Animals

Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) Kingdom: AnimaliaPhylum: ChordataSubphylum: VertebrataClass: Chondrichthyes (cartilaginous fish)Subclass: Elasmobranchii (sharks and rays)Order: OrectolobiformesFamily: RhincodontidaeGenus: RhincodonSpecies: Rhincodon typus| Integumentary system Whale Shark (Rhincodon typus) has the toughest and thickest skin of all the animals in the world. It reaches up to 14 cm of thick; whale shark is pale on the underside and dark gray-brown color with white spots on the top. This can serve as a camouflage looking up or down the sea for shark’s preys (SRI, 2008).

As all the other Chondrichtyes, Whale Shark skin is covered with little cartilaginous tooth-like structures, this are dermal placoid scales arranged to reduce the turbulence of water flowing along the body surface during swimming (Hickman, 2006). Whale shark maintains internal salt concentrations lower than seawater by pumping salt out through rectal glands and kidneys. Sharks retain urea dissolved in their body fluids. They also produce Trimethylamine oxide (TMAO) use to protect their proteins from denaturation by urea waste products.

Retention of this organic solutes in their body fluids makes their osmolality slightly hypertonic to sea water (Hickman, 2008) Whale Sharks are ectothermic; this means that their body temperature is similar to the surroundings. They may regulate their body temperature by behavioral mechanism such as spending time in warmer surface water (Thumbs, 2012). Musculo-Skeletal System As mentioned, Whale Shark is an elasmobranch; the skeleton of this animal is made out of cartilage instead of bone. This along with the big liver filled with oil helps the shark to float easier an spend less energy on its movement (SRI, 2008).

They also posses an pelvic fins supported by appendicular skeletons, dorsal fins, a medial caudal fin and a median anal fin. The heterocercal tail in sharks shows that the upturned tail axis tends to produce a thrust directed downwards behind the center of balance of the fish and thus gives a moment turning the head upwards. This is countered in two ways—by the rotation of the tail along its longitudinal axis during each lateral beat, and through the action of the ventral hypochordal lobe.

The shape of the tail and the mode of action of the tail in all sharks so far considered reflects a balance between these three factors, in all of them the net effect being the production of a forward thrust from the tail that passes directly through the center of balance of the fish (Stewart, Keith and Simanek, Dan, 2012). Respiration System Whale Shark possesses 5 pair of gill slits located on the side of their heads (SRI, 2008). Water must continually flow across the gill slits in order for the shark to breath; They do not have gill covers like bony fishes do, so whale shark need to continually swim for constant flow.

When water passes over the gill, a system of very fine blood vessels takes up the oxygen from the water. Digestive System Whale Shark is a filter feeder. As it swims with its mouth open, masses of water filled with prey enter to its mouth consisted of 5 large gill arches. After closing its mouth, shark uses specialized organs called gill rakers to filter the nourishment from the water. Basically anything that does not pass trough the gills is eaten. (SRI, 2008). Preys may include plankton, krill, small fish and even squid. This shark can process over 6000 liters of water each our.

Urinary System Urea and trimethylamine (TMAO) in their blood and tissues help to maintain their osmotic balance. They are without the usual urinary tract, so they concentrate urea in their blood and excrete it through their skin (Hickman, 2006). Reproductive System According to the Shark research institute, Reproduction behavior is uncertain. In their article “Whale Shark FAQ” they state; “Only one pregnant female shark has ever been exanimated by scientist Dr. Jennifer V. Schmidt, Director of SRI genetics Program” (12). The only pregnant female caught ontained in her tween uterus 307 embryo’s measuring between 42 and 63 cm in length, 15 where fully- developed and ready to born. Having this information whale sharks where found to fall into the classification of ovoviviparous. This information also suggests that Whale Sharks could be one of the most productive live bearing shark species. But it remains unknown why their population is small. Sexual maturity in whale sharks may occur until they reach about 9 meters long which is about 30 years old. Whale sharks live for about 70 to 800 years. (SRI, 2009) Bullfrog (Rana castabeiana) Kingdom: Animal

Phylum: Chordate Class: Amphibians Order: Salientia Family: Ranidae Genus: Rana Species: Rana catesbeiana (Bullfrog) Integumentary system Frog skin is thin and loosely attached to some of the muscles in the body. It is composed the skin is known to be permeable, which means that let the water pass in and out through the skin membrane. Bullfrog’s skin is periodically shed as other frogs and toads do. The epidermis of the Bullfrog contains two types of glands: mucous glands, which help to protect the frog from dehydration and a large serous of glands that produce watery, poison material (Hickman, 2006).

Musculo-skeletal system As many other amphibians bullfrogs live mainly in fresh water, but they can also migrate to other pounds lakes or reservoirs specially when is rainy or hummed. Bullfrogs have a well-developed endoskeleton made out principle of bone and some cartilage; this provides support for muscular movements (Hickman 2006). Bullfrog tent to develop strong and big muscles used for locomotion outside or inside the water. Bullfrogs as most of the other frogs and toads, are faced with an unusual locomotory challenge. They have to swim and jump using primary the hind limbs.

