contacts with the outside world Slave Trade in West Africa Abolitionist process

Consequences of Slave Trade The coming of Islam and Christianity In Africa x) Development of political systems: Decentralized and centralized states Course Evaluation Course evaluation will be in two parts: continuous assessment and the final assignment constituting 30 marks. The final examination will account for 70% of the total marks. As part of the learning process, a lot of seriousness is attached to class attendance and contribution. REFERENCES Crystal D. (1981). The Ancient Egyptians. London: E. Arnold. Davidson Basil (1973).

The Growth of African Civilization: East and Central Africa in the Late 19th Century. London: Longing. Gaff Hoses (1985). A History of Africa. London: Zed Books. July Robert W. (1992). A History of the Ancient People. Nairobi: East Educational Publishers. Matthias A. Gut and Simon Kinkajou (1991). An Introduction to African African History. Nairobi: Nairobi University Press. General History of Africa II: Ancient Mozart G. (1990). Civilization of Africa. London: Heinlein Kenya. Got B. A. (deed. ). (1992). General History of Africa V: Africa from the sixteenth to the eighteenth century. Oxford: Henchman.

Indies C. (1990). Themes in World History: Book 1. Nairobi: Longing Kenya. Potts M. J. (1971). Makers of Civilization: Book 1. London: Rodney W. (1972). How Europe Underdeveloped Africa. Dark-SE- Tanzania Publishing House. 1. 0 The Origin of Man in Africa Africa is the cradle of humankind salaam: The question of the origin of humans is pertinent not only in Africa but in the world all over. It is therefore important to answer this question before analyzing the history of Africa. Charles Darwin (1809-1882), an Englishman, made a scientific trip in 1831 to South America and the Pacific Islands.

In this expedition, he spent time to study rocks and other geographical features. Consequently, he published his theories on evolution in 1859 in a book entitled: The Origin of Species by Means of Natural Selection. Darning’s theory states that all living things evolved over millions of years from simple living cells to complex plants and animals. Scientific evidence supports Darning’s theory which states that man was originally a primate but gradually evolved over years from his ape-like ancestors. Archaeological evidence in particular, points to Africa as being the possible cradle of humankind.

Many archaeological sites have been discovered in Africa. This confirms that early hominids were living in the area even before the earth movements that led to the formation of the Rift Valley. Dust and lava covered places where man lived. The location of these remains formed major archaeological sites in EAI. Some of the important archaeological sites in Africa include Rushing Island, Fort Tehran near Jericho, Ukrainians, Gambles Cave, Largesse, Harry Hills near Nassau, Negro River Caves and Kankakee. The oldest remains found in Kenya were those of thyrotrophic Africans.

These were discovered at Rushing Island in L. Victoria. The creature was named Proconsul and looked like a chimpanzee; had long teeth and had a smooth forehead. In 1961, the remains of Snappishness were discovered at Fort Tehran near Jericho by Dry. Louis Leaky and his wife Mary. The fossil remains were dated between 15-12 million years old. Other similar remains have since been found at Samba’s Hills, Lake Barring and Lake Turban Basins. Snappishness is believed to have been closer to man in several aspects.

He had 32 teeth and his canines were smaller than earlier hominids. He had a brain size of ICC, massive Jaws, weighed between 18-keg and occasionally on two legs. Other important remains found in Africa are those of Astrophysicists / Conjurations [Southern Ape which lived between 1 – 7 million years ago. The remains were found at L. Turban in 1969 after having been discovered earlier tatting in Botswana in 1924 and Latvia Gorge in 1959. Astrophysicists walked on two legs; was hairy, short and strong about 1. Meters, had low forehead and deep- set eyes, had brain capacity of 450-ICC, had sharp vision, had massive Jaws with large molars and smaller canines and made and used tools referred to as Lowdown tools. Recent findings near Jenny’s Marionette River near Lake Turban and Lordliest near L. Magic indicate that hominids such as Homo habits (1. 8 and . 5 million years ago) and Homo erects (1. 8 million to 350 000 years ago) are possible direct ancestors of modern Homo sapiens, and lived in Kenya in the Pre- Neolithic epoch.

During excavations at Lake Turban in 1984, paleontologist’s Richard Leaky assisted by Kamala Kim discovered the Turban boy, a 1. 6-million- year-old fossil belonging to Homo erects. Homo erects means the upright man and was believed to have a bigger brain (775-check) than homo habits (500-ICC). They had a more advanced speech, about Ft tall, had discovered and used fire, were omnivorous and made more advanced tools called Caecilian tools. Remains of Homo sapiens which mean thinking or intelligent man have been found near L.

Turban, Kankakee and L. Victoria. He about Ft tall, brain capacity of 1000-check, small teeth with a steep and well-rounded forehead, was a fisherman, religious and made refined tools called microfilms. This overwhelming evidence goes a long way to prove that Africa was inhabited by early man. It should also be noted that more evidence concerning early man continues to be unearthed with time. 2. 0 The origin and development of Agriculture and Agricultural Revolution 2. 1 Introduction Agriculture is the cultivation of crops and taming of animals.

Knowing how to cultivate food and tame animals seems to have been a long history of human cultural adaptation of probably trial and error which finally made man to control his environment. Agricultural revolution on the other hand was the change from dependence on hunting and gathering of eatable fruits and roots as well as fishing to domestication of animals and cultivation of food. The development of Agriculture initiated one of the most important revolutions in human history. It led to major changes in man’s relationship with his environment and in his social, economic and lattice organization and behavior. . 2 Theories of Origin and development of Agriculture For a long time, Resurrection scholars recounted the origins of Agriculture from a whose claim is that Africa had no single site where agriculture originated but Africans got the knowledge through interaction with the so called Hammiest of the Near East, in Mesopotamia to be precise. It was through such interaction that the knowledge came to Egypt through the Nile Valley, and then it spread to the rest of Africa. This Diffusion Theory seems to be true because some products seem not to have been domesticated in Africa.

