Belief

Mills, Schudson, and Gitlin show different approaches to society and the role of mass media. Each approach helps illustrate a different focus on society. They each hold special relevance in a discussion of the history of societal beliefs. The Mass Society refers to the overall belief C. Wright Mills held in relation to the type of society he believed we live in.

Mills began The Power Elite with a bold statement saying, “The powers of ordinary men are circumscribed by the everyday words in which they live, yet even in these rounds of job, family, and neighborhood they often seem driven by forces they can neither understand nor govern” (Mills, 1956, p. 3). This opening sentence helps describe the attitude and beliefs of the entire book. A “power elite” exists in a society that is made up of three spheres. They are divided into economy, political, and military, with the same group of people interchanging between the three.

This large group of elite is at the top making all the decisions, while the masses are at the bottom, unaware of the process that molds public opinion. Masses within this view of society are irrelevant and do not have any type of influence. The media functions as an entertainment source, keeping the masses entertained while the elite is taking care of all the important matters. It helps keep the reality and truth of the world obscured from the masses.

Mills explained what the media does for the masses as “they distract him and obscure his chance to understand himself or his world, by fastening his attention upon artificial frenzies that are revolved within the program framework, usually by violent action or by what is called humor” (Mills, p. 315). This helps illuminate how the mass media guides, tries to control, and manipulates the masses. Mills describes the effect of mass media as “a sort of psychological illiteracy” to the extent that we “often do not believe what we see before us until we read about it in the paper or hear about it on the radio” (Mills, p. 311).

The masses “standards of credulity, standards of reality, tend to be set by these media rather than by ‘the masses’ own fragmentary experience” (Mills p. 311). Mass media’s role helps prevent the questioning of the elite. “Families and churches and schools adapt to modern life; governments and armies and corporations shape it; and, as they do so, they turn these lesser institutions into means for their ends” (Mills, p. 6). The family into which someone was born or marries into helps improve or decrease their social status. The school where one is educated or the church where one worships also plays a major role in the social standing.

Schools teach skills to the masses that enable them to function in society. Institutions shape life and the masses adapt to what institutions create. The masses in the theory are very disorganized and not connected to others. An excellent way to describe to masses can be shown by watching The Twilight Zone movie. It is a state of total confusion for everyone, with each doing their own thing. The elite enjoy the state of confusion with the masses, because they are able to control the major decisions that must be made. They determine the policies and the people enlist in them.

In the mass society, the elite control the policies and ways of thinking for the confused masses. Schudson approaches the nature of society in a much different way, through the idea of the democratic society. In Discovering the News, he discussed “an even distribution of income” and described the 1800’s as “more people acquired wealth and political power ‘bringing’ with them a zeal for equal opportunity that led to the expansion of public education” (Schudson, 1978, p. 44). When looking at society as a whole, you have them socially, economically, and politically integrated. Economic development was promoted and shared by many rather than few” (Schudson, p. 45). The press does not cause, but picks up elements, reflects, and builds from a democratic society. “The democratization of economic life brought with it attitudes that stressed economic gain to the exclusion of social aims; business practice more regularly began to reward strictly economic ties over broader ones” (Schudson, p. 46). Schudson believed that society was grounded in the perception of society, with the middle class dominating and developing.

Media’s relationship with its audience helped sustain them, but it did not create the worldview. The media cannot be proven to have many effects on society, and the ones that exist have to do with advertising as a cultural institution. Advertising functions more as a way of celebrating products and buying. It functions to remind and refocus as it orients people to the world and let them know that others share the same views. Advertising reminds us of things in society and reinforces some social trends. The trends and cultural symbols make us aware while reminding us of what we already know.

Objectivity occurred in writings as a response to a problem, not as a correct way to see the world. “As our minds become deeply aware of their own subjectivism, we find a zest in objective method that is not otherwise there” (Schudson, p. 151). Objectivity developed in response to crisis, when journalism became so overwhelmed with subjectivity. There are three views in reference to objectivity. “The first view, then, holds that form conceals content in the news story. A second position is that form constitutes content, that the form of the news story incorporates its own bias.

A third sees the form of a news story, not as a literacy form, but as a social form tightly constrained by the routines of new gathering” (Schudson, pp. 184-185). The “moral wars” in journalism showed each class held differing beliefs on what was acceptable. The Times wrote a speech by Reverend Dr. W. H. P. Faunce saying: “The press engages in a fearful struggle, one class against another. On one side stands the reputable papers and on the other, is what calls itself the new journalism, but which is in reality as old as sin itself” (Schudson, p. 114).

Class conflict was the main reason for problems inside the newspaper industry. Different societal classes produced different types of newspapers. Schudson tracks the middle class because he fells it is the most important. He said the press emerged to serve the middle class audience. Schudson said the political aspects of society went from public to private. Reality was public, but became more concerned with what the individual was thinking instead of what everyone was thinking. Voting was one area effected by this new political and reality change.

People began to vote in secrecy, such as in the separate voting booth presently used. This new secrecy allowed people to make decisions on their own instead of relying on others. Gitlin discusses how many aspects of society are the result of hegemony, defined as “the name given to a ruling class’s domination through ideology, through the shaping of popular consent” (Gitlin, 1980, p. 9). “Hegemony is a historical process in which one picture of the world is systematically prefered over others, usually through practical routines and at times through extraordinary measures” (Gitlin, p. 57). Society is maintained by hegemony instead of class structure. This type of society is possible because it has a common reality, shared language, common cultural forms like mass media, shared government, common education and religion, and common transportation. Hegemony says we live in a society where all ideas are not treated equally. As a result, we are predisposed to accept some views and slower to accept others. It is not a conspiracy theory but it holds that everyone is doing their job. The ideas of the dominant in society are being told.

