Consciousness

Biopsychology: A specialty that studies the interaction of biology, behavior, and mental processes. Evolution: The gradual process of biological change that occurs in a species as it adapts to its environment new generations change as they adapt to changing environments Evolution has fundamentally shaped psychological processes because it favors genetic variations that produce adaptive behavior Charles Darwin:Wondered if animals were related and if all creations, even humans, could share a common ancestry made the controversial case for the evolution of life

Natural selection:The driving force behind evolution, the fittest organisms are selected by the environment, the best adapted will flourish and the least adapted will die out. Darwin never said humans came from monkeys, but that they both had a common ancestor Genetics and inheritance: Genotype: Genetic Makeup

Phenotype: Physical and behavioral characteristics (observable characteristics) not all biological, also can be changed by nutrition, disease, stress, and poor medical care causing birth defects Genome: Set of genetic information contained within a cell DNA:A complex molecule that stores biological information Genes: The words that make up the instruction manual (genome) Chromosomes:Tightly coiled structures in which genes are organized, consist of DNA Nucleotides: letters that form genes, there are 4

Sex chromosomes: The X and Y chromosomes that determine physical sex characteristics XX-female XY-male , fathers determine sex Genes influence our psychological characteristics

Never attribute psychological characteristics to genetics alone, even identical twins Race and human variations: Certain features of skin color and other physical characteristics are common among people who trace their ancestry to the same part of the world tropical ancestry have darker skin to protect them from the sun, and lighter skin for less sunny places There are no genetic differences for races, race is more of a socially defined term Preimplantation Genetic Diagnosis: Testing fetus at a very oung age to ensure a genetically healthy fetus Some of these clinics also offer gender selection and ‘savior siblings’ How does the body communicate internally?

The nervous system reacts first:accelerate your heart rate and tense your muscles for action Endocrine system sends follow-up messages:send hormones which also accelerate heart and tense muscles they work together in stressful and happier situations and even during low arousal states the brain is the chief that manages the cooperation of the nervous and endocrine systems

The brain coordinates the bodys 2 communication systems, the nervous and endocrine, which use similar chemical processes to communicate with targets throughout the body Neuron (nerve cell) : cell that receives and transmits information to other cells of the body, bundles are called nerves Sensory neuron (afferent neurons): A cell that carries messages towards the brain from sense receptors Motor neuron (efferent neurons): A cell that carries messages away from the brain to the muscles and glands

Interneurons: A cell that relays messages between nerve cells, especially in the brain and spinal cord Dendrites: Branched fibers that extend outward from the cell body and carries information into the neuron Soma: part of the cell containing the nucleus or cell body, houses chromosomes Axon: An extending fiber that conducts information from the soma to the terminal buttons Resting potential: The electrical charge of the axon in its inactive state, when neuron is ready to ‘fire’

Action potential: When the neuron ‘fires’ due to a change in electrical charge across the cell membrane of axon All or none principle: action potential in the axon occurs either completely or not at all when many neurons fire too easily the result can be epileptic seizure Synapse:gap that serves as a communications link between neurons or between neurons and muscles or glands they serve Terminal buttons:Tiny bulb like structures at the end of the axon that carry the message into the synapse Synaptic transmission: The relaying of information across the synapse Neurotransmitter: Chemical messenger that relays neural messages across the synapse, many are also hormones Reuptake:The process by which unused neurotransmitters are drawn back into the vesicles of their originating neuron 7 important neurotransmitters:

Dopamine:Produces feeling of pleasure or reward, imbalances cause schizophrenia and Parkinson, cocaine, amphatamine, and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter Serotonin:Regulates, sleep, dreams, mood, pain, appetite, sex drive, imbalances cause depression, anxiety, OCD, Prozac and LSD affect the action of this transmitter Norepinnephrine:controls heart rate, sleep, stress, sexual responsiveness, appetite, imbalances cause high blood pressure, depression, Tricyclic, anti depressants, and beta blockers affect the action of this transmitter Acetycholine:involved in learning and memory, imbalances cause muscular disorders, alzheimers, nicotine, black widow spider venom, botulism toxin, barbiturates affect the action of this transmitter