For example, we are certain and sure of chicken. Also it is certain that cattle, south of the Sahara, came from outside; either from Libya, North Africa or Asia Minor. Archaeological evidence and their radio-carbon dates have also unequivocally established an early start of cereal farming in the Middle East. At the same time, the advantages of farming in supporting complex civilizations argued that the seemingly less efficient hunter-gatherer societies were quicker to take advantage of a more efficient food producing economy than more efficient hunter-gatherer societies.

It appeared; therefore that Agriculture had been invented during a short interval at a single point from which it spread quickly and widely across the world. Increasingly, this concept of rapid revolutionary change has come into question. To begin with, there were many crops and agricultural methods that clearly did not have a Middle-East origin. In Africa hoe and digging-stick cultivation has always predominated while the use of mounds and ridges remains characteristic of wetter regions. Many African crops have also been identified.

For example, the cereal Theft and the banana like Onset in Ethiopia or the West African millet known as Font. Conceivably, the methods of cultivation of sorghum and millet might have spread from the Middle East via Egypt, but this hardly takes into account the techniques for growing rice or yams, both indigenous of the regions below the Sahara, both raised by methods far removed from those of the Middle East. Due to inadequate evidence to support the above contention and new discoveries that some products were indigenous to Africa while others were not, watered down the Diffusion Theory.

Since the end of World War 2, much light has been thrown on the origin of Agriculture in various parts of the world including North and South America, South East Asia and also the African contributions in the history of Agriculture. Advocates of this new revelation are referred to as Evolutionist theorists or Independent Developed Theorists. According to Evolutionist or Independent Developed Theory, agriculture developed independently in different parts of the world particularly along river valleys. Independent developed theorists have suggested various centers which they belief were the cradle of Agriculture.

There are probably 4 centers of early plant and animal domestication. Such centers yielded different varieties of plants and animals. It is important to examine such areas and he factors that make such scholars to observe that they are original places for the origin of Agriculture. The Near East The area is hypothesized by a wide range of archaeologists and botanists as the centre of some domesticated animals and plants. These areas cover South West Iran, parts of Iraq, Turkey and around rivers Tigris and Euphrates. They are believed to be homeland of wheat, barley, sheep, pigs and cattle.

This centre is generally considered to be the oldest centre of agricultural development in the world; it occurred as early as 9000 SC. South East Stats argued that the area allowed for the invention of agriculture because it had favorable conditions such as plenty of water mass that allowed populations to do fishing which in turn allowed them time to invent domestication and cultivation. Domesticated animals such as pigs, fowls, geese and duck are argued to have been the first wild animals to be domesticated. The author also argues that this was the first area to domesticate yams and taro (a starchy root plant).

He further argues that yams found their way into Africa through East African coastal trade while crops like bananas came in from here and were taken to Began and later to the West African regions. The New World This centre lies between Mexico and Peru and here the American Indian population developed maize and potatoes. Africa The scholar who first proposed this region was a Russian agronomist, N. L. Pavlov. Various regions of Africa have been proposed in this argument. 1. West Africa The most important plant remains discovered here were those of yams and palm oil.

In this region a different type of yam called Discover yam and which was widespread in the region had no counterpart in any other part of the world. Hence scholars have concluded that West African region is the cradle of Discover yam. Also here is West African millet known as font which is not found anywhere else in the world. 2. Mauritania In this centre, there was found a special type of millet which has never been found in any other part of the world like the Discover yam in West Africa. Scholars have also concluded that such a variety of millet was first domesticated in this area. . Ethiopia In this centre, there was found a cereal Theft and the banana like Onset in Ethiopia which were different from other types found in other areas. Also Voile carried out his research from 1952 to 1965 and concluded that Ethiopia seem to have been the anomaly of sorghum, wheat, barley and coffee. His conclusions have been challenged by scholars like Elizabeth Scheming and Philips D. W. Who have argued against Ethiopia being the cradle of these crops. They insist that the conditions in Ethiopia are not favorable for plants like Barley and wheat. 2. Spread of Agriculture in Africa Most scholars maintain that there are three main phases of agricultural spread in Africa. In the First Phase they argue cereal agriculture was developed in the Lower Nile Valley and the Fumy Depression. The diffusion from the Near East (about 5000 o BBC) of wheat and barley eventually resulted in Africans population explosion. Probably less than 20, 000 hunters and gatherers could have occupied the Lower Nile area before the introduction of Agriculture; but about BBC the labor force for pyramid building alone exceeded 100, 000.

Today Egypt is still one of the densely populated areas in the world. Population growth was accompanied by widespread arbitration and the development of more elaborate forms of social, economic and political organization. Populations spread slowly through Africa, north and south of the Sahara and up to the Nile Valley as far south as modern Khartoum. It is generally understood that the Sahara was capable of supporting both Agriculture and pastoralist until approximately BBC, the time that the desert conditions had become firmly established.

Some feel that interactions between Negroes populations innovations flowing in both directions. The Second Phase advocates that agriculture was developed in the Satanic Belt (from the Atlantic Ocean to the Ethiopians Highlands). This important agricultural knowledge is generally felt to have come from Egypt, although the implementation of these ideas depended upon the domestication f suitable drought resistant cereals of the Savannah like sorghum, millet and rice. These developments resulted in a second but much slower build-up population in black Africa.

Much of this development was confined to the Satanic Belt hemmed in on the north by the progressively drying Sahara and on the south by the equatorial forests where Savannah crops were unsuitable. The Nile swamps probably prevented direct spread to the East African grasslands but some crops began to appear after 1000 BC in various locations from present day Kenya south to Zambia and southern Angola. This was most likely the result of the spread of Ethiopians forms of millet and sorghum. These pockets of agricultural settlements were to play an important role in Bantu migrations.

The more humid regions of Africa (Congo Basin, Guiana Coast, Great Lakes Region and parts of the Zambia Valley) were to remain mainly hunting and gathering areas, with perhaps some form of cultivation based on yams and palm oil until the beginning of the Christian era. Compared to the other African Savannah, there has been generally lack of indigenous food plants in the African Rain Forests. The settlements of the rain forests over the past 2000 years had therefore depended to a greater extent on the introduction of food crops from outside.

