Agriculture

Although most historians say that pre-history is not important, it is actually very important because that is where it all started. , which refers to the hunting and gathering way of life, is 95% of the human history. 100,000 years ago, Homo sapiens started using tools to manipulate their surroundings, and migrating and adapting to new environments. They traveled to Eurasia, Australia, Western hemisphere, and the Pacific islands. Then they started farming, which lead to an era with more technology, surplus, and time to think.

The Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Revolution was an important beginning to the human history. A lot happened during the Paleolithic Age. Technological innovations, such as stone blades and tools made out of bones were created, along with the controlling of fire. Some people argue because there was no surplus and there was no specialization, life was more egalitarian back then. Men and women were thought to have a more equal relationship. Even then people were spiritual, marking their existence, and was trying to control natural forces with supernatural forces.

Forces of nature beyond their control was feared. When people started migrating, people learned and invented ways to adapt to their environment. They started communicating through language, and in the Americas, it is evident from the discovery of Clovis point that people communicated in a large area. At the end of the Ice Age, the warmer and wetter climate made it easier to settle down, which lead to the Neolithic Revolution. The Neolithic Revolution was when people started farming all over the world.

This gave them surplus, which made them settle down, which eventually lead to villages, cities, empires, and civilizations. But this also meant a more concentrated power to the elite men who forced the labor system, thus more stratified. Pastoralism also developed, which was the domestication of animals. Animals were used for not only meat purposes now but also for transportation, power, and manure. The pastoralists and agricultural people would later conflict due to competition for land.

Agriculture all depended on availability. In the Fertile Crescent, a variety of plants and animals were available for domestication. But in the Mesoamerica, only corn/maize was available, but it also lead to the first genetic engineering. More sophisticated tools were invented, and people tried to control nature by the deliberate selection of plants. Humans started impacting the environment a lot. Agricultural diffusion occurred, where language and ideas spread to other parts of the world.

Overall, the Neolithic Revolution lead to increase in human population, new technologies (pottery, metallurgy, secondary products), new diseases spreading, difficulty to move when something disastrous (crop failures) happens, chiefdoms, and settlements. The Paleolithic Age and Neolithic Revolution was when “Homo sapiens” became “humans. ” It was the base of a new era, the Industrial Era, which is when humans dominate the world for good or for bad. But it all certainly started when humans first started using tools, and started farming all over the world.

To what extent did geography determine the location of the three West African kingdoms of Ghana, Mali and Songhai? Ghana, Mali and Songhai were the three largest Kingdoms to exist in the history of West Africa. They were located in West Africa during the 11th, 14th and 15th century. West Africa is the region in the western part of the African continent, it lies approximately 15° north of the equator. Geography is the study of the physical features of the earth and its atmosphere.

These three prominent western african kingdoms flourished due to strategically located trade routes, abundance of natural resources and diverse types of land. These three factors primarily determined the location of the kingdoms and sustained and supported their societies. The existing trade routes greatly influenced the location of where the empires were built and expanded upon. One of the most commonly used and oldest trade routes in the world is the Trans Sahara route which crosses the Sahara desert and leads to the West African coast.

As a result to the location of this trade route all three empires were located south of the desert to be the first civilization traders would reach after their journey. Map A (Trade Routes in Western Africa at the time of the Mali Kingdom) shows the location of the kingdoms in relation to the different trade routes coming from and to western Africa. This gave the kingdoms the direct link to different cultures from Europe, Asia and India whom all frequented this path. As the kingdoms prolonged more routes were opened up, leading northeast across the Sahara for example.

As well as this, the positioning of trade routes allowed the empires to stabilize a flourishing economy with little risk of failure. The kingdoms proximity to the routes gave the population exactly what they wanted from all over the world. Merchants coming from Europe, Asia and India brought a variety of goods to Africa, including ceramics, silk, spices, camels and slaves. These items could be traded for a range of natural resources the West African region was enriched with. Not only could items be traded, but the kingdoms were able to enforce taxes on all trades within the area.

The Ghanaian King imposed taxes on all people passing through the kingdom; in return he provided soldiers who protected the trade routes from unwanted intruders. The king also created the system of silent barter. An issue faced by people who traded with Ghana was the language barrier. To eliminate the use of language in trade, silent barter was used to trade goods. The location of the kingdoms in relation to the trade routes, the use of taxation and the system of silent bartering made trade with West African Kingdoms safe and efficient, helping them become prime trading centers.