GABA:Inhibitory transmitter, inbalances cause anxiety and epilepsy, minor tranquilizers and alcohol affect the action of this transmitter Glutamate:Excitatory transmitter, excess release of glutamate causes brain damage after stroke, PCP affects the action of this transmitter Endorphins:Pleasurable sensations and control of pain, imbalances come from opiate addiction, opiates like morphine, heroin, and methadone effect the action of this transmitter Plasticity: the nervous systems ability to change or adapt as a result of an experience or physical damage plasticity can not compensate for extensive injurys just as paralyzed individuals may implant computer chips in the brain to restore some forms of control

Glial cells: A cell that provides structural support for neurons, also provide the myelin sheath of the axon for some neurons nervous system: Network of neurons in the body, including the central nervous system, peripheral nervous system, and their subdivisions Central nervous system:brain and spinal cord Reflex:simple unlearned response triggered by stimuli done by spinal cord Contralateral:Each side of the brain communicates with the opposite side of the body Peripheral Nervous system:Connects the central nervous system with the rest of the body (somatic and autonomic) Somatic nervous system: Carries sensory information to the brain and voluntary messages to the muscles

Autonomic nervous system: Sends communications between the brain and the internal organs and glands Sympathetic division: ends messages to internal organs and glands that help us respond to stressful or emergency situations Parasympathetic: monitors the routine operations of the internal organs and returns body to calmer functioning after arousal by the sympathetic division

The endocrine system: The hormone system, chemical messenger system including pituitary, thyroid, adrenals, pancreas, ovaries, and testes in a crisis this system releases epinephrine or adrenalin sustaining the bodies fight or flight reaction Hormones: chemical messengers used by the endocrine system and the nervous system

Hormonal functions of major endocrine glands: Anterior Pituitary: ovaries and testes, breast milk production, metabolism, reactions to stress Posterior Pituitary: conservation of water in the body, breast milk secretion, uterus contractions Thyroid: metabolism, physical growth and development Parathyroid: calcium levels in the body Pancreas: glucose (sugar) metabolism

Adrenal glands: fight or flight response, metabolism, sexual desire (especially in women) Ovaries: development of female sexual characteristics, production of eggs or ova Testes: development of male sexual characteristics, sperm production, sexual desire in men Pituitary gland: the ‘master gland’ that oversees all these endocrine responses Agonists: drugs or other chemicals that enhance or mimic the effects of neurotransmitters antagonists: drugs or other chemicals that inhibit the effects of neurotransmitters

Neural pathways: bundles of nerve cells that follow generally the same route and employ the same neurotransmitter How does the brain produce behavior and mental processes? Thoughts and feelings originate from the brain (love doesn’t come from the heart) brain is a collection of distinct modules that work together like the components of a computer the brain is composed of many specialized modules that work together to create mind and behavior EEG(Electroencephalograph):A device for recording brain waves, typically by electrodes places on the scalp. The recording is an EEG Can reveal abnormal waves which cause epilepsy not very precise

Wilder Pen field mapped the brain with electric probes which showed him that the brain’s surface had distinct areas with distinct functions Brain Scans: help neurosurgeons to locate abnormalities such as tumors or stroke related damage without opening the skull CT(computerized tomography):uses x-rays taken of the brain at different angles and then combined into an image PET(positron emission tomography):Imaging technique that relies on the detection of radioactive sugar consumed by active brain cells

MRI(magnetic resonance imaging): Imaging technique that relies on cell’s responses in a high-intensity magnetic field fMRI(functional magnetic resonance imaging):form of MRI that records brain structure and activity PET and fMRI show which parts of the brain are active during a particular task MRI ecvelsat distinguishing the fine details of brain structures non of these can detect processes that occur only briefly (shift in attention, startle response) no scanning technique gives biopsychologists a perfectly clear view of all of the brains activity Three layers of the brain Brain stem: the most primitive of the brains three major layers, includes medulla, pons, and reticular formation medulla:Controls breathing and heart rate