The third phase was the Bantu migrations and spread of Agriculture to the humid areas of Africa. This was very significant because it led to the present spread of distribution of population in Africa. This spread of Agriculture to the more humid regions has been linked to a combination of three factors, namely: introduction of South East Asian crops in Africa, the growth of iron technology and the migration of the Bantu speaking peoples who occupy nearly all of Africa south of the Equator. 4 The Impact of Agricultural Revolution The revolution was one of the most significant steps in human history for it changed man’s life tremendously. As some people became pastoralist, looking after sheep, goats, cattle and camels, the majority took up mixed farming with wide range of social, economic and political implications. To begin with, rearing animals and cultivation of crops freed man from reliance on the environment as adequate food was produced usually with surplus to be stored.

Secondly, scientific knowledge increased. As knowledge on domestication increased, hybrid plants and livestock ere developed. In many cases entirely new crops were developed from the wild species. Thirdly, methods of cultivation were improved. In the beginning, digging sticks were used but later ploughs were devised. Inadequate rainfall did not seriously affect production, especially in areas near permanent water courses since irrigation was practiced. Fourthly, high food supplies freed many people from farming to other activities.

There was division of labor as other members of society worked in pottery; basketry; black-smiths and other related crafts as well as other professions like medicine and administration. Fifthly, forests were destroyed as more land was brought under cultivation. Sixthly, trade developed as people exchanged life since cultivation required patience before planted crops were harvested. Since unnecessary migrations and movements were minimized and diets improved, it was now possible to localize the supply of food. Another social impact was population explosion.

The increase in population which was as a result of improved food security and health. This in turn led to population movements from their earlier settled areas. Furthermore, there was development of religion. Man perceived that there were there forces that determined the yields from the farm such as the sun and rain and started worshipping such phenomena. In the political sphere, government was developed as the population grew so as to have effective control of the increased population and avoid serious problems.

Laws were thus instituted and enacted and self appointed or acclaimed rulers enforced them. Eventually kingdoms and empires with defined spheres of influence were established. 2. 5 Conclusion It was the Agricultural revolution and use of Iron technology that made the early settlers in Africa to master their environment and prompted successful migration to ewe and unknown lands. In any case, the history of agricultural revolution and Iron technology generally referred to as the Neolithic Revolution, show that Africa had its own development and was not isolated from the rest of the world.

Africa was not a dark continent. 3. 0 Origin and Development of Iron Technology 3. 1 Introduction When dealing with the introduction of Iron technology and agriculture, we always come across the term ‘Neolithic’ which is used in two versions to fit our purposes. First, it means the technological advance whereby the experts try to reconstruct how pottery, stone and metals, especially iron were made. Secondly, its meaning turns out to be economic and here experts try to reconstruct the agricultural aspects of human life entailing rearing of animals and cultivation of crops.

In brief, ‘Neolithic Revolution’ deals with technological and agricultural developments which are two distinct aspects of human life. This topic focuses on the history of Iron technology in Africa. Although technology in Africa started with the science of making stone tools which went through various phases through space and time, our topic will harp on metallurgy and iron technology to be specific for the major fact that it was the one hat considerably altered human life to a degree unknown before.

This Archaeological evidence abounds to suggest that Africans from about 1st C AD worked on various metals and also exploited various minerals to meet their needs. It is important to note that Africa is one of the richest continents in the world in terms of mineral resources. Of these minerals, the ones mined in the earliest times are iron, copper, tin, gold and salt. In this topic we will examine the origin and development of Iron and other metals like copper. 3. 2 Iron Technology There once existed a widespread belief that iron technology diffused into Africa from outside Africa.

More specifically it was believed that the Turks of Anatolia were the first iron users as early as 2000 BC. The information available reveals that the making of iron tools was secret to the Turks and it remained their monopoly. For reasons unknown by historians, this knowledge of iron working leaked to the Hitters (Syria) of the Middle East, probably about 1500 BC. From this region it landed into Africa, through Egypt. The Hitters are said to have moved with the technology to Egypt down the Nile Valley up to More.

Another school of thought states the Cushiest More got he knowledge from the Hitters after conquering them. Whichever the case, More became the most important transmission centre of iron technology first to Exam, then to other regions in East and Central Africa. More Kingdom thrived between BBC to BBC. Records have it that the people of More had made iron working their art and occupation. A. H. Sauce, the archaeologist who was associated with the discovery of More in 1911, said that More produced quantities of iron and that place came to be nicknamed ‘The Birmingham of Africa. About BBC, this knowledge is claimed to have diffused to ‘Nook in Central Nigeria. Out of that, other archaeologists have linked Bantu knowledge about iron technology with Nook. Another related argument on the spread of iron technology stated that West Africa may also have received its iron technology from Cartage through the Sahara or the Atlantic coastal region. Then it is argued that the Bantu speaking people migrated with the technology to Central and Southern Africa. Azalea (1993:174), in A Modern Economic History of Africa Volvo. Dismisses the explanation of the diffusion trail since it was constructed on thin evidence and speculation. The diffusion explanation was guided y the racist notion that Africa or more precisely the part that Europeans call Black Africa was too primitive for independent technological innovation and development. Indeed as some research by archaeologists and historians has shown, iron technology was invented independently in Africa. Other scholars however still argue that iron technology and metallurgy in general were introduced in Africa from external sources.

Yet this latter group ignores the fact that technology is not an immutable idea to be conceived, bred and transmitted whole from the outside world to Africa without the Africans also injecting their own value to it. Certainly, technology is a continuous process of innovation and change spawned by complex interaction between iron production techniques and economic, cultural, social, political and environmental transformations. The belief that Egyptians were introduced to the use of iron by the Assyrian or the Greeks has been challenged.

More and Exam have been dethroned as centers of the diffusion to the rest of Africa. Available data for the beginning of smelting from several centers in West, Central and East Africa show that the knowledge of iron working was known in these centers between the contemporary with or even earlier than More. For example, in the West Africa region iron working sites have yielded earlier dates in several centers. Evidence for this has been obtained from rock art painting, Arabic sources and from iron implements discovered from excavated sites.