The western African region was enriched with large quantities of different natural resources, which not only allowed trade and economic success but also helped prosper a sustainable civilization. As shown in Map B (Mineral Resources of W. Africa), the area occupied by the kingdoms was filled with natural resources such as gold and iron. Also shown on Map B, the areas to the north and south of the kingdoms were rich in common salt, iron, titanium, copper, diamonds and zinc.

Even though the region of the kingdom might have not been the location with the largest quantities of resources, their territories were in the middle of the northern and southern trade in Africa, allowing them to be in control of all internal African trade. The access to valuable resources subsequently allowed the economy to depend largely on trade and due to its economic success earned the title “Gold Coast”. Not only were natural resources used for trade, however they were also used to advance machinery and tools in order to sustain and develop the empires.

Metals such as iron and copper were used to create tools (Image of iron tools found in western Africa on right), weapons and to increase efficiency of work. Iron smelting and manufacture was not only prominent in West Africa but also among the Nok culture of Nigeria and various other parts of the continent. The productions of iron tools let agriculture, hunting and warfare progress and improve, and soon became a fundamental part of life. In conclusion, the diversity of natural resources found in the area helped flourish the economy and extend the technology and knowledge of the population in the kingdoms.

The West African regions was not only a center of trade and home to many natural resources but also possessed a number of different types of land which were successfully used to increase agriculture and make a self-dependent society. As indicated on Map C (Land use in West Africa), this region had a combination of permanent crops, arable, grazing and forest land. Native plants such as pearl millet, sorghum and cowpeas were grown in large quantities to feed the majority of the population. This permitted the population to adapt to farming and agriculture using the land for different crops.

In addition, West Africa is also coastal region bordering the Atlantic Ocean as shown on Map D. This gave the advantage of having fertile soil near the coast all year round. The European influence and steady trade greatly encouraged farming and consequently led the region to become extremely agriculturally productive as merchants would be looking for places to stock up on food and supplies whilst passing through the trade routes. Alongside this, the introduction of iron farming tools enhanced the production of crops immensely.

This contributed to the many ways of how the African kingdoms became successful and self-sufficient civilization. After close examination, it can be concluded that a efficiently managed system of trade routes (including taxation and silent barter), diverse use of the different types of land (including arable, grazing and forest land) and an abundance of natural resources which were used to the kingdoms’ advantages, Ghana, Mali and Songhai were able to sustain themselves by using the geographic factors available. Word count: 1,044

Amwal was formed in 1998 as a financial planning firm for the women of Qatar under the patronage of HE Shiekha Mozah, the wife of the Emir of Qatar.  As a result of Amwal’s success and reputation it was transformed into a fully licensed investment bank in 2005.

Amwal, like most of the investment banks and asset management firms in the region, has benefitted from the unprecedented economic growth, high oil prices, and surplus wealth. The GCC countries are expected to grow over seven percent in the next five years. Qatar is one of the top GCC countries in economic performance.  As such, Qatar’s economy is expected to grow 13% in 2008 as a result of sustained oil prices and the country’s ambitious gas industrialization initiatives.

Following Russia and Iran, Qatar has the world’s third largest gas reserves. In terms of energy, these reserves are expected to last for more than 200 years. This growth is not temporary in nature and is expected to continue over the long run. During former U.S. Federal Reserve Chairman Alan Greenp’s recent visit o Jeddah, he was quoted saying that the oil boom would “go on forever”.

All of these factors have resulted in a mushroom effect on the growth of different kinds of financial institutions in the region.  Existing banks are expanding rapidly, new banks are being set up, and many international players from US, Europe, and Asia are setting up shop in this region. In the last two years nearly 280 financial intuitions have surfaced in Qatar and the United Arab Emirates (UAE).

In the current market scenario, I believe that Amwal will face the following challenged as it strives to become a world class investment bank: Carving its own identity and differentiating from its regional peers

Amwal has a very strong shareholder base that includes prominent local and regional organizations.  For this reason Amwal’s identity sometimes is overshadowed by affiliation with one of its shareholders in the multiple  transactions that Amwal actually facilitates.  As a new investment bank Amwal leveraged its shareholder base to its benefit.  However as we grow it is imperative that we carve out our own identity that will build a strong brand recognition in the region. This is important because it will help Amwal to differentiate itself from its regional competitors, who often operate on similar grounds and similar strengths.  This will occur over the mid  to long range period as Amwal builds on successful deals, takes steps to increase social responsibility, and invests in its employee resources.