Pons:Regulates brain activity during sleep or dreaming Reticular formation:keeps the brain alert and attentive to new stimulation Limbic system:middle layer, involved in emotion and memory, includes thee hippocampus,amygdalaa, hypothalamus, and some pleasure centers Hippocampus:Establishes long term memories amydala:memory and emotion, particularly fear and aggression Hypothalamus:Brains blood testing lab, constantly monitors blood to determine condition of the bod

Thalamus: brain’s central ‘relay station’, all messages that enter or exit the brain go through the thalamus controls sleep and awake states of consciousness cerebrum cerebellum:the ‘little brain’ attached to the brain stem, responsible for oordinated movements cerebral hemispheres:large symmetrical halves of the brain located atop the brain stem cerebral cortex:Thin gray matter covering the cerebral hemispheres, carries on major portion of higher mental processes like thinking and perceiving corpus callosum: the band of nerve cells connecting and enabling communication between the two cerebral hemispheres

The frontal lobes:cortical regions at the front of the brain especially involved in movement and in thinking motor cortex: A narrow vertical strip of cortex in the frontal lobes, controls voluntary motor movement Mirror neuron:A class of neuron that fires in response to ‘mirroring’ observation of another person’s actions or emotions The left frontal lobes: production of speech

The parietal lobes:Involved in touch sensation and perceiving spatial relationships Somatosensory cortex: A strip of the parietal lobe involved in sensations of touch The temporal lobes:Cortical lobes that process hearing, including speech, involved in storing long term memories Occipital lobes: The cortical regions that house the visual cortex Visual cortex: The visual processing area of cortex in the occipital and temporal lobes Association Cortex: Critical regions throughout the brain that combine information from various other parts of the brain

Cerebral Dominance:The tendency of each brain hemisphere to exert control over different functions, such as language or perception of spatial relationships The left side is more active in language and speech the right side is for visual and spatial and interprets others emotional responses and their nonverbal communication signals the right frontal lobes control the negative emotions such as fear and anger the left frontal lobes control the positive emotions such as joy cerebral dominance patterns are not always the same from one person to another men on average have slightly larger brains, thought to be part of body size and not much other importance CH 3

Sensation: The process by which stimulation of a sensory receptor produces neural impulses that the brain interprets as a sound, sight, taste, touch, or smell Perception: A mental process that elaborates and assigns meaning to the incoming sensory patterns The brain senses the world indirectly because the sense organs convert stimulation into the language of the nervous system (neural messages) 3 attributes common to all senses: transduction-process that converts information carried by the stimulus , such as light or sound waves, into the form of neural messages sensory adaption-loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while thresholds bsolute threshold-minimum amount of physical energy needed to produce a sensory experience (how soft can music be and still be heard) if it is above your thresholds, you sense it varies from person to person and varies in an individual depending on mental alertness and physical condition difference threshold (JND)-minimum amount by which a stimulus can be changed and the difference be detected half the time large when the stimulus intensity is high and small when low Webers law: The size of the JND is proportional to the intensity of the stimulus We are built to detect changes in stimulation and relationships among stimuli Signal detection theory: Theory that states that sensation depends on the characteristics of the stimulus, the background stimulation, and the detector.

Sensory Adaptation: Loss of responsiveness in receptor cells after stimulation has remained unchanged for a while (adjusting to the temperature of a cold pool) The sense all operate in much the same way, but each extracts different information and sends it to its own specialized processing region in the brain Vision: Retina:The thin light-sensitive layer at the back of the eyeball. The retina contains millions of photoreceptor and other nerve cells the retina is where the transduction of light into neural signals occurs Photoreceptors: Light sensitive cells (neurons) in the retina that concert light energy to neural impulses, these receptors are as far as light gets into the visual system. Rods: Photoreceptors in the retina sensitive to dark lighting but not to color

Cones: photoreceptor in the retina sensitive to colors but not dim light Fovea-tiny area of sharpest vision in the retina ipolar cells-collect impulses from photoreceptors and send them to the ganglion cells optic nerve-the bundle of neurons that caries visual information from the retina to the brain blind spot- the point where the optic nerve exits the eye and there are no photoreceptors, anything in this area cannot be seen visual cortex creates visual images from the information received from the eyes in this cortex, brain turns neural impulses into visual sensations of color, form, boundary, and movement brightness- A sensation caused by intensity(amplitude) of light waves color-(hue) not a property of things in the external world , a psychological sensation created in the brain from information from the eyes from the wavelength of visual light