Evidence from Joss plateau in Northern Nigeria, which has been categorized as the “Nook culture” has shown that iron was in regular use by at least the third century BC. Here various types of terracotta have been found. Other early evidence of iron working in West Africa region have been found at Trauma and Born in Nigeria, Do Dimmit in Niger, Dobra in Ghana and Assonance Valley in Senegal. In the East Africa region, the centers include Startup in Tanzania. There was also iron working evidence in the Congo basin and at Machine in Zambia areas of Central Africa.

South Africa evidence indicates that iron working was practiced around the 3rd 0 4th century AD. In excavation at some of the working at Determination indicated regular iron operations. One of the vexing issues concerning the spread of iron technology in Africa has been its relation to the migration of the Bantu. The argument has been that the Bantu people have been responsible for the spread of this technology from their West Africa homeland to other regions of Eastern and southern Africa.

Their movement has been traced by archaeologists through a special type of pottery which is dimple based and (Urea ware) which is associated with the Bantu. However as Azalea (Ibid) argues, there was no direct correlation between the dispersal of Bantu languages and Iron Age technology. Azalea and indeed other historians, archaeologists and linguists have demonstrated that Iron Age culture in East Africa communities preceded those communities closer to the Bantu homeland. Linguistic studies have not shown that stems relating to metallurgy in the various Bantu languages are not all derived from a common proto-

Bantu, nor are they different from those in non Bantu language. Probably, the expansion of the Bantu speakers from their homeland in south-eastern Nigeria started much earlier than once thought, some 2000-arrears B. C. Before the advent of iron working in West, Central or East Africa. Therefore the earliest Bantu speakers in these areas did not produce iron. Azalea’s argument however does not water down the fact that the Bantu were responsible for the spread of Iron technology. Instead of arguing to water down this fact she evades it and start pointing out that there were pockets of iron smelting in different parts of Africa.

Just as there is a big difference in manufacturing a good and marketing it, there is also a very big difference between inventing technology and spreading it and that was what Azalea had forgotten in her argument. This loophole was filled by historians Oliver Roland and linguists like Malcolm Guthrie and Joseph Greenberg who suggested and showed iron technology led to the migration of the Bantu who spread southwards and were able to conquer the Czarina Forest and defeat the original inhabitants they passed through and settled.

Using the TTS-TTS-free corridors, iron workers and agriculturalists reached Zambia ND southwards towards Tanganyika from either north or north-west with their cattle Gradually, iron age communities pushed southwards in small groups reaching the Zambia by the early centuries of the Christian era, settling in Mishandled in the 4th C and crossing the Limp some time later. However archaeologists say that Stone Age hunter-gatherers lived peacefully with the iron technology farmers until made many of the later to abandon their natural way of life and turn on food production.

By early 19th century most African peoples were able to produce their own iron or obtain it from neighboring communities through trade. Iron production was a complex, skill, lengthy and labor intensive process. It involved prospecting, mining, smelting and forging. Iron ore was available in virtually all part of the continent. Iron ore deposits were found by means of outcrops and were extracted through either alluvial or shallow mining. Smelting was done in furnaces using charcoal fuel, after which the iron was forged in workshops.

Many products were made including tools, utensils and Jewelry. The most important tools manufactured were hoes, sickles, razors, knives, daggers, rings, wire and weapons such as spear, assesses, arrow-heads and battle axes. The position of iron producers varied among many Africa societies. In some they were respected while in others they were despised. By early 19th C Africa was sufficient in iron needs. But toward the end of the century, imports had become dominant in some part of the continent. Three explanation account for this: 1 .

African iron industries declined because of competition from Europeans products. 2. There were ecological factors that hampered iron production. For example charcoal shortage caused by deforestation affected their production. 3. The role of labor organization and distribution affected the production. Whereas production was increasingly becoming more costly. Europeans imports, though of low quality and often less relevant for local uses were much cheaper, substituting of local with imported therefore became the order of the day. 3. The Impact of Iron Technology on African Societies It led to the development of agriculture as a result of better iron tools. For instance agriculture was practiced in most areas of Sub-Sahara Africa especially after the introduction of iron tools and implements. It led to sedentary life. Iron tools and equipments which allowed the clearance of wooded areas of Africa made most societies to settle down. Therefore the phase of nomadic way of life was replaced with sedentary life characterized by villages and even larger social units.

Although it is difficult to ascertain the social structures involved, it is likely that over most of Africa, there existed relatively small villages consisting of one or more lineage groups with wider affinities based on clan relationship. Trade flourished. Regional and international trade developed as people exchanged metal items like iron tools with other items. Trade transformed most African economies from ones which were largely parasitic on the immediate environment to ones which were in control food reduction and exchange through trade.

It is also important to note that trade took another dimension with the advent of metals. Copper and gold were in demand by various communities in the South, North, East and West. There is evidence that suggest that trade was more expanded and various trading networks were developed. Arab evidence has alluded to the existence of trade in metals across the Sahara from the earliest times. Constructions and building works emerged. Metals were used to construct bridges and reinforcement of buildings like pyramids, temples and houses. With the advent of metallurgy, especially iron technology,

Indians and Africans) b) Factors that hindered unity among the Europeans in America 1. Puritans carved tight, pious, and relatively democratic communities of small family farms A homogeneous world compared to most southern colonies 2. Anglicans built plantations along the coast Where they lorded over a labor force of black slaves Looked down upon the poor white farmers who settled the backcountry 3. Diversity reigned in middle colonies Well-to-do merchants put their stamp on New York City In the countryside sprawling estates were interspersed with modest homesteads 4.

Within Individual colonies, conflicts festered over economic Interests, ethnic rivalries, ND religious practices 5. All the clashes made it difficult for colonists to imagine that they were a single people with a common density c) General issues that led colonists to rebel against Brittany 1. The stable arrangement between the colonists and Brittany began to crumble, a victim of the Imperial rivalry between France and Brittany 2. Once the French were driven from the North American continent, the colonists no longer needed the British for protection 3.