Competing with global names such as Deutsche Bank, Morgan Stanley and Goldman Sachs

Due to economic growth and initiatives to develop the capital markets, GCC countries have been successful in attracting global names such as Deutsche Bank, Goldman Sachs, Morgan Stanley, Barclays etc. This presents a unique challenge for a local bank like Amwal to remain competitive due to its relative inexperience as compared to the multinational investment banks. GCC countries have embarked on a major capital expenditure initiative, developing their infrastructure and other major projects. Qatar alone will spend over $100 billion(U.S.) over the next five years.  This will help to position Amwal as a local expert with global capabilities.

Hiring and retaining key staff

Due to the spur in new market entrants, banks are competing for the best human resources and often find themselves short of a healthy bench-strength. This has been mainly due to the high turnover, shortage of seasoned professionals, and a general preference to employ western educated professionals with regional experience. This problem is more prevalent for local banks with limited resources.

These local banks are rely heavily on key staff such as the senior manages of investment banking and asset management. Amwal is not immune to this problem and has recently developed a policy of retaining good employees and encouraging its staff to develop further expertise by sending them for training and allowing time off from work for academic studies.  Amwal will face a key challenge of retaining staff and hiring more professionals due to circumstances beyond its control including regional factors such as increased competition and the higher cost of living.

Need for a better corporate governance

Another challenge is creating the right balance of power and accountability between the board of directors, senior management, shareholders,  and internal operating departments.  Amwal has grown tremendously over the last few years and is now planning for its own Initial Public Offering (IPO) early next year to support its current growth and future goals. During the initial years of operation, Amwal’s management style was very centralized with authorities and powers limited to a few key individuals. While this is very common among most local and regional institutions like Amwal, this structure usually leads to a financial and strategic gap upon the exit of these key individuals.

Amwal has come a long way since its transformation into an investment bank and have developed business policy principles, guidelines, internal and external regulations and monitoring mechanisms. However, as we continue to grow, expand our global reach, and prepare for the IPO, I believe these measures would need to be constantly reviewed and enhanced as they are critical for conducting proper corporate accountability and enhancing business prosperity. Another prevailing impediment is the lack of proactiveness of the local governing bodies that need to substantially enhance the regulatory framework, develop stricter industry guidelines, and encourage transparency.  As an industry leader, Amwal is in a unique position to have a positive effect on the creation of the regulatory industry in the region.

Conclusion

These observations are not only unique to Amwal.  Since we are in a constantly changing environment it is critical that local and regional institutions identify these challenges and develop a strategic plan to respond to them.  I believe that Amwal is well placed and uniquely positioned for this challenge with its sound business model and comprehensive long range strategic plan.

Sub-Saharan Africa is the part of the world most terribly influenced by AIDS.  By the end of 2004 it was estimated that twenty-six million inhabitants in Sub-Saharan Africa were suffering from AIDS. Approximately seven to eight per cent of the grown population is affected, with occurrence rates getting as high as forty per cent in a few countries.

Females are strangely infected, with adolescent girls five times more prone than teenage boys to catch AIDS. In 2004 only, two million people expired of AIDS in Sub-Saharan Africa.

However the epidemic has far stretched from its peak, since infectivity rates are still exceeded casualties from AIDS. Due to the gap between infectivity and successive death, we have until now to see the full impact of AIDS on Sub-Saharan Africa’s society as a whole.

There have been differing opinions over how AIDS has affected the economic future of the African continent. Mixed messages on the true economic repercussions of the spread of the disease have contributed to a limited response, despite the inclusion of combating AIDS in the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs).

One of the least studied but most significant areas of the epidemic’s impact is rural agriculture. Though long de-prioritized, rural agriculture is a source of livelihood for millions on the African continent and is now again being perceived as a crucial contributor to economic growth and development by such organizations as the New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD).

Hunger, food aid and agricultural subsidies are all key elements of the current discourse on Africa in policy circles and in the media, but few studies have assessed the impact of AIDS on agriculture to push for specific interventions to mitigate the impact of the epidemic on rural agriculture.

This disease has affected millions of people and since many of them are farmers therefore it has indirectly affected agriculture also. Since agriculture is a major source of capital for individuals and the country therefore it has affected the economy of Africa also. It seems clear that such high levels of illness and mortality will severely hamper economic performance in the most heavily affected countries.