Electromagnetic spectrum-the entire range of electromagnetic energy, including radio waves, x rays, microwaves, and visible light visible spectrum-the tiny part of electromagnetic spectrum to which our eyes are sensitive, may be different from our own trichromatic theory-the idea that colors are sensed by three different types of cones sensitive to light in the red blue and green wavelengths, this theory explains color processing in the cones of the retina opponent-process theory-the idea that cells in the visual system process colors in complementary pairs, such as red or green , yellow or blue, this theory explains color sensation from the bipolar cells onward in the visual system afterimages-sensations that linger after the stimulus is removed, most are negative after images, which appear in reversed colors color blindness-genetic disorder that prevents an individual from discriminating certain colors, most common form is red green color blindness

Hearing: Frequency-highness or lowness of sound, pitch amplitude-the physical strength of a wave. Height of the wave , when turning down vol, your turning down amplitude, loudness timbre-complex quality of a sound wave, helps you distinguish different voices how we hear: sound waves are relayed to the inner ear, vibrating waves make their way through the ear canal to the ear drum or tympanic membrane, vibrates middle ear, sends to cochlea cochlea-main organ of hearing focuses he vibrations on the basilar membrane basilar membrane converts vibrations into neural messages neural messages travel to the auditory cortex in the brain Hearing loss-from damage of the hair cells in the cochlea Vision-stimulus is light waves, receptor is rods and cones

Hearing-stimulus is sound waves, receptor is hair cells in basilar membrane Skin senses-stimulus is external contact, receptor is nerve endings in skin Smell-stimulus is volatile substances, receptor is hair cells in olfactory epithelium Taste-stimulus is soluble substances, receptor is taste buds on tongue Pain- stimulus is extreme stimuli, receptors are pain receptors Kinesthatic and vestibular senses-stimulus is body position, movement and balance, receptors are hair cells in semicircular canals and neurons connected to muscles joints and tendons Vestibular senses-the sense of body orientation with respect to gravity, associated with inner ear and in fact is carried to the brain on a Branch of the auditory nerve Kinesthetic sense-the sense of body position and movement of body parts relative to each other

Smell: olfaction-sense of smell pheromones-chemical signals released by organisms to communicate with other members of their species. Often used by animals as sexual attractants, unclear if humans use them Taste: Gustation-the sense of taste

Skin senses: sensory system for processing touch, warmth, cold, texture, and pain synesthesia-the mixing of sensations across sensory modalities, as in tasting shapes or seeing colors associated with numbers Phantom limbs-sensations experienced by people who have lost a limb coming from the missing body part Gate control theory-an explanation for pain control that proposes we have a neural ‘gate’ that can, under some circumstances, block incoming pain signals if you experience pain you can take drugs like aspirin or you can get morphine which suppresses the pain messages in the spinal cord placebo-appears to be a drug, but is not (sugar pill) placebo effect-a response to a placebo caused by the belief that it is a real drug Perception gives meaning to sensation, so perception produces an interpretation of the world, not a perfect representation of it

Percept: The meaning product of perception, often an image that has been associated with concepts, memories of events, emotions, and motives What pathway-A neural pathway, projecting from the primary visual cortex to the temporal lobe, which involves identifying objects where pathway-A neural pathway the projects visual information to the parietal lobe, responsible for locating objects in space blindsight-being conscious of information in the what pathway but not necessarily in the where pathway feature detectors-cells in the cortex that specialize in extracting certain features of a stimulus binding problem:

how the brain combines the results from many senses into a single percept top-down process: memories and past experiences in our brain tell perception bottom up process: the sensed characteristics in the stimuli exert strong influence on our perceptions perceptual constancy-the ability to recognize the same object as remaining ‘constant’ under different conditions, such as distance or location inattentional blindness-a failure to notice changes occurring in ones visual field, caused by narrowing the focus of ones attention change blindness-failure to notice that a visual scene has changed from the way it had appeared previously, requires comparing a scene to one from the past illusion-incorrect perception of a stimulus pattern especially one that fools others ambiguous figures-images that can be interpreted in more than one way.