The British government made the choice of imposing taxes on colonies that had been accustomed to answering mainly to their win colonial assemblies 4. Issues of taxation, self-rule, and trade restrictions brought the crisis of Imperial authority to a head II. The Shaping of North America: Major geographical features and the importance of the Great Ice Age a) The Rockies, the Sierra Nevada, and Coast Ranges – “American Mountains” b) The continent was anchored In its Northeastern corner by the massive Canadian Shield c) The “tidewater” region creased by many river valleys. Loped gently upward to the timeworn ridges of the Appalachians d) “Roof of America” – the land fell off Jaggedly onto the intermediation Great Basin e) The valleys of Sacramento and San Joaquin Rivers and the Willamette- Peugeot Sound trough seamed the Interiors of present-day California, Oregon, and Washington f) When the glaciers finally retreated, they left the North American landscape transformed g) The weight of the ice mantle had depressed the level of the Canadian Shield h) The melting ice had scoured away the shield’s topsoil, pitting its rocky surface with thousands of shallow depressions into which the melting glaciers flowed to form lakes l) Deprived of both Inflow and ranging, the giant lake became a gradually shrinking Inland sea. It grew Increasingly saline, slowly evaporated, and left an arid, mineral-rich desert Ill. Peopling the FIFO a) How the ancestors of the American Indians Journeyed to America and why 1 .

Some Early peoples may have reached the Americas in crude boats but most probably came by land 2. As the sea level dropped, it exposed a land bridge connecting Eurasia with North America 3. Probably following migratory herds of game, ventured small bands of nomadic Asian hunters b) Evidence that Indians of Central and South America were advanced 1 . Over the centuries they split into countless tribes, evolved more than 2,000 separate languages, and developed many diverse religions, cultures, and ways of life 2. Their advanced agricultural practices, based primarily on the cultivation of maize 3. These peoples built elaborate cities and carried on far-flung commerce 4.

Talented mathematicians, they made strikingly accurate astronomical observations 5. The Aztec sought the favor of the gods by offering human sacrifices Cutting out the hearts of he chests of living victims, who were often captives conquered in battle IV. The Earliest Americans a) Agriculture, especially corn growing, accounted for the size and sophistication of the Native American civilizations in Mexico and South America b) The Nazis built an elaborate pueblo of more than six hundred interconnected rooms c) Maize, strains of beans, and squash made possible “three-sister” farming, with beans growing on the trellis of cornstalks and squash covering the planting mounds to retain moisture in the soil 1 .

This produced some of the highest population densities on the continent d) In the northeastern woodlands, the Iroquois Confederacy plopped the political and organizational skills to sustain a robust military alliance that menaced its neighbors e) The native peoples of North America were living in small, scattered, and impermanent settlements f) Women tended to the crops, while men hunted, fished, gathered fuel, and cleared fields for planting g) The Native Americans had neither the desire nor the means to manipulate nature aggressively, they revered the physical world and endowed nature with spiritual properties V. Indirect Discoverers of the New World a) Probably the first Europeans to “discover” America Blond-bearded Norse seafarers room Scandinavia, who had chanced upon the northeastern shoulder of North America – however, no strong nation-state, yearning to expand, supported these venturesome voyagers. Their flimsy settlements consequently were soon abandoned, and their discovery was forgotten b) Christian Crusaders – European warriors who indirectly discovered America because of Rupee’s craving for exotic goods VI.

Europeans Enter Africa – Setting the Stage for the “Discovery’ of America a) Marco Polo: an Italian adventurer; he must be regarded as an indirect discoverer of he New World, for his book, with its description of rose- tinted pearls and golden pagodas, stimulated European desires for a cheaper route to the treasures of the East b) The Portuguese not only developed the caravel, but they had discovered that they could return to Europe by sailing northwesterly from the African coast toward the Azores, where the prevailing westward breezes would carry them home c) The participants of the earliest African slave trade were Arab flesh merchants and Africans themselves. 1 . Slave brokers deliberately separated persons from the same rib’s and mixed unlike people together to frustrate organized resistance d) Portuguese: they built their own systematic traffic in slaves to work the sugar 1. Bartholomew Aids rounded the southernmost tip of the “Dark Continent” 2. Vases dad Gamma finally reached India and returned home with a small but tantalizing cargo of Jewels and spices VI’.

Columbus Comes upon a New World a) In Spain, a modern national state was taken shape, with the unity, wealth and power to shoulder the formidable tasks of discovery, conquest, and colonization b) The renaissance in the fourteenth century nurtured an ambitious spirit of optimism ND adventure – printing presses facilitated the spread of scientific knowledge. The mariner’s compass eliminated some of the uncertainties odd sea travel c) Columbus’ voyages to America 1. Where in America? – An island in the Bahamas 2. Columbus was a “successful failure” because when seeking a new water route to the fabled Indies, he in fact bumped into an enormous land barrier blocking the ocean pathway d) Columbus’ discovery convulsed four continents: Europe, Africa, and the Americas which emerged and interdependent global economic system 1 . Europe provided the markets, the capital, and the technology 2. Africa furnished the labor 3. The New World offered its raw materials VIII.

When Worlds Collide: “Columbian Exchange” a) Europeans found iguanas and rattlesnakes along with tobacco, beans, maize, tomatoes, and potatoes – eventually revolutionized the international economy as well as the European diet b) The Europeans brought cattle, swine, horses, sugarcane, and the seeds of Kentucky Bluegrass, dandelions, and daisies – the Native Americans adopted the horse, transforming their cultures into highly mobile, wide-ranging hunter societies c) The Europeans brought smallpox, yellow fever, and malaria to the New World, which would quickly devastate the Native Americans. The disease syphilis was brought to the Old World. This had injected the sexually transmitted disease into Europe for the first time. ‘X. The Spanish Conquistadors a) Treaty of Tortillas – divided the “heathen lands” of the New World between Portugal and Spain b) Important Spanish Explorers 1. Vases Nuke Balboa hailed as the discoverer of the pacific ocean 2. Ferdinand Magellan completed the first circumnavigation of the globe 3. Juan Pence De Leon explored Florida 4.