Yet over the last decade, a number of macroeconomic studies have declared that AIDS is not having a significant impact on GDP growth. These analyses are important because they provide ammunition that allows statesmen and scholars to dismiss the epidemic as not worthy of action and funding.

In circles of power around the world, it is money that drives policy initiatives. The claim that AIDS is not impacting economic performance speaks loudly and prevents aggressive intervention.( n5)

This paper will start with an assessment of a number of the macroeconomic studies that aim to measure the impact of AIDS on GDP growth, and which contribute to the justification of a limited international response to the disease.

Macroeconomic Analysis Of The Impact Of AIDS

The assessments of the macroeconomic impact of AIDS have been largely dismissive due to the unique character of the epidemic. AIDS affects the poorest of the poor: those who are not recognized or measured by traditional macroeconomic indicators. (Ruxin, 2004)

As a UN report on “The Impact of AIDS” notes, “those rural people whose activities are not counted by standard measurements of economic performance and productivity are among the most vulnerable to the impact of AIDS.”( Bloom,  Mahal, 1997, 108)

By not fully accounting for the informal sector, the rural economy and small-scale agriculture are largely dismissed, and women, who play a large role in the informal economy and agricultural sector, are marginalized. While the macroeconomic studies assessing the impact of AIDS disregard them, in fact it is the poor, the rural and women who are most affected by the disease.

After decades of neglect by governments and abandonment by structural adjustment programs, there is a renewed focus on agriculture by international organizations and groups such as the World Bank and NEPAD. Agriculture is once again being seen as a driving force for growth in Africa.

The Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Programme (CAADP) released in July 2003 states that “the high economic growth rates envisaged by NEPAD cannot be realized unless farm production is significantly increased. Higher output will directly reduce hunger and bring down the cost of food imports.

It will also have wider economic benefits, from stimulating rural incomes to providing raw materials for African industry.”(Harsch, 2004, 13) However, the rural areas are where AIDS is having its most devastating impact.

At a time when population growth is high relative to other emerging economies, the amount of arable land is stable, the quality of land is degrading, and output per hectare stagnant, the rural areas are under increased pressure.

Adding the AIDS epidemic into an already precarious mix of factors forces the agricultural sector into a dangerous downward spiral and threatens hopes for economic growth in sub-Saharan Africa.

Few of the macroeconomic studies specifically address rural livelihoods and agriculture. They also assess the impact of AIDS without acknowledging that, from an economic point of view, the primary impact of the disease manifests mainly among individual economic agents, i.e. individuals and households. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002)

As a result, these macroeconomic models often fail to allow for the effects of a number of important microeconomic impacts which are endogenous to such models. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002)

Though the death of an individual might only represent a minor change in GDP, the macroeconomists fail to understand the ripple effect chronic illness and death has on communities. The impoverishment of communities cascades upwards and impacts macroeconomic measures. The traditional macroeconomic research approach is not sufficient in the face of the widespread devastation of AIDS.

Microeconomic Analysis Of The Impact Of AIDS

It is vital for researchers to conduct microeconomic household-level studies on the impact of AIDS. Such analyses document the economic choices that households and individuals are forced to make in the face of the epidemic in terms of household composition, labor, productivity, savings and coping strategies.

It is these behaviors that will inform observers of the real impact the epidemic is having on sub-Saharan Africa and will thus serve as the basis for understanding the effect of AIDS on families, communities and the nation.

Rural Household Studies

It is clear from existing microeconomic household-level analyses that AIDS is devastating and will continue to devastate Sub-Saharan Africa’s rural agricultural sector and, through it, undermines the agricultural and rural revival that many see as the basis of Africa’s recovery.

As Carolyn Baylies notes, “AIDS is having a profound effect, undermining rural household production, contributing to declining agricultural output and affecting the very integrity of families and their sustainability as viable units.”(Baylies, 2002, 12)

This paper will now delve into a number of the microeconomic studies, with a focus on rural agricultural household studies, to assess the house hold level impact of the epidemic and to investigate the effects that the macroeconomic analyses have largely missed.

A 2002 household impact study conducted in South Africa by Frederick Booysen and Max Bachmann explores the impact of AIDS on families in the Free State province. Researchers note that deaths in the households due to AIDS mostly occurred in individuals in their 20s and 30s.