No right way to see an ambiguous figure Gestalt psychology: believed that much of perception is shaped by innate factors built into the brain figure- a part of a pattern that stands out against the ground ground-part of a pattern that does not command attention-background closure-gestalt principle that identifies the tendency to fill in gaps in figures and to see incomplete figures as complete Laws of perceptual grouping-the gestalt principles of similarity, proximity, continuity, and common fate.

Suggest how our brains prefer to group stimulus elements together to form a percept Law of similarity-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects together in out perceptions Law of proximity-gestalt principle, we tend to group objects together when they are near each other Law of continuity-gestalt principle, we prefer perceptions of connected and continuous figures to disconnected and disjointed ones Law of common fate-gestalt principle, we tend to group similar objects together that share a common motion of destination Law of

Pragnanz- Gestalt principle, the simplest organization, requiring the least cognitive effect, will emerge as a figure, full figures such as a closed circle Learning based inference- the view that perception is primarily shaped by learning rather by innate factors perceptual set-readiness to detect a particular stimulus in a given context someone afraid interprets an unfamiliar sound as a threat, set of words, word missing binocular cues-information taken in by both eyes that aids in depth perception, including binocular convergence and retinal disparity Monocular cues-information about depth that relies on the input of just one eye and includes relative size, light and shadow, relative motion and atmospheric pressure CH 8

Cognitive Neuroscience-An interdisciplinary field involving cognitive psychology, neurology, biology, computer science, linguistics, and other specialists who are interested in the connection between mental processes and the brain Nonconscious process-Any brain process that does not involve conscious processing, including both preconscious memories and unconscious processes can perform many jobs at the same time (walk, chew gum, breath) Consciousness-The process by which the brain creates mental model of our experience, most common consciousness occurs during wakefulness, although there can be altered states Attention- a process by which consciousness focuses on a single item of ‘chunk’ in working memory Tools for studying consciousness- fMRI, EEG, PET Freud’s levels of consciousness:

Preconscious- A special unconscious storehouse for information no currently in conscious but readily available to the conscious (like your phone number) The unconscious-A part of the mind that processes below the level or awareness, emotional memories, desires, and feelings that would be threatening if brought back to consciousness James stream of consciousness-walking consciousness is like a flowing stream carrying ever changing sensations, perceptions, thoughts, memories, feelings, and desires, this stream includes awareness of ourselves and of stimulation from our environment, can also include physical sensations from within like hunger or pain James said consciousness has 2 levels :an area of focus for what we are focusing our attention on, and a peripheral conscious to encompass the feelings that give meaning to our focus The computer metaphor-likens consciousness to the information and images that appear on a computer screen nonconscious is the electronic activity behind the scene, which most of the time operates in parallel with consciousness Three important functions of the consciousness:

Consciousness restricts our attention-(restriction) because it processes information serially, it limits what you notice and think about,keeps your brain from being overwhelmed by stimulation cannot read while listening to music consciousness provides a mental ‘meeting place’-(combination) meeting place where sensation can combine with memory, emotions, motives, and a host of other psychological processes (perception) consciousness allows us to create a mental model of the world-(manipulation) a model we can manipulate in our minds, we don’t just operate in the moment, we make a model that draws on memory and brings the past and the future into awareness.

Coma-An unconscious state, during which a person lacks the normal cycles of sleep and wakefulness, usually only lasts a few days (between vegetative and minimally conscious states) Consciousness fluctuates in cycles that correspond to our biological rhythms and to patterns of stimulation in our environmental Daydreaming-A common (and quite normal) variation of consciousness in which attention shifts to memories, expectations, desires, or fantasies and away from the immediate situation daydreaming is automatic when we are in a restful state or not focused on something Circadian Rhythms-A pattern that repeats every 24 hours such as sleep and wakefulness cycle, jet lag Main Events of sleep: REM sleep-stage that occurs approximately every 90 minutes, marked by bursts of rapid eye movement occurring under closed eye lids each REM period gets longer and longer Non-REM-the recurring periods, mainly associated with the deeper state of sleep, when a sleeper is not showing rapid eye movements Sleep paralysis- A condition in which a sleeper is unable to move any of the voluntary muscles except the eyes (normally occurs during REM) Stages of sleep: Stage 1:Slower theta waves, faster beta waves