Francisco Coronado went from Arizona to Kansas, while discovering the Grand Canyon and massive herds of Bison 5. Hernandez De Sotto discovered and crossed the Mississippi River 6. Francisco Pizzeria crushed the Incas of Peru and added a huge hoard of booty to Spanish coffers c) Because of the Spanish conquests, the world economy was transformed – it led to more money in Europe which led to the spread of commerce and manufacturing d) Encomia system – it allowed the government to “commend” or give, Indians to certain colonists in return to try to Christianize them X. The Conquest of Mexico language of the powerful Aztec rulers of the great empire in the highlands of central

Mexico b) Cortes’ incentive was that he only wanted gold c) Mastectomy believed that Cortes was the god Sequestrate d) Ethnocentric – it amazed the Spanish because of how large and beautiful it was: with 300,000 inhabitants spread over ten square miles; it was surrounded floating gardens odd extraordinary beauty e) Enoch Tries: (Sad Night) the Aztec attacked, driving the Spanish down the causeways from Ethnocentric in a frantic, bloody retreat f) Impact of conquest of Aztec: 1. – : Native population of Mexico decreased rapidly due to disease 2. +: Crops and animals were brought to the Americas as well as language, laws, customs, and religion g) Did De la Razz – the birthday off wholly new race of people X’.

Spanish Conquistadors (“Makers of America”) a) Conquistadores were nobles – about half were professional soldiers and sailors; the rest were peasants, artisans, and members of the middling class b) Personal motives – some wanted royal titles and favors, others wanted to ensure God’s favor, some hoped to escape dubious pasts, and some Just wanted adventure c) Conquistadores were armed with horses and gunpowder, as well as preceded by asses; this helped them overpower the Indians d) Most conquistadores did not strike it rich because even if an expedition captured exceptionally rich booty, it was not divided evenly e) Messiest – the “new race” formed a cultural and a biological bridge between Latin America’s European and Indian races XII. The Spread of Spanish America a) The upstart English sent John Callout to explore the northeastern coast of North America b) Jacques Carrier Journeyed hundreds of miles up the SST.

Lawrence River c) With the intention of protection, the Spanish began to fortify and settle in the North American borderlands d) In the Battle of Coma in 1599, the Spanish severed one foot of each survivor e) During the Pope’s Rebellion in 1680, the pueblo rebels destroyed every Catholic church in the province and killed a score of priests and hundreds of Spanish settlers f) Father Junipers Sera founded at San Diego the first of a chain of twenty-one missions g) The “Black Legend” – means killing for Christ: the authors describe it as a false concept. They say that despite the mass killings, the Spanish did so many other good things that the good out weighs the bad.

NEWSLETTER ARTICLE URBANISATION DYNAMICS AND ITS IMPACTS ON THE USE OF NATURAL RESOURCES IN MOSHI – KILIMANJARO, TANZANIA By Isaac Kazungu1 and Maulid Bwabo2 Half the world’s population now live in built-up areas, with an estimated 60 million people being added every year (World Bank population Index report, 2010). This rapid urban growth leads to environmental degradation and excessive demands on services, infrastructure and use of natural resource in rapidly urbanising cities of the world, Moshi inclusive. Resource degradation, energy consumption, conflicts on he use of resources has increased drastically. To address this a three (3) years project titled LUNA (Livelihoods, Urbanisation, Natural Resources in Africa) financed by Volkswagen Foundation of Germany established within Five African Countries, namely Tanzania (Moshi), Cameroon (Bamenda), Botswana (Palapye), Cote d’Ivoire (Tyasale) and South Africa (Phalaborwa-Limpopo, and QueenstownEastern Cape). It started in 2009 and aimed at analysing the impact of urbanisation on the use of natural resources and livelihoods in Africa. 1

Isaac Kazungu is Assistant Lecturer and Researchers working with the Department of Marketing at Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies (MUCCoBS). His main areas of interest include Agricultural Marketing, Marketing research, International marketing, Livelihoods and Urbanization. He is a member of LUNA a team of researchers from Five African countries and Germany undertaking a project on Urbanization and its impact on the use of Natural Resources in Africa. 2 Maulid Bwabo is Assistant Lecturer and Researchers in the

Department of Marketing at Moshi University College of Cooperative and Business Studies (MUCCoBS). Among the other disciplines, he specialises in Food crops marketing, Strategic marketing review and Marketing audit. He is also a member of LUNA a team of researchers from Five African countries and Germany undertaking a project on Urbanization and its impact on the use of Natural Resources in Africa In Tanzania the project was undertaken in Moshi Municipality along the slope of Mountain Kilimanjaro-the highest Mountain in Africa. It explored nine (9) settlements in both rban and peri-urban areas of the city. These settlements include Mweka, Uru, Kibosho, Karanga, Kwa sadala, Pasua Matindigani, Pasua Kanisani, Kiusa, Uchira Mashingia. Livelihoods and settlements characteristics, resource availability and utilisation, settlement growth dynamics and challenges, economic activities and geographical locations are some remarkable areas explored. The result of the project built on what researchers explore about the problem, their insights and values using both evidence based and reflections. The results spin on poor enforcement of urban development policies, rban agricultural product additions and branding, promotion of traditional crops which enhance livelihoods of the poor resource and disadvantaged groups, harassment of the city authority, conflicts on the use of water infrastructure, insecurity to land tenure, difficulties in capitalisation of financial institutions mortgages and marketing informations. Others include inadequate horizontal and vertical linkages of local communities, associations and interested parties, compensation considerations, changing of the people’s mindset of farmers in production process and partnerships, fragmentation of

African land use planning system, member based transformation efforts from informality to formality, poor governance. Likely, the question of ill staff in planning department and structural conflicts are some remarkable policy and practical development, which are potential for policy formulation and improvement for our country development. Key issues noted during this investigation calls for policy interventions and alternative on the reality. In additional, networking, capacity building on which young scientists (2 Master students from MUCCoBS) were trained through this project.