The foot possess five rays and hand posses fore rays. Hind limbs and fore limbs posses a web-like structure to help frog locomotion also in water (Nauwalaerts, Sandra et al, 2007). Respiratory system Bullfrogs as many other amphibians use three respiratory surfaces for gas exchange: skin, mouth, and lungs. In bullfrogs lungs are present in adults (Hickman, 2006). On land Bullfrogs breath with their mouths closed. Bullfrogs present a positive lung pressure for breathing (Heckman, 2007). Their throat movements pull air through the nostrils to the lungs. Then breathe out with body contractions.

Bullfrogs can also respire under the water through the skin using a process called cutaneous gas exchange. They use their skin for oxygen/carbon dioxide exchange (Stinner N, Jerry, and Shoemaker, H. Vaughan, 1987) Digestive system Bullfrogs are voracious eaters, and will eat just about any animal they can swallow. These include: insects, crayfish, worms, minnows, other frogs (even Bullfrogs), small turtles, snakes, baby birds, and small mammals. They are most active at night. The frog digestive system, like most other digestive systems, starts in the mouth.

Prey, which is sometimes caught by the frog’s sticky tongue, is diced by tooth-like structures in the mouth. The food then moves down through the esophagus, into the stomach, where, much like in the shark, the food is softened, broken down somewhat, and stored. From the stomach, food moves into the small intestine, where the most of the chemical digestion (i. e. the pancreas secretes pancreatic juice, the liver secretes bile, etc. ) and nutrient absorption take place. One special attribute of the frog small intestine is that it has villi, small projections that greatly ncrease the surface area of the small intestine, allowing more nutrient absorption. Urinary system The urinary system of Bullfrogs as most of the frogs is the organ system that produces, stores, and eliminates urine. The kidney excretes and re-absorbs electrolytes (e. g. sodium, potassium and calcium) under the influence of local and systemic hormones. pH balance is regulated by the excretion of bound acids and ammonium ions. Reproductive system Bullfrog’s are known to be oviparous and breeding occurs in permanent bodies of water that typically contain thick grows of algae and rooted aquatic plants.

Breeding pools usually are rich in aquatic animal life and have a soft mud bottom (Hammerson, Geoffrey A, 1999). They initiate amplexus by making physical contact with an adult male. Amplexus and oviposition generally last from 15 min to 2. 5 hours and occur about midnight. Bullfrogs have found to mate and lay eggs in areas outside the sites defended by calling males. (Hammerson, Geoffrey A, 1999). Green sea turtle (Chelonia mydas) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Reptilia Order: Testudines (turtles and tortoises)? Family: Cheloniidae (true sea turtles)? Genus: Chelonia?

Species: Chelonia mydas Integumentary System Green sea turtles, as all the turtle’s species have evolved a bony outer shell, which protects them from predators. This shell covers both dorsal and ventral surfaces and it is consider the most highly developed protective armor of any vertebrate species to have ever lived. (Green Sea Turtles, 2001). The dorsal portion of the shell is known as carapace and it is covered with a large scale-like structures called scutes. The ventral portion of the shell is known as the plastron. This two structures are connected by hard shelled plates called lateral bridges.

A difference of land turtles and tortoises, sea turtles are not able to retract their heads into their shells, and they heads remain out at all times (Green sea turtles, 2001) Green Sea turtles are ectothermic animals, which means that they regulate their internal temperature from their environment, this also explains why this turtles live in warm temperatures. Chelonia mydas maintain homeostasis using a specialized gland called salt gland; it helps them controlling their internal environment and it is located just behind each eye. Using this gland they excrete the excess of salt levels in blood in forms of “tears”. “Green Sea Turtles,” 2001). Musculo-skeletal system The skeleton is composed of bones and cartilages. Typically, it is divided into 3 main parts: the skull, axial skeleton and appendicular skeleton in sea turtles, each of these bony groups is a composite of several structures. The skull includes the braincase, jaws, and hyoid apparatus the axial skeleton is composed of the carapace, vertebrae, and ribs and the derivatives of the ribs. The plastron is a composite including derivatives of the axial and appendicular skeleton (ventral ribs plus shoulder elements).

The appendicular skeleton includes the flippers, hind limbs, and their supporting structures (the pectoral and pelvic girdles). (Wyneken, 2001. ) Sea turtles are interesting because they have very highly evolved flippers to help them propel through the water. In addition to being able to propel themselves through the water, the sea turtles use their flippers to climb up steep, rocky shores and can use their flippers to evade all sorts of different predators of the sea turtles. While sea turtles all have the same basic anatomy, there are some things that set some species of sea urtles apart from other sea turtles. For example, Green sea turtles have prefrontal scales on the head, a differing number of scutes on the carapace, and the type of inframarginal scutes that appear on the pastron. (Wtbeken, 2001. ) Respiratory system The sea turtle requires a respiratory system that is able to support it through diverse depths and distances. Due to sea turtles’s excessive breath-hold, the respiratory system must be able to compensate for time elapsed without exhalation. When exhalation does occur, it is brief. The main component that bears the respiratory weight is essentially the lung.