Stage 2:Short burst of fast electrical activity that reliably signal the end of stage 1 Stage 3 &4:heart rate and breathing slow down , beta brain waves slow, delta waves appear DEEPEST sleep in stage 4 as stage 4 ends sleeper climbs back up the stages backwards REM sleep: fast beta waves, rapid eye movement, after REM sleeper slips back into stage 2 REM rebound- A condition of increased REM sleep caused by REM sleep deprivation Sleep debt-A sleep deficiency caused by not getting the amount of sleep required for optimal functioning Isrealites interpreted dreams as messages from the gods Egyptians tried to influence dreams by sleeping in temples dedicated to the god of dreaming Chinese are scared to dream because they think the soul wanders outside the body Freud’s theory of dreams: manifest content-the story line of a dream, taken at face value without interpretation latent content- the symbolic meaning or objects and events in a dream Activation synthesis theory- the theory that dreams begin with random electrical activation coming from the brain stem.

The storyline of dreams are the brains attempt to make sense of this random activity Insomnia- involving insufficient sleep, the inability to fall asleep quickly, frequent arousals, or early awakenings Sleep Apnea- A respiratory disorder in which the person intermittently stops breathing many times while asleep Night terrors-deep sleep episodes that seem to produce terror, what made the person scared is usually forgotten on awakening, usually found in children narcolepsy-a disorder of REM sleep, involving sleep-onset periods in sudden daytime REM-sleep attacks An altered state of consciousness occurs when some aspect of normal consciousness is modified by mental, behavioral, or chemical means Hypnosis-A state of awareness characterized by deep relaxation, heightened suggestibility, and focused attention Hypnotizability- susceptibility measured by a persons responsiveness to standardized suggestions hypnosis an be used for dental and medical uses, psychological treatment

Meditation-A state of consciousness often induces by focusing on a repetitive behavior, assuming certain body positions, and minimizing external stimulation Psychoactive drug-chemical that affects mental processes and behavior by its effect on the brain Hallucinogen-a drug that creates hallucinations or alters perception of the external environment and inner awareness Opiates-Highly addictive drug, derived from opium, that can produce a profound sense of sell being and has strong pain relieving properties Depressant-drug that slows down mental and physical activity by inhibiting transmission of nerve impulses in the brain (alcohol, barbiturates) Stimulants-speed up brain and mental and physical responses (cocain, amphetamine, nicotine, caffeine)

General Anesthetic-substance that suppresses consciousness and awareness of pain, some produce sedation and immobility Tolerance-the reduces effectiveness a drug has after repeated use psychical dependence-the body adjusts to and comes to need and drug for every day functioning addiction- a person continues to use a drug despite its adverse effects and many attempts to stop withdrawal-A pattern of uncomfortable or painful physical symptoms and cravings experienced by the user when the level of drug is decreased or the drug is eliminated psychological dependency-a desire to obtain or use a drug, even though there is no physical dependence

Memory AND ARCHITECTURE

How does architecture make memories? Should it non be the most of import undertaking of it beyond signifier and map?

Introduction

Architects from rather some clip have started speaking about making “a sense of a place” by supplying an environment which is experiential and has a sense of belonging.

“Sense of a topographic point goes manus in manus with making memories” ( Lehmon, 2008-2010 ) as written by Maria Lerena Lehmon in her article “sensing architecture” . Further lucubrating on the subject she says our memory of events may depend upon a strong sense of topographic point, and by extension, our sense of topographic point may be influenced by the unity of memories formed at that place.

The memory of an event or a occurrence ever has a environing background or a physical built around it. If this background has a peculiar character or a sense attached to it so it helps the memory of that event/experience grow stronger. The term “physical background” is non limited to the difficult physical stuffs used but besides to the infinites they generate and the manner our senses respond towards these assorted elements and the manner these stuffs and infinites alter and determine our centripetal perceptual experience.

Why is it easier to retrieve certain paths as compared to the others, is it because they have less figure of bends or is it merely because one can tie in with them more easy?