If someone outside the dominate group feels their idea is right, they must do something out of the ordinary to get attention. The dominate class is not particularly the elite or the middle class, but it is the group whose ideas are most important to be heard in society. We grow up in a world that already has meaning; we must therefore decide where we belong. In return, society produces the kind of people it needs. Many people spend their lives trying to figure out where to belong. The routines of journalists are the main way standardized frames are put into reporting. These routines are structured in the ways journalists are socialized from childhood, and then trained, recruited, assigned, edited, rewarded, and promoted on the job; they decisively shape the ways in which news is defined, events are considered newsworthy, and ‘objectivity’ is secured” (Gitlin, pp. 11-12). People think the world is being reported, but it is actually being created. Mills, Schudson, and Gitlin share few beliefs in relation to the nature of society. Each believes that separate social classes exist and that each class relates to society in a much different way.

They also agree that problems do occur within society and its current division, but at that point their beliefs begin to diverge. Mills and Gitlin are the most similar among the three. They both believe there is a separation between one dominate class and the masses. Mills believes the one dominate is the elite and Gitlin does not feel it is any particular social class. Schudson, on the other hand, believes there are separate classes with the middle the most important. The most persuasive is a combination of Schudson and Gitlin. Different times make the separation on which is most important.

Schudson is correct in saying the media and society play off each other. Things which occur in society would not be made as important without the media stressing its importance and society tuning in to hear the details. Gitlin is also very true in his beliefs of hegemony with a ruling class being dominate over society. The world in which we live is very centered around the fact that one group’s ideas are heard through the media more often than that of others. The nature of society is explained differently when looking at Mills, Schudson, and Gitlin. Each person is very persuasive in the views they express.

There are also weaknesses that exist in some of the views. Gitlin’s hegemony comes across as the most persuasive of the ideas. It can explain most things in society that the other two cannot. Society is complex in every way, but hegemony helps make it more simple to understand. References Gitlin, Todd. (1980). The Whole World Is Watching. Berkeley: University of California Press. Mills, C. Wright. (1956). The Power Elite. London: Oxford University Press. Schudson, Micheal. (1978). Discovering the News: A Social History of American Newspapers. USA: Basic Books.

Modern Native American life has changed drastically from that of what it used to be. One can only imagine how incredibly hard life would have been in the late 1800s without the help of modern technology. In James Welch’s book, Fool’s Crow, one not only learns what the Western United States was like in the late 1800s, but can also grasp the ways of early Native Americans. Fools Crow, the main character in the book, portrays exactly what the average Indian boy of his day was like. He had strong family values, faithful religious beliefs, and knew his direction in life. Unfortunately this is not so true for most Native Americans of today.

Many current Indians are suffering from poor family structure, lack of education, and loss of religious beliefs. Family structure was one of the most important aspects of life for Native Americans of the 1800s. Back then there was almost no difference between an Indian man or woman’s fifth cousins and his or hers sister. Both were treated the same, and both were respected immensely. But now the family structure of Native Americans has diminished. The communication between the majority of parents to children is very slim, if any, and many young Native Americans don’t even have contact with there grandparents and other extended family.

In Fools Crow’s generation it was very common to often have ceremonies where all members of a family were expected to attend, whether they were a grandparent or a brother. This failure of family structure in modern Indians has caused many individuals to lack security and subsidity. Education is a problem among Native Americans as well. It used to be that when a young Native American turned a certain age it was his or her duty to learn the ways of survival. For boys it was hunting and learning to provide for his future family.

For the women it was learning various duties such as cooking, tanning hides, and caring for the children. Indians used to educate themselves in order to survive as a team. Each person learned to do his or her specific duty in order to prosper individually, and as a tribe or band. But now education is substantially different. It still focuses on the essentials for survival and the need for one to prosper as an individual, but it lacks what white people are learning. Teachers on reservations are often the product of poor education themselves, and have nothing to offer young Native Americans.

One of the most prominent problems, however, is that reservations can’t afford to hire quality teachers to educate their children. Thus, there continues to be uneducated Native Americans, which, in turn, causes this misfortunate cataclysm to continue. Another, and most important, aspect for a specific group of people to thrive, is religion. Ever since the first civilized human lived, there was religion. For most people, religion is the glue that holds their life together. It helps to provide purpose and meaning to all life.

Native Americans of the 1800s, and before then, held very strongly to their beliefs. Religion was in everything they did. Whether it was planting crops or going on a big hunt, religion was the key to it. But now the Native American’s religious beliefs have faded dramatically. Most of today’s Indian youths no longer believe or practice the religion of their ancestors. Without religion, modern Native Americans find themselves insecure in what their purpose in life is and they often lack moral responsibility as well.

The key to possibly fixing this problem is to educate young Native Americans about what their people used to believe in, and what role it played back then. With some good leadership skills and a lot of enlightening, maybe the old Indian religion will be fully restored to what it once was. In conclusion, Native American culture is rapidly being destroyed. Modern Native Americans have lost what it takes to keep a culture alive; religion, structure, and education. If Native Americans are once again going to flourish as a ethnic society, people need to do whatever they can to help build back the essential parts of Native American life.