NEWSLETTER ARTICLE of urbanisation and the use of natural resources within a planned and sustainable way to enhance residents in growth and their development processes. Notwithstanding, the project creates a good link of development cooperation between the North and South, which is among the country’s policy development agenda. LUNA team-Tanzania, left to right; Bwabo, Dr. Wakuru Magigi and Isaac Kazungu (Photo by Takemore Chogomoka) Issues noted during the project exploration are central to different actors interested in Urban development and poverty reduction in rapidly rbanising cities. These actors include government, development partners, local communities/co-operators, non-governmental organisations, higher learning institutions, local government authorities and policy makers. The finding may be addressed for enhancing the link Acknowledgements: Dr. Wakuru Magigi-LUNA country coordinator, Urban planner and Senior Lecturer MUCCoBS, Volkswagen Stiftung Foundation, the management of MZUMBE University and MUCCoBS. Contacts:bwabomaulid@yahoo. com, isaackazungu@ymail. com Web: http://www. luna-project. uni-freiburg. de/ http://www. muccobs. ac. tz

Food and Nutrition ISP World cuisine Egypt Alex Easton The news of the Egyptian or lotus revolution has headed the media world-wide a few months ago. An uprising of the middle class Egyptians has led to overthrow the notorious Hosny Mubarak who had reigned Egypt for 30 long years. The Egyptians have overcome their fear of authority and had reached the point of no return. Unemployment, poverty, hungry and poor Egyptians now seek a better future for their country and for themselves. The Arab Republic of Egypt is a link between Africa, Europe and Asia.

Egypt is located in the northeastern region of the African continent. Egypt has three major water resources, the river Nile, the longest river in the world, the Mediterranean Sea and the Red sea, however, only the river Nile provides palatable drinking water. Despite this, Egypt’s climate is arid and dry and most of the country receives less than one inch of rainfall each year. The Mediterranean Sea may offer Egypt’s northern coastline up to eight inches of rainfall each year, and keeps year –round temperatures cooler than the inland deserts.

The widespread lack of rainfall makes it extremely difficult to grow crops. Egypt has no forests and only 2 percent of the land can be farmed. The river Nile runs from the south to the north of eastern Egypt and empties into the Mediterranean Sea at the delta, the most fertile land in Egypt. Around 95 percent of the countries population lives alongside the Nile River, including about 3 percent of Egypt’s population in its capital, Cairo. This overcrowding is threatening Egypt’s wildlife, recourses and water supply.

The Egyptians still have a love of food inherited from their ancestors. Living on a fertile land that yields different fruits and vegetables all year round has enriched the Egyptian kitchen with a variety of food. Animals also show a variety, with different types of meat present; beef, veal, lamb, poultry and even camel meat is popular. The unique Egyptian cuisine has been influenced by other neighbouring cuisines, Middle Eastern Turkish, Greek and Roman cuisines have influenced some of the Egyptian dishes available now. The Egyptian cuisine is also affected by the season’s products.

Bread and rice are present all year round as the wheat is made into flour and together with rice is a strategic grain in the kitchen. The varieties are in the selection of fruit and vegetables. Oranges, tangerines and citrus fruits are abundant in the winter starting from November, while watermelons, melons, mangoes and apples are available in the summer. The main vegetables available in summer are okra and molekheyia-a leafy green vegetable that is shredded and made as a soup. Potatoes, eggplants and other vegetables are available all year round.

Despite the fertile land and the variety of crops, the Egyptians mostly are in poverty and in hunger . Food prices are at record levels partly due to population growth and increased demand from a recovering global economy, tight supplies, high oil prices, and weak agricultural planning and production attributable to climate change-induced natural disasters and crop loss in key producing nations. The Egyptians are now trying hard to change the policies that were available in Mubarak’s regime. The Egyptian revolution was ignited by a poor mans own will to burn himself in front of parliament as he could not feed his family anymore.

Thirty years of government corruption, bribery and suspicious alliance with outside nations caused the Egyptians to rebel as they repeated “enough, enough”. The previous policies of Mubarak’s government had impovered the Egyptian farmer and peasant, abolishing wheat farming, and accepting wheat from the USA, caused this uprising as bread prices had raised. In 1999, agriculture made up approximately 16 percent of Egypt’s economy, employing about one-third of all Egyptians. However, Egypt’s agriculture is also contributing to the slowing of economic growth. A shortage of arable land (land that can be farmed) has become a serious problem.

The lack of farmable land has caused Egyptian farmers to move to other countries. Egypt, struggling to consolidate a revolution that deposed President Hosni Mubarak in February, now faces what could be even worse turmoil because the country is running out of food as well as the money to buy it. Food prices went up 10. 7 percent in April compared to the same month in 2010, government statistics indicate. According to Al-Ahram, Egypt’s leading daily, hoarding of rice by wholesalers has pushed prices up by 35 percent this year. Egypt is reported to have only four months’ supply of wheat on hand and only one month’s supply of rice.

Egypt faces daunting challenges as it prepares for broad presidential and parliamentary elections within a year. Ongoing volatility in global food prices will strain resources during this critical transitional period. Still quite vague what the new government will do, the present change to democracy and the upcoming parlimental and presidential election is giving the Egyptians hope to a better future. Egypt is entering a new era, an era of real democracy and the will of its people, especially the youth to transform their country and create a new environment for prosperity.

Webster’s definition “Food security refers to the availability of food in sufficient quantity in a safe and nutritious form and one’s access to it for a healthy and active life. This definition for food security clearly sets out the different sections involved when discussing food security, globally. These sections include many different aspects of food security. For example: the physical availability of food, and economic access to food, and the sustainability of these aspects to deliver adequate levels of food security. “In Sub-Saharan Africa today, almost 33 percent of the population of sub-Saharan Africa lack sufficient food security”( “Achieving Food Security in Africa: Challenges and Issues”1).