The lung, “functions as the major oxygen store and can supply sufficient oxygen for most routine dives (up to 20 mins) to be aerobic” (Lutz, 1985). Moreover, the lung almost carries the complete load of respiration in the sea turtle. “The respiratory properties of sea turtle blood are particularly well suited to lung-tissue transport during routine brethhold periods, surviving prolonged dives of at least three hours by having a high anaerobic capacity” (Lutz, 1985). A difference of the amphibians, turtles posses a negative lung preassure. Digestive system

Green sea turtles, Chelonia mydas, get their name from the color of their body fat, which is green from the algae or limu they eat. Adult green sea turtles are herbivores, meaning that they eat only plants, and therefore do not pose a threat to any other marine animals. Juvenile green sea turtles on the other hand are carnivorous. Their diet consists of jellyfish and other invertebrates (Green sea turtles, 2001). Although the carapaces of green sea turtles are mostly dark brown in color, they can be covered with patches of algae on which fishes in turn feed (Green sea turtles, 2001).

This particular relationship of the fish eating algae off the turtle’s shell would be considered a form of mutualism. Urinary System The excretory system of the turtle is responsible for removing harmful wastes from the turtle’s body and blood. The kidney of the turtle performs the blood filtering process and the wastes are then sent to the bladder as urine. In sea turtles the kidneys are also aided by the salt gland to get rid of the excess salt in the sea water (Green Sea Turtles, 2001). The bladder is the storage place of the urine. From the bladder the urine goes to the cloaca, which is where urine leaves the body.

The cloaca is also used to take in oxygen and other nutrients in sea turtles when they reach critical levels. Reproductive System Although green sea turtles live most of their lives in the ocean, adult females must return to land in order to lay their eggs. Biologists believe that nesting female turtles return to the same beach where they were born. Hawaii’s green sea turtles migrate as far as 800 miles from their feeding areas along the coasts of the main Hawaiian islands to their nesting beaches in the Northwestern Hawaiian islands (Green Sea Turtles, 2001).

Males accompany the females during the migration, which usually occurs in the late spring, and mate with them off the shores of the nesting beaches. Females do not mate every year, but when they do, they come ashore often- as many as five times every 15 days to make nests in the sand and lay eggs. Green sea turtles nest only at night. The female must pull herself out of the water and all the way to the dry sand of the upper beach using only her front flippers. This is a difficult task as her front limbs have been modified into highly effective swimming flippers, and do not support the bulk of her weight in the sand.

After placing the eggs female basically has completed her parenting job, then she returns to the sea leaving her young’s to fend for them-selves. Unfortunately, not all of the hatchlings reach the ocean. Many are snatched up by hungry crabs and other predators along the way or become lost and die. In addition, some are eaten by sharks and other carnivorous fishes while at sea. Only a few baby turtles from each nest will survive into adulthood. Jaguar (Panthera Onca) Kingdom: Animalia Phylum: Chordata SubPhylum: Vertebrata Class: Mamalia Subclass: Theria Infraclass: Eutheria

Order: Carnivora Suborder: Feliformia Family: Felidae Subfamily: Pantherinae Genus: Panthera Species: Panthera onca Integumentary system Mammal’s bodies are covered by hairs, tegumentary features that contribute to the regulation of body temperature. In the skin there are a quantity of sweat glands and sebaceous or oil glands that help to keep the skin in good health by lubricating it and eliminating toxic byproducts through the sweat. In addition to this elimination function, the sweat contributes to thermo-regulation, cooling the surface through evaporation.

In addition to hairs, the skin grows other structures, such as nails, claws or hooves as well as the horns and callous foot pads of certain mammals.?? Heterodontia is characteristic of mammals, that is to say that they have teeth of different structure, as opposed to homodontia, in which all the teeth are alike. Musculo-skeletal system The Jaguar is a large and muscular animal that has a heavier and sturdier body than that of a Leopard. They have a large, broad head with jaws so strong that they are said to have the most powerful bite of all the world’s Cats. Jaguar, 2008). They are also fast runners, but they get tired quickly. They can also climb very well and are good swimmers. (Felines, 2002) The jaguar’s skeleton is not so different from the human skeleton. Jaguars have more bones and many are identical to those in the human being. They have have 13 ribs; humans have 12. They also do have clavicles but unlike humans, they are not attached to other bones. The outside of a bone, the cortex, is composed of minerals and protein and gives the bone its rigidity. Inside the bone is the marrow cavity that produces red blood cells.

Jaguar’s muscles are tough and well-coordinated and help to make the animal an agile hunter. Basically, jaguar’s muscles are designed for walking, running, leaping, and twisting. Their muscular control and skeletal flexibility enable it to right its body during a fall with incredible speed—a trick that is unique to the family felidae. Respiratory System The respiratory system functions primarily to transfer oxygen from the air to the blood and to remove carbon dioxide from the blood and carry it out of the body into the air. Oxygen is vital to the body’s maintenance.

Carbon dioxide is a waste product of the maintenance process. Jaguar breathes in air through its nose and mouth. The nose and mouth join to form the pharynx. The trachea is a tube that extends from the pharynx to the lungs. The epiglottis covers the trachea when swallowing occurs to prevent food and water from entering the lungs. At the lungs the trachea branches into smaller tubes called bronchi or bronchial tubes. The bronchi divide into smaller and smaller bronchioles until they become dead end sacs called alveoli. It is in the alveoli where the actual exchange of oxygen and carbon dioxide occur.