First , casinos play a big part in alluring people to play. Their flashy signs, lights, and even the e sound of people winning can be attractive even to the casual gamblers. Secondly, ca Sino can be found everywhere. There are thousands of casinos, making it convenience NT. One recent USA statistic shows that 70,000 to 105,000 citizens have financial probe ms caused by gambling and many were already broke before becoming addicted. Additionally, the gamblers family and friends are also affected.

An addicted GA ambler can use all the funds available to them, causing family financial problems. So we can see that gambling can be very addictive, and each person should assess why t hey are gambling. Most gamblers usually can’t rationally see their addiction. Therefore e, it is sometimes better if family or friends intervene. Depression, distress, migraines and anxiety related disorders are effects of GA ambling. But why do people still gamble if it can have such severe effects and consensus encase? Well, consider that casinos have positive benefits.

One belief is that casinos AR e good for our economy or gambling can fill some emotional or psychological need. Many people don’t understand when someone becomes addicted to gambling, there ex.’s not always an easy fix for the addiction. Also, gambling doesn’t have a “low percept mintage” of winning. This is why many people think they II win a lot of money or recover their losses, because there’s a good opportunity to win. The problem is, it’s just as easy to lose. If you play 5 times, you might win 2 of those times and 3 times you’ll wall k out with nothing.

The gambler’s only thoughts are about trying to win again, and t hey get addicted to that feeling; so its easy to see the appeal and how it keeps you go ins even when you continue to lose. What can we do to stop or reduce gambling in our world? Before you help 10th errs, help yourself. Ask yourself if you’d ever think about gambling and if it would be any DOD for you? Would you gamble to relieve stress, to have fun or for a onetime eve NT? Next, you could always seek help from God.

Praying about the people addicted and knowing what we can do to help them is one step towards making the world a little bit better. Furthermore, we can spread the truth about gambling. Casinos are profitable from gamblers based on positive beliefs about gambling and we should raise aware knees of gambling effects and assist those who are addicted. 1 Timothy 6:10 says “The e love of money is the root of all evil. ” Those who are rich in this world should not 10 eve money ore than God, who already provides us with everything for our enjoyment.

Although money is a necessity to live, it should not be the main pursuit in our lives. Our main focus should be on God and our faith towards Him. Gambling is legal in many places which makes it easily accessible and is a maim contributor to the addiction problem. Perhaps the casinos and government c loud better monitor the casinos to help the gamblers. If you are considering gambling so onetime, think about what you are supporting, how it could affect your life, and maybe what you could do to help someone you know whose gambling too much.

Philosophy of Health Care for Women The enhancement of my philosophy of health care for women, through a re- examination of my original three specific concepts emotional, social and spiritual which I would blend with my knowledge that I have gained In this course. Also, how it Is related to the actual clinical care of women. At the end of this quarter, my philosophy of health care for women as expanded. The health of the women In any society Is the most essential piece of the health care system In countries around the world.

I still believe that the health and well-being of women will determine the future empowerment and economic strength of women-owned businesses In the communities. This Is also the belief of Wall-Mart’s (2011) global women’s economic empowerment Initiative to Improve elite of women and children. It often Involves the empowered developing confidence In their own capacities, In caring for themselves and their families in order to feel empowered. According to Kali (2008) empowerment refers to increasing the spiritual, political, social and economic strength of individuals in the communities.

The important part of this empowerment process is helping women understand how their bodies work. Self-Knowledge on a physical and emotional level helps women feel in control of the things that can be controlled. During my clinical care of women this quarter my preceptor and myself encounter a lot of women want to and do make their own decisions. For an example one of our patients took the decisions upon herself that she does not want Pesaro in for support uterine prolapsed.

She is 31 years old, GIG 3, PIP. Her religion would not allow her to use any preventive contraceptive. Instead of doing surgery or putting foreign thing in her body she stated that, she still believe that her God will heal her by doing exercise and come back for follow-up in six weeks. In this situation it took gentle, yet firm, teaching of practical skills, informing all of the options of care, and much encouragement to dealt with the care of the woman.

I see my role as a women’s health nurse practitioner, as an assistant to the autonomous decision making process of Informed consent; to lay out the options of care for women, answer their questions, give my opinion upon asking, and support heir decision, is the most Important, empowering step In actualization women’s autonomy. As I mentioned before In my first paper that, we look at our bodies, minds, emotions and spirit as If each part Is fully separate from the other rather than totally Intertwined.

Western society rewards specialization, the examination of a piece of the whole, Gurus (2001 Every society In the world has felt the need to thoroughly socialize Its citizens Into conformity with Its norms, and colleens derive many benefits technology reflects and perpetuates the value and belief system that underlies it. Pregnancy and chill tidbit is a crucial time in a woman’s elite tort near to explore empowerment.

For an example, one of the books that I read this quarter in the Conceptual Frameworks for Women’s Health course by Robbie Davis-Floyd (2004), has written a brilliant feminist analysis of childbirth rites of passage in American culture. These rites, she argues take away women’s power over their bodies, naturally designed to bring life into the world and for no physiological reason give it to the medical system. She believes that society, intimidated by women’s ability to give earth, has designed obstetrical rituals that are far more complex than natural childbirth itself in order to deliver what is from nature into culture.