The region of Africa as a whole remains constant to frequent food crises and famines hich are triggered by droughts, floods, and economic downturns. Food Security in sub-Saharan African households has been lowered because of the countries inability to produce the right resources to import food. Sub-Saharan Africa is dependent on agriculture which is most vulnerable to climate change making many methods of development futile but few methods supply satisfactory results. The use of agriculture can improve food security in sub-Saharan Africa by changing to different farming techniques such as using mulching, composting and crop rotation. Mulching in Africa can help improve food security in a multitude of ways. Mulches are materials placed over the soil surface to maintain moisture”(treesaregood). By using mulching plants and vegetables are able to contain moisture even under extreme weather conditions. This is beneficial to Sub-Saharan Africa because of the many droughts they get, it is harder for plants and vegetables to grow and soon end up dying. By maintaining water plants are able to grow healthier and stronger.

Water conservation is not the only thing mulching can help with. “Coupled with conserving moisture mulching prevents the compression and crusting of the soil aused by watering, and rain”( Russell). Because of the unpredictable rain in the Sub-Saharan, the soil is compressed and losses water which leads to the drying out and crusting of plants. By using mulching it helps stops moisture from traveling up through the soil, and leaving behind the dissolved minerals as a crust which would have blocked the plants from growing to the surface. Mulches also provide food for earth worms. “Earthworms are a valuable resource in the garden, Earthworms tunnel deep into the soil allowing air and water to easily reach plant roots”( mulchingaround).

By mulch attracting earthworms plants are able to obtain water and oxygen easier which allows the soil to become richer and grow faster, which is exactly what the soil in the Sub-Saharan needs. Mulching helps improve food security by allowing plants and vegetables in the Sub-Saharan to grow at a faster rate which can be harvested and available more to different parts of the region. Tons of waste is generated through Africa and usually ends up in wastelands or turned into open dumps. Composting is an easy way of getting rid of waste in the Sub-Saharan and at the same time helping the environment. Composting is to fertilize with a mixture of decaying organic matter. ”(Dictionary). Compost decomposes all the organic material and creates soil. By creating soil, it allows for a lot more room to plant and grown food making it widely available and easy to access. . “Small-scale farmers in Sub-Saharan Africa and the entire African continent can improve yields by up to 100% through combining fertilizer micro dosing and manures application”( New Farming Techniques Help Improve Food Security). By adding different types of compost together farmers in the Sub-Saharan can help improve soil and plant growth by 00%, this percentage can drastically help improve food security all over the African region by using organic materials to help create compost. By using compost, Africa’s plant growth can improve by enriching the soil that it gets its nutrients from.

“Compost also has the benefit of adding organic matter to the soil”( The New Vision for Agriculture: Transforming agriculture through collaboration). By adding organic material to soil it gives it the nutrients it needs to grow faster and helps contain water. There have also been new methods of composting called a “Compost toilet”. Composting toilets are toilet systems which treat human waste by composting and dehydration to produce a useable end-product that is a valuable soil additive”( What is a Composting Toilet? ). Compost toilets allow waste entering the toilet to be evaporated into the atmosphere through the vent leaving amount of soil to be used as a natural fertilizer. As helpful as compost toilets are they are quite expensive which makes it harder for Sub-Saharan to use and can slowly but surely improve the food security issue. Crop rotation in sub-Saharan Africa isn’t anything new and has been allowing a more diverse roup of foods to grow which expands the choice of food.

“A crop rotation is a series of different crops planted in the same field following a defined seasonal order” (merriam-webster). There is a wide diversity of cropping systems in sub-Saharan Africa. “A three years’ trial was held in a farmers’ field in Ghana to study the effect of sole crops “crops that are grown alone” compared to conventional crop rotation”( Magdoff). The studies showed that crop rotation allowed a faster growing and more diverse choice of food by using crop rotation. Through rotations, labor is educed and better distributed throughout the year allowing for a more organized labor structure. “Crop rotation can also balance the production of residues by alternating crops that produce few and or short-lived residues”(Toensmeier). This allows a lesser amount residues left over and allows them to be removed. With more residue removed it easier to grow more plants as well. “Many crops may have positive effects on succeeding crops in the rotation, leading to greater production overall”(Kroeck). Because of the positives effects of crop rotation sub-Saharan Africa has made it one of its number one food security support methods.

By allowing greater production crop rotation allows for better access to food and availability which increase the amount of food security in the Sub-Saharan and other counties. There are many different reasons why Sub-Saharan Africa suffers from low food security one of them being the effect of greenhouse gases on the environment. “Greenhouse gas emissions per person from urban waste management activities are greater in sub-Saharan African countries than in other developing countries, and are increasing as the population becomes more urbanized”( waste management through composting in Africa). As Africa becomes more rbanized the waste becomes greater and harder to contain. The waste from greenhouse gasses effects the agriculture making it hard to grow food, which lowers its food security even more. Climate change also plays a huge role in agriculture. “African countries are particularly vulnerable to climate change because of their dependence on rain fed agriculture, high levels of poverty”(Impact of Climate Change on Agriculture). Because of the ever changing climate and the dependence on rain, it makes agriculture hard to become fully sufficient, if the crops aren’t getting enough rain and minerals needed.

Manpowered labor is a necessity in increasing food security through agriculture. “It is to be expected that the HIV/AIDS epidemic will cause serious damage to the agriculture sector in those countries, especially in countries that rely heavily on manpower for production. Because of the HIV/AIDS epidemic many farmers and workers have become ill and unable to produce crops which leads to declining yields and agriculture production. The reduction of production because of HIV/AIDS in Africa has led to food insecurity. After researching the food security situation in sub-Saharan Africa and food security in ther countries the research shows that they cannot improve if more attention and support is not given to agriculture development. By using crop rotation, mulching and composting, farmers can cultivate their farms and use the same plots in repeatedly. Crop rotation allows for a more diverse choice of food and greater production overall. Mulching conserves moisture and improves the fertility and health of the soil. Composting is used as a soil conditioner and natural fertilizer. One major benefit of these farming methods is that it allows people to stop using slash and burn cultivation.