Digestive system The jaguar is a carnivore. It hunts mostly at night. Its prey includes capybara, peccaries, deer, large ground birds, fish, snakes, turtles and rabbits. It will also eat livestock like horses, cows and sheep. The jaguar hunts mostly on the ground, but it sometimes climbs a tree and pounces on its prey from above. The jaguar has very powerful jaws and sharp teeth and usually kills its prey with one crushing bite to the skull. ( Jaguar, 2008) Jaguar’s digestive system is comprised of the alimentary canal and accessory glands.

The alimentary canal consists of the lips, mouth, teeth, tongue, esophagus, stomach, small intestine, large intestine, and anus. The accessory glands are the liver, pancreas, and the salivary glands. All the organs work to process the food a cat eats. The intestines work to extract and absorb the nutrients and eliminate the wastes. (Foss, A. Michael, et al, 2008) Urinary System The important organs of the cat’s urinary system are the kidneys, ureters, bladder, and urethra. The kidneys are located on either side of the body in the lumbar region (between ribs and pelvis).

Blood is filtered through the kidneys and the liquid waste product is called urine. Urine is passed through the ureters to the bladder where it is stored. The urine is then discharged through the urethra, a tube connecting the bladder to the exterior of the body. (Foss, A. Michael, et al, 2008) Reproductive system Despite the fact that most Jaguar cubs are generally born between the months of December and March, it is not uncommon for them to be born at other times of the year. During the mating season, the female Jaguar will use loud vocal calls to attract a male into her territory. Female Jaguars typically give birth to two or three cubs.

Once their cubs are born however, the female Jaguar will not tolerate the male in her territory as she becomes very protective of her young at this stage. Jaguar cubs are born blind and gain their sight after about two weeks. They are weaned by their mother when they are around 3 months old, although the cubs will rely on their mother to hunt and provide for them until they are about 6 months old. At 6 months, the Jaguar cubs will then start to accompany the female jaguar on hunts but will not venture out on their own until they are one or two years old and have established a territory for themselves. Jaguar, 2008) Scarlet Macaw (Ara macao) Kingdon: Animalia Phylum: Chordata Subphylum: Vertebrata Class: Psittaciformes Family: Pisttacinae Genus: Ara Lacepede, 1799 Species: Ara macao Subspecies: Ara macao cyanopterus Integumentary system Scarlet macaws are brightly colored birds with feathers ranging in color bands from scarlet on their head and shoulders, to yellow on their back and mid wing feathers and blue on the wing tips and tail feathers. The face has short white feathers. This area surrounds the light yellow colored eyes. The long, thick beak is light on the top and dark black on the bottom.

The legs and feet are also black (David, 2003) Birds are endothermal, or warm-blooded. That means they have an internal furnace, fueled by food, that generates heat and allows them to keep their bodies at a constant temperature, even though the temperature of their environment changes. Birds are also able to regulate their body temperature by conserving or losing heat through a variety of ways -— feathers help retain heat, while panting helps get rid of heat. (Bird Life, 2008) Musculo-skeletal system Macaws are the largest parrots in the world — the body of the scarlet macaw from beak to tail can be as long as 33 inches.

This beautiful macaw has a creamy white, almost featherless face, with bright red plumage covering most of its body, wings and long tail. Brilliant blue and yellow feathers also adorn the lower wings. The bird’s strong beak is adapted to breaking hard nuts found in the rainforest. (David, 2003) Respiratory system The high metabolism and athletic life-style of birds require a great deal of oxygen. Four organs work together to carry oxygen to the cells: nostrils, trachea, lungs, and air sacs. With each breath, air moves through the nostrils, down the trachea and into the lungs and air sacs. From the lungs, xygen passes into the bloodstream and then to the body cells. The air that passes into the air sacs cools the internal organs and helps maintain body temperature. Nearly all of the air in the lungs is replaced with each breath. When flying, birds require ten to twenty times more oxygen than at rest. To supply the extra oxygen, birds increase their breathing rates. (Bird Life, 2008) Digestive system Wild Scarlet Macaws mostly eat fruits and seeds, including large, hard seeds. Like other parrots, they are seed predators, they destroy the seeds that they eat and do not disperse them. Some macaws are sometimes seen eating clay from river banks. Bird Life, 2008 Since birds have no teeth, the digestive system must grind up food so that the energy stored in it can be used. A hollow digestive tube extends from the mouth through the entire length of the body to an external opening called the cloaca. The tube is divided into the throat (pharynx), esophagus, stomach, small intestine, and large intestine. Urinary system The urinary system of birds is different from mammals, as birds produce both urine and urates. The kidneys possess two different types of nephrons, the units that filter the blood to remove toxins and products of metabolism.