Finally, my philosophy of health care for women at the end of this course is that, women deserve the best that is available in modern medicine; the technocratic, humanistic, and holistic models of medicine also, combined with clear communication and education through the best evidence-based research from health care providers

In this phase processes applicable include; interviews and team selections/dynamics. Interviews not only help to give insight as to the general view of the participants in the study, but also serve as a measure of which goals they expect to obtain within the process. Actually, five interviews of those identified as relevant to the objectives of the study were conducted. These were; the Newtown Council Chief Executive –Raymond Mackenzie, the Newtown Council Director of Leisure and Recreation – Archie Fleming, Alistair Riley – Project Architect from the technical department of Newtown Council, Dr.

Jamie MacDonald – the Community Medical Doctor and finally the Director of Housing Newtown Council. A participant’s expectation may vary from a personal perspective to that of his/her organizational interests. In addition, the interview set standards for the project as to value of principles of management. Another activity in this phase will involve with the assistance of the facilitator the team building through the ACID test technique as the best mode of team selection and composition.

According to Kelly and Male (2004), ACID is an acronym for Authorize, Inform, Consult and Do. Firstly, it seeks to identify who has authority to take decisions appropriate to the stage of the development of the project. Secondly, identify which expert to include for consultation on particular aspects regarding the projects. Thirdly, identify who to avoid those only to be informed of decisions made. And fourthly, identify those who can carry out major tasks specified. The group also made an evaluation of a similar facility.

The team then made a site tour to the intended location of the Old Cross community within the Newtown council to identify and appropriate venue selection. The preparation of the agenda for the workshop phase takes place and team members are selected and notified of the workshop. Here information is gathered and analysis of existing information conducted as well as and a tour of the project site. The duration suggested for this level is one week and 4 days. An interval before the next level will last for 2 weeks.

International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 45 Carrying Cultural Baggage: the contribution of socio-cultural anthropology to cross-cultural coaching Barbara St Claire-Ostwald, CINCRA International Coaching & Training Consultancy, UK Email Contact: barbara@cincra. com Abstract This study examines the cultural awareness of professionals working in organisations.

Given the multicultural nature of today’s workforce, it is becoming increasingly important for companies and coaches alike to take into account how cross-cultural differences may affect daily working practices. The study draws on a review of current research into cultural dimensions and looks at the complex relationship between personality and culture – our ‘cultural baggage’. In order to explore the opinions and cultural awareness of participants, a questionnaire was developed.

The purpose of the questionnaire was to identify themes and orientations to cross-cultural issues in terms not only of communality but also of paradoxes. The results highlighted a high level of recognition of cultural dilemmas and a perceived need and willingness to address and reconcile them. However, the diversity of opinions about the potential benefits of specific methods of addressing cultural dilemmas suggested considerable uncertainly about dealing with cross cultural issues.

Key Words: Cross-cultural, cultural baggage, cultural dimensions, coaching, mentoring, socio-cultural anthropology Introduction The aim of this paper is to report on the results of a study designed to explore the emerging discipline of cross-cultural coaching (Rosinski 2003) and to establish the levels of awareness about, and attitudes to cross-cultural issues; the patterns and/or relationships between awareness, attitudes and cultural dimensions among businesses and business consultants, coaches, mentors and coaching/mentoring organisations.

I began this study from the perspective that while there has been some research into mentoring and coaching, there appeared to be little that focussed specifically on cross-cultural influences. In my review of the available literature, it became increasingly clear that the integration of a cultural perspective into coaching was very much at the ‘pioneering’ stage. The main aims of this study were to try and establish levels of awareness bout, and attitudes to cross-cultural issues; and to study the patterns and/or relationships between awareness, attitudes and the cultural dimensions developed by Hofstede and Trompenaars and HampdenTurner among businesses and business consultants, and coaching organisations. Cross-cultural coaching addresses the way in which cultural differences affect the daily lives of people, and raises awareness of cultural differences and the effect they can have on the process of managing others and doing business in general.

In today’s global economy organisations understand that to sustain successful and resilient businesses and to keep their competitive edge, they must develop employees who understand their global business, and employ people with global skills. Rosinski (2003) and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997) have developed pioneering work in cross-cultural competencies and coaching methods. At a fundamental level, their International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 46 work has been based on the works of socio-cultural anthropologists Hofstede (1980) and Schwartz (1994).

Their contribution in overcoming cultural miscommunication, tension and conflict, including the perils of stereotyping and ‘mono-culturalism’, has helped to formulate and explore the hypothesis of this study. Cultural baggage: a by-product of cultural systems Socio-anthropological thinking is based on the premise that all humans are born with the same basic physical characteristics, but depending on where they grow up, each individual is exposed to different climates, foods, languages, religious beliefs etc.

Therefore, ‘are we really self-made or did our parents, teachers, families and friends have a hand in it? ’ (Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner, 1997, p. 54). Thus, one could argue that the socioanthropological perspective on culture takes a holistic view, describing culture as a pattern of learned and shared behaviours of people and/or groups consisting of belief systems and languages; and of social relationships be they personal, organisational, or institutional. (Hall, 1963; Hall and Hall, 1987; Hofstede, 1980; Kondo, 1990; Levi-Strauss, 1966; Schwartz, 1994).