A Rwandan study revealed that, for those that died, the average period of illness before death was 23 months: a long period during which care had to be provided and medicines sought. (Donovan, 2003) Household illness dramatically increases the dependency ratio in the home.

Booysen and Bachmann note that the households affected by AIDS in fact have a smaller supply of labor than non-affected households, with a larger proportion of the household consisting of children and elderly persons. (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) Furthermore, dependency is exacerbated by the fact that many individuals return to their rural homes to receive terminal care after becoming ill. (Jayne, 2002)

The South African study also assesses the impact of AIDS on household income. The authors note that “per capita and adult equivalent income in affected households represents only between 50% and 60% of the levels of income in non-affected households.”(Booysen, Bachmann, 2002)

This dramatic drop results not only from the loss of labor of the infected individual but also from the burden of care that falls on family members. Importantly, Booysen and Bachmann also explore the impact of the disease on expenditure levels.

AIDS significantly alters the consumption patterns of households: “per capita and adult equivalent expenditure is between 60% and 70% of the levels of expenditure in non-affected households.” (Booysen, Bachmann, 2002) Notably, affected households spend less on food than non-affected households, which has a negative impact on the health of household members.

This paper will look at the Agrarian revolution that occurred in 10^th century and the resulting effects on the political, social, cultural and economic conditions in Europe.

Agricultural revolution in Europe was a period where there was witness of sustained changes in the way people carried out their farming activities. It had to do with increased output of products and general changes in the methods of carrying out agricultural activities on farmland.

 10^th century Europe fell under the “Middle ages, an era when agricultural methods of production were mostly peasantry in nature. Most of the populations during the 10th century Europe were serfs who were employed by other people to work on their farmlands” (Chris, par. 2).

There was no clear sub-division of land and the main tool farming was the ox drawn plow and the system of farming was the two field system. This was a system of farming where one field was cultivated while leaving the other one fallow so as to reclaim the soil’s nutrients. Population growth during these ages was very low. This can be attributed to the poor methods of farming which led to low yields hence food insecurity.

Agricultural revolution came about with the systematic changes in the methods of production. One major indicator of the revolution was through the consolidation of common land that led to introduction of individual ownership of those properties.

Thus rights of ownership were created through the abolition of the open field system of cultivation. The plow as the main tool of cultivation underwent redesigning, and also, the two-field crop rotation was changed to a three- field, and hence these served as contributors to the increased food production that occurred.

The Agricultural revolution that occurred at this time brought great impacts to the socio-economic conditions of Europe as a whole. One impact was increase in population, mostly in the towns. Individual ownership of land led to many people selling off their lands.

The consequences were that there was increase in the number of people without land, but who were working as laborers for the big landowners. Others migrated to towns and thus contributed to rapid population growth.

Furthermore adoption of better methods of farming led to increased food production and hence surplus production. This surplus production was then traded for other goods that were lacking. This served as the beginning of exchange of goods and services and also development of trading systems.

The agricultural revolution also served as the main cause of change from feudalism to capitalism. Introduction of wage labour whereby landlords entered agreements with workers served as the springboard on which market economy fundamentals were established and power over the land which was appropriated by those who controlled it.

Developments that resulted from the agricultural revolutions in terms of new towns, migrations and changes in land ownership necessitated changes in the political and cultural system of the people.

There were changes from “feudalism as the most dominant form of political organization to formation of the nation-state” (Adriaan, par. 4). Development of ideas of sovereignty led to establishment of monarchies in countries like France and England which were seen as the reflection of civilization.

“Moreover changes in the cultural mentality of the people were witnessed with the spread of renaissance ideas, diffusion of old ideas and the rise of secular attitudes in art, education and politics.” (par. 6).

Conclusion

The agricultural revolution was a crucial event as far as mankind is concerned.  Interactions over time throughout man’s history that have brought about inventions and development of man’s civilization cannot be said to be complete without reference to the Agrarian revolution.

Works Cited

Adriaan Verhulst. ^“.Medieval Socio-economic Historiography in Western Europe: Towards an Integrated Approach.” Journal of Medieval History. June 1998. Mechelsesteenweg. Antwerp. Belgium. 12 Nov. 2008< http://www.sciencedirect.com/science>

Chris, Butler. “The agricultural revolution in medieval Europe.” The Flow of History.2007: 12 Nov. 2008 < http://www.flowofhistory.com/units/west>