Birds cannot concentrate their urine as well as mammals can. Birds also are uricotelic, meaning that they excrete the end product of nitrogen metabolism as uric acid, which is made in the liver and they excreted from the blood. Uric acid is the creamy white portion of the dropping. Urine is the clear portion. The feces constitute the third portion of a dropping, and this consists of the solid portion, usually brown or green, depending on what the bird has been eating. A bird is able to urinate independently of defecating, or passing feces, but most of the time, the bird will pass urine, urates and feces at the same time. Bird Life 2008) Reproductive system Like most parrots, the female Scarlet Macaw lays 2 to 4 white eggs in a tree cavity. The young hatch after 24 to 25 days. They fledge about 105 days later and leave their parents a year later. (bird life, 2008) The scarlet macaw protects its baby by staying in the nest with the baby or babies and being aware of any type of danger. It pinches predators with its beak and screams noises for help when a predator wants to eat the baby and/ or female. The female stays with the baby 1-2 years. It stays most of the day and the male fetch food for the baby or babies. Brightsmith, 2004) Works cited Shark Research Institute. Whale Shark FAQ. Dlvingdog productions Inc. Nov 2006. Shark Research Institute. November 7, 2012. (Greey Literature) Thums, Michele. “Why Whale Sharks Need to Swim Near the Surface”. PHYS. ORG. Benson Jhon, October 19, 2012. Web. November 7, 2012. (Gray literature) Stewart, Keith and Simanek, Dan. “Body Form and Locomotion in Sharks”. Integrative and Comparative Biology Vol 17. 2 (2012): 343-354. Print (Scientific Journal) Roberts, Hickman, et al. Integrated Principles of Zoology. McGraw-Hill Higher Education, 2006.

Print Hammerson, Geoffrey A. Amphibians and Reptiles in Colorado, A Colorado Field Guide. Niwot, Colorado: University Press of Colorado, 1999. Print Nauwalaerts, Sandra et al. “Morphological correlates of aquatic and terrestrial locomotion in semi-aquatic frog”. Journal of Anatomy. Vol. 210. 3 (2007): 304-317. Print. (Journal) Stinner N, Jerry, and Shoemaker, H. Vaughan. “Cutaneous gas exchange and low evaporative water loss in the frogs”. Journal of Comparative Physiology B: Biochemical, Systemic, and Environmental Physiology. Vol 157. 4 (1987): 423-427.

Print. (journal) Earthtrust. 2001. Green sea turtles. Retrieved November 7, 2012, from website: http://earthrust. org/wlcurruc/turtles. html Wyneken, J. 2001. The Anatomy of Sea Turtles. U. S. Department of Commerce NOAA Thechnical Memorandum NMFS-SEFSC-470, 1-172. Print Lutz, P. L. and T. B. Bentley. 1985. Respiratory Physiology of Diving in the Sea Turtle. Copeia. 3: 671-679 “Felines”. UXL Encyclopedia of Science. 2002. Encyclopedia. com. 10 November, 2012 Jaguar. OpenCrypt membership software. 2008. Web. November 9, 2012. Foss, A. Michael, et al. Cat Anatomy and Physiology”. 4-H Youth Development. 4. 3. (2008) :210-267. Print Jukofsky, Diane. Encyclopedia of Rainforests. Connecticut: Oryx Press, 2002. Alderton, David (2003). The ultimate encyclopedia of caged and aviary birds. London, England: Hermes House. p. 234. BirdLife International 2008. Ara macao. In: IUCN 2009. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2009. 1. <www. iucnredlist. org>. Brightsmith, D. 2004. “Macaws, their Nesting Sites and the Macaw Project” (On-line). Rainforest Expeditions. at http://www. perunature. com/info01. asp.

The human life cycle is essential to the world’s population. It allows individuals to create families that can change society in multiple ways and all those individuals that has the capacity to change the world has a mother. Every soon to be mother wants an easy pregnancy but most importantly hopes and prays for a healthy baby. Understanding pregnancy is important soley due to the fact its a major factor in the cycle of life. Pregnancy involves growth, development and a new beginning.

A women that is becoming pregnant with a child is also known as conceiving, this process carried out by having sexual intercourse with a male. A female ovulate an egg cell, oocytes goes down a uterine tube. During sexual intercourse male sperm moves into the vagina, which is near the female’s cervix, this occurs in the reproductive system. The sperm cell swims up the uterus and meets up with the oocyte and the process of fertilization occurs. During sexual intercourse many sperms swim towards the oocyte but only one sperm cell has the ability to fertilize the egg.

During beginning fertilization of the egg the cytoplasm triggers lysosomes vesicles that release enzymes that hard the zona pellucida so that it reduces the chance of more than one sperm can penetrates the oocytes. The egg divided then undergoes meiosis ends. The nuclei of the egg and nuclei of the sperm unite the membrane falls apart and the chromosome mingles which complete fertilization. The sperm cell and egg cell each has 23 chromosomes and during fertilization it 46 somatic cell this cell is called a zygote the first cell of the future offspring.

The Zygotes undergoes mitosis 30 hours after forming, cells division occurs rapidly. The rapid cell division is called cleavage. During cleavage tiny cells move through the uterine tubes during the time of implantation cells in the interface of the blastocyst. The cell surrounding the embryo is called the placenta this organ attaches to the embryo and uterine wall exchanges of nutrients ,gasses ,waste between maternal blood and embryo blood. The beginning of the embryonic stage the of the offspring is called an embryo. Embryonic stage ends at eight week of the prenatal development . During this ime the placenta form and major organ develops and the major external body structure appears. The cell in the inner cell mass flatten embryonic disc with two distinct layers the connection stalk attached to the embryonic disc to developed placenta farther . Ectodermic cell gives the nervous system and portions of special sensory organ ,epidermis ,hair, nail, glands of the skin. Mesodermal cell form all type of muscle tissue, bone tissue, bone marrow . blood, blood vessel, lymphatic vessel, connective tissues internal reproductive e organ , kidney and epithelial lining of body cavities.