Therefore, at a fundamental level, it could be argued that culture is a representation of a complete way of life of a people who share the same attitudes, values and practices. Csikszentmihalyi (1997, p. 7) makes the distinction of ‘identity’ by using snowflakes as a metaphor: “They look identical as they fall, but taking a closer look, we soon discover that they are not identical”. Hence, he argues, rather than seeing identity as a single unitary self, perhaps cultural identity should be viewed as being multi-faceted, i. e. cknowledging that people have a number of selves or identities depending on context and setting. For example, the biggest barrier individuals and/or employees encounter is not necessarily that they come from different parts of the world, or that they speak a different language or even occupy a different physical space, it is the baggage they carry in their own cultural suitcases which needs to be explored. Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner maintain that what people expect depends on where they come from, and the meanings they give to what they have or are experiencing.

They argue that “expectations occur on many different levels, from concrete, explicit level to implicit and subconscious ones” (1997, p. 21). Furthermore, they describe culture as consisting of various layers: …The outer layers are the products and artefacts that symbolise the deeper, more basic values and assumptions about life. The different layers are not independent from one another, but are complementary […]. The shared meanings that are the core of the culture are man-made; are incorporated into people within a culture yet transcend the people in culture. (1997, p. 7) Cross-cultural dilemmas Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner argue that “Every culture distinguishes itself from others by the specific solutions it chooses to certain problems which reveal themselves as dilemmas” (p. 8); to this end, they have incorporated best management theories into their own analysis of the task of managing across cultures. These theories were realized by using a participant questionnaire profiler, which was based on their Seven Dimensions of Culture model and by incorporating Trompenaars and Woolliams framework for managing change across cultures.

Similarly, Rosinski points out the dangers of our assumptions and beliefs systems when working with coachees from varying origins and backgrounds. He argues that by providing a framework for integrating coaching and cultural perspectives, i. e. examining numerous International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 47 cultural orientations, styles and approaches to coaching, the development of a cross-cultural mindset will be facilitated.

For example, he writes: Our identity could be viewed as this personal and dynamic synthesis of multiple cultures. Our behaviour will typically vary depending on the group we happen to be associated with [. …]. The fact that our behaviours depend in part on the particular cultural context further justifies the need for coaches to integrate the cultural perspective into their practice. In some cases the obstacle to someone’s progress may be cultural rather than psychological, thus calling for a different coaching dialogue. p. 1) Furthermore, he maintains that cultural awareness is more than just realizing another culture is different from our own; it is also about learning to value that other culture. He argues that culture is behind our behaviour, and often without our realization. It can influence how close we stand, how loud we speak, how we deal with conflict and as a result, by failing to understand how culture impacts our needs and preferences, culture can often lead us to misinterpret behaviour.

Methodology As the research was exploratory, I focussed the design on two main aspects: the initial review of literature which drew on a broad array of coaching and socio-anthropological theories and studies, and the less extensive, but nevertheless in-depth cross-cultural coaching work of Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner (1997), and Rosinski (2003). In turn, this provided the basis for the primary research, which took the form of a questionnaire which was sent to a small expert survey sample to identify cross-cultural themes and patterns.

To ensure that survey participants had some recognizable expertise on the subject under investigation, I adopted the model in (Fig. 1) below. On the one hand, I was attempting to quantify levels of awareness of cross-cultural issues, as well as to explore the accompanying opinions, beliefs and assumptions, and how they relate to the dimensions of culture. I was also trying to make sure that the survey respondents would have an interest in this particular area of study. Fig. Survey Sample and Questionnaire Model Corporate/Business Consultants Awareness Opinions Coaching Organisations The survey sample was not only limited in size, but also in terms of the geographical make-up of the participants, who were mostly from the U. K. with the rest from continental Europe. By International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 48 extension it would be difficult to generalise from the results, however, this was not the intention of the study.

While gender could also be a factor which might influence attitudes and responses, the exploratory nature of the study precluded it from being a controlled variable at this point, although this issue could form the basis for further research. The purpose of the initial questionnaire was to elicit the opinions of the survey participants in order to identify themes and orientations to cross-cultural issues, in terms of communality as well as potential paradoxes.

It was also intended to see how these opinions and orientations fitted with responses to questions about the various cultural dimensions identified and developed by Hofstede and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner. The questionnaire was therefore divided into two parts. The first section addressed the opinions about attitudes, values and behaviours pertaining to culture in general, cultural dilemmas and, to crosscultural coaching and training specifically.

I also decided to use a number of similar questions to check for inconsistencies in responses, which might indicate either a paradox in terms of opinions, possibly a conflict between a ‘norm’ and a given individual’s personal view, or could reflect a lack of appreciation for, or indeed indifference to, a given issue. The second section of the questionnaire was constructed on the basis of Hofstede’s and Trompenaars and Hampden-Turner’s cultural dimensions, and sought to elicit culture-specific values, beliefs and assumptions which could influence cross-cultural interaction within a professional environment.

Results, discussions and recommendations In analyzing the responses to the questionnaire, it was evident that there was a high level of recognition of the importance of cross-cultural issues, and the need to address and reconcile them. However it was very difficult to define or quantify levels of cultural awareness, which was to some extent unsurprising given the complexity of the issues involved. But as I outlined in the methodology, a major objective was also to explore the quality of awareness and understanding of cultural dilemmas and dimensions.

In this respect, the first section of the questionnaire (on attitudes to culture and potential cross-cultural training solutions) was very instructive in terms of perceptions about the relationship between culture and personality. In my opinion, the most notable contrast was that there was considerably greater agreement that culture shapes the personality and a lot more uncertainty about how the individual shapes culture. This impression was further reinforced by the general agreement that managers from different cultures do not necessarily find it easy to adapt their behaviour to fit the different needs of another culture.

From a coaching perspective, it suggests some attention needs to be paid to how an individual perceives and relates to his/her culture. For example, there is a clear difference between seeing culture as providing a framework for social interaction, which is constantly evolving, and on the other hand perceiving culture as providing a set of social constraints. In either case, there may be some elements of our culture, which at an individual level are considered to be important in our everyday lives, while there are others which may be difficult to accept, which could be sources of tension with other members of our culture.

Given that such perceptions may be operating partly at a subconscious level, this may not be easy to establish. But they appear to me to be a significant element in the process of gaining a better understanding of our cultural baggage, i. e. in how we synthesize the myriad of cultural groupings to which we are exposed on a daily basis. There was greater diversity of opinion about the benefits of specific cross-cultural training solutions, and when, where and how they might be applied.

The initial conclusion that can be drawn is this shows that the process of integrating the cross-cultural domain into both business and coaching practice is still at an early stage of development. International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 49 As far as improving the general awareness and understanding of the benefits of cross-cultural training, three sets of responses in the first section seem to me to define some of the issues that need to be addressed.

Firstly the fact that half of the respondents believed that cultural issues within organisations are dealt with only if they relate to behavioural issues is indicative of a certain level of resistance to dealing with these issues, which may be due to an appreciation of the complexity of such issues. On the other hand, if cultural issues in some organisations are only addressed when there is a behavioural conflict, then this will tend to cast them in a negative light.

Hence it does lead to the conclusion that some organisations are not sufficiently aware that ignoring and playing down cultural differences, as well as evaluating them negatively, is a major contributor to miscommunication, misunderstanding and conflict. Secondly, while coaches largely agreed that business managers recognise that diversity training should now include cross-cultural training for employees sent on global assignments, the business organisation responses were much divided.

This leads me to conclude that some businesses are either unaware, or possibly not persuaded of the benefits of this specific approach. Nevertheless this set of responses, and the fact that none of the respondents disagreed that incorporating the dilemmas deriving from the differences in cultural dimensions help organisations to integrate their cultural orientations suggests that the key area of uncertainty among businesses and coaches is the method and/or models of integrating cultural dilemmas.

The point that this suggests to me is, that before any attempt is made to develop the skills necessary to negotiate the differences between cultures, a greater awareness of how we negotiate difference in our own culture is required. This is to say we need to be more consciously and self-critically aware of the assumptions that underlie our habitual responses and modes of interaction, in other words our cultural baggage. In principal this is already the main focus of traditional coaching and mentoring.

But I believe considerably more research needs to be conducted into how these methods and skills can be developed to take account of and integrate cross-cultural issues and dilemmas. From national to cross-cultural perspectives Cross-cultural research has largely focused on national differences because it is much easier to establish a person’s nationality, than to identify him/her as belonging to another type of cultural grouping, be that regional, professional, political, economic or social.

The most frequently cited reason is that a given individual will be a member of numerous forms of socalled sub-cultures or higher level cultures (e. g. European), which in effect rules them out as unique independent variables. But I believe that without exercising some control for the effect of these ‘other’ cultural variables, it is difficult to be sure that attributing a given behaviour, belief, value or attitude expressed by an individual to national cultural influences is theoretically or empirically valid.

For example, even at a national level, there has to be particular care to acknowledge the difference between ethnically diverse nations such as Canada or Malaysia; ethnically and/or religiously divided nations such as Belgium or the former Yugoslavia, or relatively homogeneous nations such as Japan or Korea, let alone very complex national cultures such as China or India. In essence, this does nothing more than acknowledge that socio-cultural anthropology is the study of the dilemmas and problems of differences and similarities not only between, but also within societies.

In the specific context of this study, one of the most interesting aspects of the responses to the second section of the questionnaire on cultural dimensions was the differences in opinions both within and between coaches and business organisations. My original intention in including a section on cultural dimensions was to explore the relationship between these responses and those on the first section of the questionnaire. But the differences of opinions between the two sets of respondents on ‘universalism vs. particularism’ and ‘individualism vs. ommunitarianism’ (Fig. 6) suggested to me that I had to consider whether these opinions in some way reflected values that were influenced by the differing needs and requirements of the corporate and coaching environments. I cannot conclude whether this was the key influence International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 50 on these responses. However I do think this emphasizes that it is tenuous to assume that the responses to such value dimensions questionnaires can be ascribed largely to national culture.

I also believe that the way that corporate and professional culture influences our habits and values requires a great deal more in-depth research. For example, it might be interesting to establish whether there are differences in the responses to a cultural dimensions questionnaire between professional groups, e. g. doctors, police officers, computer programmers, sports professionals, etc. , and how these compare to national differences. However, it also has to be acknowledged that the difficulty of drawing any definite conclusions about key influences is clearly a limitation to the use of questionnaires in general.

This does suggest it would have been preferable to be able to expand and explore the data that was generated by the questionnaires via follow-up interviews. But, as discussed in the methodology, this would have required a lot more time and resources than were available to me in this study. Nevertheless analyzing the results in relation to the problem of ignoring and playing down the importance of cultural differences also suggested that the questionnaire design needed refinement.