Endodermal cells produced the epithelial lining of the digestive tract ,respiratory tract, urinary bladder and urethra . When the chronrionic villi develops the embryonic blood vessel appears. During the 4th week of development the flat embryonic disc is a cylindrical structure and head and jaws develops the hearts starts to beats and tiny buds which will become upper and lower limbs forms. At 5th to 7 week the head grow rapidly and become more rounded and face begins to develop showing eyes nose mouth and more human like.

The upper and lower limbs elongate and figure and toes appears . By the end of the seventh week all the main internal organs are present ,the structure in enlarges and the embryonic become more human like appearance . End of 8 week until birth the offspring s called a fetus. Fetal stage is the end of the eighth week of the development and last until the birthing process during this time the fetus is growing very rapidly the body proportion enlarge at a considerable rate. The beginning of the fetal stage the head is larger than the limbs are short.

During the third month the body length accelerates and the head growth slows. During the twelve week the external reproductive organ are distinguishable male or female. At the 4th month the body grows 20 cm the skeleton beginnings to ossify. The following month the skeleton muscles contracts and the pregnant woman may fell fetal movement, hair begins to appears on the head . During the 6 month the fetus gains weight and eyebrow and eyelash appear and the blood vessel in the skin give a red appearance in the fetus.

During the last trimester the fetal brain cell develops rapidly . At the end of the ninth month 266 day the fetus is full term. The fetus is around 50 center meter and weight around 2. 7kg to 3. 6 kilogram everything is well develop and the fetus head is toward the cervix. Pregnancy ends with the birthing process, during this period rapid changed occurs. Progesterone starts to decline and it suppress the uterine to contracts, this stimulated synthesis of prostanglandin the uterine contracts.

The cervix begins to thin and opens ,stretching of the uterine and vaginal tissues occurs. The nerves impulses to the hypothalamus which signals the posterior glands to release the oxytocin hormones this stimulates powerful contraction. During labor the rhythmic contraction begins ,the fetus is positioned head downward and labor contraction forces the head towards the cervix. The cervix begins to dilate and increase in oxytocin is release. As labor continues the abdominal muscles contracts and forces the fetus through the cervix and the vagina to the outside.

After the delivery of the neonatal the placenta separates the uterine walls and is expelled the birth canals. Bleeding occur after the expelling which is called the after birth. Pregnancy involves a lot of different change in the body for the mother and the baby. This occurs from unite of the male and female and a begins. The changes happen in a very rapid speed each day different development occurs . The beginning of a new family occurs between the individuals mother, father, child. This is only the beginning of the life journey, for the child. 1002 words

Muscles, skeleton and skin give the body shape and form. But it’s the muscle tissues that clearly give the features and shape of the human body. Much effort is given to muscles that it has even become a large global industry just to maintain it.

Among the specialized tissues in the body, the muscle tissue is highly specialized. Muscle tissues have contracting abilities and conducting abilities. Muscles are found to carry out electrical impulses. Voluntary muscles are differentiated from involuntary muscles. In terms of structure, muscles can either be striated or smooth. Muscles are commonly known as smooth, skeletal and cardiac.

Different organs use different kinds of muscles. Small intestines have smooth muscles. Smooth muscles are neat and form parallel lines. Intestine muscles are involuntary muscles. They contract without conscious thought. These muscles fit the intestines because digestion is not an act of will. Whether you like it or not, intestines will move according to the contents of your stomach either when they are full or empty. The uterus also has smooth muscles. Other organs such as the bladder, blood vessels and other internal organs also have involuntary muscles.

Skeletal muscles are confused to be fibres of connective tissues. Skeletal muscles are not of connective tissues because these muscles are not extracellular elements. These muscles describe the individual skeletal muscle cells. These tissues are fibres that are thin and very long. They almost look like threads like the one we see in clothing. Under the microscope, these cells are cylindrical and unbranched. The nuclei of these tissues are neatly arranged that goes around the periphery of the cell.

This neat and orderly arrangement is made up of actin and myosin filaments found inside the muscle cell. that are arranged and form large bundles are called fascicles. These bundles are enveloped with thin layers of connective. Continuous arrangements of these fascicles become parts of a particular muscle organ, for example biceps.

Cardiac muscles are almost an integration of smooth muscles and skeletal muscles. These muscle tissues make up the wall of the heart. They are striated and multinucleate like skeletal muscles however, they also seem to be smooth because their nuclei are located at the center and that a lot of cells are required to occupy the length of the muscle.