Specifically, I was unable to deduce or make any assumptions about what level of importance each respondent attached to each of the dimensions. A system of ranking the various value dimensions is not a new concept or methodology, in that it is very similar to the two ‘basic bipolar’ dimensions of ‘openness to change vs. conservation’ and ‘selfenhancement vs. self transcendence’ that are incorporated as higher dimensions in the Schwartz Value Inventory (Fig. 4).

But more importantly I think that more research into developing a system of ranking the value dimensions would not only help to identify those value dimensions, which may be ignored, downplayed or even negatively evaluated, but also provide a potentially very useful tool for integrating the cross-cultural dimension into traditional coaching and mentoring practices. Conclusion From this specific perspective, a focus on quantifying how national cultures differ along the various value dimensions that have been identified does run some risk of contributing to the formation of cultural stereotypes, which have little or no predictive value.

This is why greater emphasis needs to be placed on understanding our own ‘cultural baggage’ from a coaching perspective, particularly on the dynamic processes of the way in which our own culture has, and is evolving. The building blocks of improving cultural awareness and developing cross-cultural skills therefore have much in common with the key skills associated with building rapport as a coach or mentor. For the coach or business organisation, it is therefore about understanding the processes involved with the different ways in which we negotiate social interaction, and the elements of the various models of culture.

These range from the apparently simple distinction between the visible and invisible level of values (Fig. 1) to the complexity of Schwartz’s ‘Theoretical model of relations among motivational value types and two basic bipolar value dimensions’ (Fig. 4). It is about raising our awareness of what is subconscious and invisible up to a conscious and visible level; and from there we can develop the skills necessary to negotiate ways of interacting with others whose values, attitudes and habits, or indeed in contexts are unfamiliar to us.

I believe that if this is to be achieved, coaching and cross-cultural research needs to transcend the limitations of a focus on national culture. It needs to acknowledge that cultural identity should be viewed as being multi-faceted, and that people have a number of selves or identities depending on context and setting. The work of Schwartz, Hofstede and Trompenaars & Hampden-Turner has provided very valuable insight into the cultural dimensions, which help to identify the way in which values differ between national cultures.

However, they would also be the first to acknowledge that International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 51 national cultures are in a constant state of change, and this in turn dictates the need to evolve their questionnaires, re-analyze the accompanying databases of results, and amend and redefine their models accordingly. But perhaps the key aspect for further research is to develop methods that place a greater emphasis on the processes though which culture changes.

In other words how human actions and practices change, and new meanings evolve in response to changes to social contexts. By this I mean for example: the impact of increased migration (whether voluntary, or in response to political or economic factors), or the proliferation of new forms of communication like the internet, not only on working environments, but on the myriad ways in which we organize our social lives. The point being that this should help to move research and practice from a focus on more abstract concepts such as values, to the ways in which culture is produced and negotiated.

Consequently, as Rosinski (2003, p. xviii) said, ‘intercultural professionals will be better equipped to fulfil their commitment to extend people’s worldviews, bridge cultural gaps, and enable successful work across cultures’. References Clutterbuck, D. (1985), Everyone needs a Mentor, Fostering talent at work (3rd Ed), Trowbridge: The Cromwell Press Clutterbuck, D. (2003), ‘The Problem with research in mentoring’ The Coaching and Mentoring Network Csikszentmihalyi, M. (1997), Living Well, The Psychology of Everyday Life, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Flaherty, J. 1999), Coaching – Evoking Excellence in Others, Burlington MA: Elsevier Foucault, M. (1980) Power/Knowledge: Selected Interviews and Other Writings 1972-1977, Ed. Colin Gordon, New York: Pantheon Books Gray, J. (2000), Two Faces of Liberalism, London: Polity Press Hall, E. T. (1963), The Silent Language, Greenwich Connecticut: Fawcett Publications Inc. Hall, E. T. (1976), Beyond Culture, Garden City NY: Anchor Press Hall, E. T. (1984), The Dance of Life – The Other Dimension of Time, Garden City NY: Anchor Press/Doubleday Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. 1987), Hidden Differences – Doing business with the Japanese, Garden City NU: Anchor Press/Doubleday Hall, E. T. & Hall, M. R. (1990), Understanding Cultural Differences, Yarmouth, ME: Intercultural Press Hofstede, G. H. (1980), Culture’s Consequences – International Differences in Work-Related Values, Beverly Hills: Sage Publications Hofstede, G. H. (1991), Cultures and Organizations – Software of the Mind, London: McGraw-Hill U. K. , (1997) New York, McGraw-Hill U. S. A. , Third Millennium Edition, and (2004) New York: McGraw-Hill U. S. A. Hofstede, G.