“It differs from both skeletal muscle and smooth muscle in that its cells branch and are joined to one another via intercalated discs. Intercalated discs allow communication between the cells such that there is a sequential contraction of the cells from the bottom of the ventricle to the top, facilitating maximal ejection of blood from the ventricle during contraction. This occurs with out nervous innervation to each cell or group of cells. Cardiac muscle also differs from the other two muscle types in that contraction can occur even without an initial nervous input. The cells that produce the stimulation for contraction without nervous input are called the pacemaker cells.” (Ackerley, 2006)

These three types of muscles help the body more than make it look good. There are many important benefits from proper maintenance of muscle tissues. The muscle is fit when one is strong, has endurance, is flexible and can carry out everyday tasks without injury. Keeping the muscle fit will also keep the organs fit. Programs such as weight lifting or weight bearing help the muscle build endurance and flexibility.

One need not be a weight lifter to have properly maintained muscles. Weak muscles are cause of lower back and posture-related diseases that can lead to painful problems. If the muscles are healthy, it will help the skeletons to cope up with stressful activities of the body.

Both voluntary and involuntary muscles are important to keep the body balanced. Massaging muscle tissues are almost the basic human instinct that is first aid to muscle pains. Massaging the muscles specially the ones that are in pain or are with disease is a way to increase body chemical flow in and out of the muscles. Given that muscles are smooth, skeletal or cardiac, massaging the muscles will help the muscle tissues from stagnating and being rigid.

References:

Ackerley, Sandra K. 2006. Muscles. Department of Zoology, University of Guelph, Guelph, Ontario, Canada. Retrieved April 1, 2006  <http://www.uoguelph.ca/zoology/devobio/210labs/muscle1.html>

Bourne, GH. 1960. The Structure and Function of Muscle. Academic Press

When studying the human body, there are seven organizational approaches. Each approach studies the body in a different yet unique way and is used in the health care field. The approaches consist of; body planes and directions, body cavities, quadrants and regions, anatomy and physiology, microscopic and macroscopic, body systems and medical specialties. There are three body planes which use different directions: coronal, sagittal, and transverse planes. Coronal plane slices the body from head to toe giving a front and back view.

There are two directions that are related with it; anterior posterior, moving from the outside of the body through the anterior part then the posterior section, and posterior anterior, which is its reverse. Sagittal plane cuts the body right down the middle giving a right and left view. Moving medially is to go inwards or towards the middle of the body from the outside and to go laterally is as if moving out or from the midline towards the outside of the body. Lastly, transverse plane divides the body giving a top and bottom sections. The top half is superior and the lower half is inferior.

Moving cephalad is moving superiorly, and cuadad is moving inferiorly. Radiologists would use this approach when looking at x-rays or MRI scans to distinguish how the image was taken. There are five sections of hallow space, known as cavities, in the human body, all of which carry-over each other. Starting from the head is the cranial cavity that protects the brain, then the spinal cavity that travels down the middle of the back, then in the chest is the thoracic cavity where the lungs, heart and esophagus are, next is the abdominal cavity which is around the abdominal muscles and last is the pelvic cavity where the hip bones lay.

An ultrasound technician would use this approach when projecting images from inside the body cavity onto the screen. The approach to use quadrants and regions is to divide up the abdominopelvic area into four parts, which are quadrants, and then into nine parts out of that which give you regions. (“Scribd. com”, 2010) This method can be used as a reference to where the organs are located in which area. For instance, in the left lower quadrant is the lower part of the kidney, part of the colon, and the left ovary for women. This type of diagram would help ith position the organs. In the health field, physicians refer to this during an internal exam. According to “Degreedirectory. org” (1999), anatomy studies the structure of organs and cells. Since cells are a microscopic size the best way to study, using this approach is with a microscope, which is, a tool used to examine cells. Physiology is the study of the function of organ and cells. Organs are of a macroscopic size that means it can be seen with the naked eye. These approaches can be used in many ways in health care.

An orthopedic would study muscles and tendons or an immunologist would study blood cells using a microscope. The human body is made up of several different types of systems. This means that each system is made up of a few organs, which synchronize with one another and work as a unit. Organs are unable to perform without the help of the other organs in their unit. All of the organs support one another to perform their functions. The gastrointestinal system breaks down the foods we eat into protein, vitamins, fats and carbohydrates, which is used for energy, growth and repair.

The organs in the respiratory system are the nose, trachea and lungs. These organs help bring air into the body and eliminate the carbon dioxide. There is a system that acts as a defense called the lymphatic system and runs through the whole body. This system’s main function is to make white blood cells that act as disease fighting antibodies. The integumentary system consists of the skin, hair, nails, glands, and nerves. This system’s main function is to act like a barrier to guard the body from the outside world. The skeletal system protects the organs.

It is made up of bones, ligaments, joints and tendons. It gives support and structure to the body and a place for muscle attachment and movement. In other words, it holds the body up. Without the skeletal system the human body would be unable to walk or stand up. The muscular system works with the skeletal system to control the movement of the human body. There are two types of muscles; ones that are voluntary such as moving an arm or leg and ones that are involuntary and act on their own such as the beating of a heat or stomach.

Our body is made up of different systems. All of these systems collaborate together to make our human body function properly. Without all of these we wouldn’t be able to go through life normally. If you take just one away, the whole body will cease to work properly. The main systems are the nervous, respiratory, circulatory, immune, digestive, excretory, skeletal, muscular, and the reproductive system. One of them is the respiratory system. This is the system that deals with breathing and the respiration process. They all work together in harmony and unison to keep us alive.