H. (1998), Masculinity and Femininity – The Taboo Dimension of National Cultures, Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications Hofstede, G. H. & McCrae, R. R. (2004), ‘Personality and Culture Revisited: Linking Traits and Dimensions of Culture’, Cross-Cultural Research, Vol. 38, No. 1, p. 52-88 Hussey, J. & Hussey, R. (1997), Business Research: A practical guide for undergraduate and postgraduate students, London: Macmillan Press Ltd. Jarvis, J. (2004), Coaching and Buying Coaching Services – a CIPD guide, London: CIPD Enterprises Ltd Kerlinger, F. N. 1979,) Behavioural Research: A Conceptual Approach, New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston Kondo, D. (1990), Crafting Selves: Power, Gender and Discourses of Identity in a Japanese Workplace, Chicago: University of Chicago Press, pp. 9, 11-24 International Journal of Evidence Based Coaching and Mentoring Vol. 5. No. 2 August, 2007 Page 52 Kram, K. E. (1988), Mentoring at Work – Developmental Relationships in Organizational Life, Lanham: University Press of America Kuhn, T. S. (1962), The Structure of Scientific Revolutions, Chicago: University of Chicago Press Levi-Strauss, C. 1966), The Savage Mind, London: Weidenfeld and Nicolson Megginson, D. & Clutterbuck, D. (1995), Mentoring in Action – a practical guide for managers, London: Kogan Page Ltd. Nietzsche, F. quotes, QuotationsPage (2005) http://www. quotationspage. com/quotes/Friedrich_Nietzsche/ Oxford Dictionary of English (2003), Catherine Soanes and Angus Stevenson (Editors), Oxford: Oxford University Press Peterson, D. & Hicks, M. D. (1996), Leader as coach: Strategies for coaching and developing others, Minneapolis, MN: Personnel Decisions International Potter, J. Wetherell, M. (1995), ‘Discourse analysis’, in Smith, J. , Harre, R. , van Langenhove, R. , (Eds), Rethinking Methods in Psychology, London: Sage Robson C. (1992), Real World Research: A Resource for Social Scientists and Practitionerresearchers, Oxford: Blackwell Publishing Rosinski, P. (2003), Coaching Across Cultures, London: Nicholas Brealey Schwartz, S. H. (1994), Beyond Individualism/Collectivism – New Dimensions of Values. in Individualism and Collectivism: Theory Application and Methods, U. Kim, H. C. Triandis, C.

Kagitciabasi, S. C. Choi and G. Yoon (Eds) Newbury Park CA: Sage. Tao Te Ching quotes, ThinkExist quotations (2005), http://en. thinkexist. com/quotes/Tao_Te_Ching The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (2000), 4th Ed. Boston: Houghton Mifflin The Encyclopaedic Dictionary of Sociology (1991), 4th edition, Guilford, Connecticut: The Dushkin Publishing Group, Inc. Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. (1997), Riding the Waves of Culture, London: Nicholas Brealey (2nd Ed) Trompenaars, F. & Hampden-Turner, C. 1993), The Seven Cultures of Capitalism, London: Piatkus Trompenaars, F. & Woolliams, P. (2003), Journal of Change Management Vol. 3, 4, p. 361375: Henry Stewart Publication Watson, T. J. (2001), In Search of Management – Culture, chaos and control in managerial work, London: Thomson Learning Whitworth, L. , Kimsey-House, H. , Sandahl, P. (1998), Co-Active Coaching, Palo Alto, CA: Davies-Black Publishing Zachary, L. J. (2000), The Mentor’s Guide – Facilitating Effective Learning Relationships, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Zeus, P. & Skiffington, S. 2002), The Coaching at Work Toolkit – A Complete Guide to Techniques and Practices, Australia: McGraw-Hill Barbara StClaire-Ostwald is an international coach and freelance consultant who specialises in cross-cultural awareness and developing successful and effective communication skills for global managers and teams. Barbara grew up in the United Kingdom as a Polish/British dual national. Prior to setting up her coaching practice CINCRA, she lived and worked in the UK, Continental Europe and North Africa for over 30 years; working for multinationals in the private, public and not for profit sectors.

Barbara is a member of the European Mentoring and Coaching Council (EMCC) and until recently, Chair of the EMCC European Conference Committee. She is also a member of the British Psychological Society, Chartered Institute of Personnel Development, British Sociological Association and the Society for Intercultural Education, Training and Research (SIETAR). She is tri-lingual (Polish, English, French) and she is able to converse in Dutch, German, Czech and Slovak.

Ancient China and Egypt By: Jessica Isham Ancient Egypt and Ancient China were 2 of the biggest civilizations thousands of years ago. Both left its impact on history, they had many similar beliefs, and different ways of life. They had different rulers, religions, languages and forms of money. Both civilizations have different rulers. China is ruled by emperors and empires, and Egypt their people by pharos. In Egypt their people didn’t live as long so they had a lot more pharos. China’s on the other hand, lived a lot longer. So, therefore Chinese emperors and empires were around longer.

The religion of ancient Egypt was polytheistic and centered on the divinity of the ruler and the eternity of the soul. The Chinese were polytheistic with the addition of ancestor worship. Over time, these beliefs were sometimes blended with Taoism, Buddhism or Confucianism. They both also had different beliefs. Egypt believed when people passes, if they were preserved than they might have an afterlife. The Egyptians would put the dead mummified people in solid gold coffins and filled the burial room with bizarre treasures. China believed in the burial method as well.

They would bury the Chinese people in the ground and pour water on them, then put them in a hanging coffin. The Chinese also believed in cremation, were they burn the body into ashes. The ancient Egyptians believed that most non-physical ailments were caused by spells and curses. Overall treatments included amulets, potions and surgery depending on what was wrong. Chinese medicine was based on the idea of the balance of the energies yin and yang. Illness was the result of an imbalance and was treated with herbs, acupuncture and exercises.

The Chinese were mainly ahead of the rest of their time period. They used cowrie shells and metal beans for money. They also had paper money and coins. The Egyptians traded goods and services. The two civilizations created their own languages. Egypt had hieroglyphs that were dated from 3400 BC. Hieroglyphs are a formal writing system that contained a combination of logographic and a alphabetic elements. China had a language called Man’yogana. Man’yogana is an ancient writing system that employs Chinese characters to represent the Japanese language.