The respiratory system, transports air to our lungs and diffuses oxygen into our blood. It also removes carbon dioxide. This system is also known as the “Gas Exchange System”. You inhale oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide. There are four processes. The first, is breathing in with your nose, the air then travels down your windpipe. Then the diaphragm, which flattens out making the lungs expand and fill with air. Afterwards, the air travels to our lungs into the bronchi.

The alveoli allow oxygen to be passed into the red blood cells while the carbon dioxide is getting diffused out. The system consists of the nose, pharynx, larynx, trachea, lungs, and diaphragm. In the lungs are bronchi, bronchides, and alveoli. The nose filters, moistens, and warms the air. The pharynx is where the trachea and the esophagus divide into two.

The larynx is the voice box. The trachea is the windpipe where air travels from the throat to the lungs. The bronchi are the major air passages that lead to lungs and that diverge from the windpipe. The lungs are a pair of organs that consists of two elastic sacs with two passages. That is where the oxygen gets absorbed and the carbon dioxide removed. The diaphragm plays a major role in breathing, because it increases the volume of the chest and inflates the lungs. Alveoli are located in the bronchioles. The bronchioles are bronchi that divide into narrower bronchioles and the decreased airflow of one who has asthma. The respiratory system serves an essential purpose to the human body.

Invertebrates Jellyfish The Jellyfish are truly a wonder of nature. They have always been objects of deep observation and admiration. Not to mention the fact, that they are also considered in great awe, fear and even repulsion by some folks. The repulsion and fear have originated from the fact that these creatures can be quite beautiful to behold, but extremely painful when stung by them. These marine creatures are classified under the group of Cnidarians. They typically have a soft jelly like consistency to their body, prompting the people to call them as Jellyfish. There are numerous surprises in store, when we deal with Jellyfishes.

The first and foremost of the surprise is the vast reservoir of chemical factories, inside the tiny body. Though this creature does not have a vertebral column, a proper demarcation of body and head, and not even a brain, yet this Jellyfish is seen to possess numerous different chemicals, some of which are extremely toxic and poisonous too. Next in store for the observer or the scientist is the next surprise, which is the fluorescent quality of these creatures. The Jellyfish possess a chemical protein inside their body fluid, called as aequorin, which was derived from the species of Jellyfish called as Aequorea Victoria.

The GFP or the green fluorescent protein was derived from this protein. Both these proteins have a property of photo luminescence, which means lighting up in the dark, and also the property of fluorescence. Then there are the Neon Jellyfish which are also called as rainbow Jellyfish. These do not produce any photo luminescent protein as such. But yet they manage to shine or light up in the dark. They possess a hair like structure called cilia which help in their motility. The light which falls on these cilia is reflected back and this simple property of light reflection makes these rainbow Jellyfish fluorescent.

Cycloporus Venetus (Blue Flatworm) FLATWORMS – UMMM. THEY’RE FLAT We have to run out of steam there. But that’s the one obvious connection between all of the worms in this group. Sure we can tell you that there are over 20,000 known species. Most of the species are parasitic. They are super-primitive organisms that were the first to develop mesoderm. The big thing you should remember is that they are flat. There may be one more fact to remember. They are found in every environment that has water. Many scientists believe there are hundreds of species we will still discover. BASIC TYPES

You’ll learn about a few classic examples of flatworms in your classes. Tapeworms are always a nasty example. They live in intestinal tracts of many species. Cats, dogs, and even you could wind up with tapeworms. You’ll also hear about flukes. It’s another parasitic species that has a close relationship with man and other mammals. They are suckers in the flatworm family. Planaria are harmless flatworms that are often used in your biology labs. They are freshwater flatworms that have a head like an arrow. They’re black with two white spots on their heads. Those spots are not eyes, but they do sense light.

Flatworms have very simple nervous systems. WHERE WILL YOU FIND THEM? If you find water, there’s a good chance flatworms will be around. Most are very small and not obvious immediately. Flatworms get most of their oxygen through diffusion. Since they have no specialized circulatory system, their flatness gives them a greater surface area to absorb more oxygen. There are species in many freshwater and saltwater environments as well as inside larger organisms. While we made them seem easy to find, it’s sometimes very hard to track them down. Since many flatworms are parasites, they have lifecycles in different hosts.

Eggs many be deposited in the feces of one species. Another organism might eat those eggs and development begins in the digestive system. The flatworm might then mature in the muscle tissue. Flatworms can get around. SOME STRUCTURE STUFF Although really simple, flatworms have some advanced structures compared to some other animals. They were the first species to develop mesoderm. That mesoderm tissue develops into organs and muscles as the organism grows. They also have simple nervous systems and sensory organs. While they don’t have a respiratory system or circulatory system to speak of, they do have a neat little digestive system.

Most species of flatworms have no anus and a cavity with only one opening. While not all species do, many flatworm species use a mouth to eat. The only problem with no anus is that the stuff you don’t digest has to go out the mouth when you’re done. Other materials that need to be removed from the system can be excreted through specialized cells called flame cells. Flame cells are the first appearance of excretory ducts in organisms. Flame cells have cilia that beat and filter out materials that the flatworm wants to get rid of.