I live in Jasola Vihar in New Delhi and why is it so that every clip I guide person to my place I end up stating them that I stay in the “grey DDA flats near Appolo Hospital” ?

It’s an unnoticed attempt of making a sense of association with the milieus, be it a land grade or a curious character of a topographic point ( sense of a topographic point ) .

It is now in the universe of globalization that we, in the name of braking boundaries have decided to allow travel of our individualities as good.With the planetary architecture picking up its gait it is going hard to separate between topographic points and hence the formation of a strong association and an irremovable memory of topographic point is being put at serious hazard.

Here is an illustration of Tokyo ( left ) and Chicago ( right ) , two metropoliss from the opposite corners of the universe yet difficult to separate.

Fig. 1 Fig. 2

( Anon. , 2014 ) ( Anon. , 2014 )

Here is another illustrations of Venice ( left ) and Banaras ( right ) , two metropoliss holding certain characteristics in common but yet they stand with independent individualities and honest to the memories and associations attached to them.

Fig. 3 Fig. 4

( ( ALAMY, 2014 ) ) ( Sharma, 2010 )

NEED IDENTIFICATION

Human memory has been the reply bank to some basic inquiry related to our being every bit good as to some complex inquiries related to our journey through ages. “Memory” has ever been of import in the universe of treatments non merely because it is the “record keeper” of events but besides because it is a supplier of individuality. It is our memory that tells us where we belong and where we come from.

Architecture on the other manus has ever been one of the strongest defenders and projectors of a certain individuality ( belonging to a certain clip and topographic point ) . Therefore this survey is meant to place and convey out the elements of the built that really formulate a certain association and a sense of perceptual experience amongst the experiencers, taking us to admit the strength of architecture in traveling beyond signifier and map and arousing our centripetal perceptual experiences for supplying us with a memory of the “self” .

Scope

The survey shall cover the usage of the centripetal variety meats in the apprehension of different infinites both at the colony degree and at single infinite degree.

It shall be a comparative survey between different places/spaces on the personal interview footing sing topographic points in India.

Restriction

Memories of topographic point are normally subjected to personal perceptual experiences and readings and hence to generalize a decision is in uncertainty. A figure personal interviews will be the best possible agencies to average out a sense of a topographic point and to enter how certain characters of the same topographic point are in common in the memories of different people.

Methodology

The bing literature predominating on memory and architecture shall be identified, gathered and reviewed. The reappraisal shall with an armory of theories and thoughts that have been contemplated on the topic in the yesteryear. The survey shall so be applied to the Indian context.

The acquired cognition through the literature study shall be used to place peculiar instances in India taking an illustration of an old town of Bilgram and the metropolitan Delhi. A close survey of both the colony shall be done at the macro and micro degree saying illustrations that can clearly reflect the theories derived from the literature study. The instance surveies shall so be closely looked upon and scrutinised and be written about.

Finally the subject of memory and architecture shall be discussed with a practicing designer and his/her positions shall be acknowledged and documented. All consequences learnt shall so be compiled with a successful effort to deduce to a decision in the terminal.

HUMAN MEMORY AND ITS WAYS

WHAT IS MEMORY?

The mental module entering the past experiences based on the mental procedure of acquisition, retaining and remembering ( Oxford lexicon ) . But is this it?

Let us get down with a brief apprehension of the types of memories that exist and the procedure of their formation.

Fig. 5 ( mastin, 2010 )

What we by and large perceive as memory in our twenty-four hours to twenty-four hours lives is really the long term memory but there besides exist the centripetal memory and the short term memory, which normally go unnoticed by us in the haste of our mundane lives.

Every event/incidence goes through a enrollment procedure in our sensory and short term memory foremost, before being stored for good in our long term memory. Therefore the stronger the impact of an event on our sensory and short term memory the better are the opportunities of that event being remembered for a life time­­ .

SENSORY MEMORY

Centripetal memory is what we relate to ‘perception in an instance’ . It is the shortest signifier of memory generated at a automatic rate through any of our five senses of odor, sight, hearing, gustatory sensation and touch. The clip p of such memory is non more than 300-500 msecs and upper limit to a 2nd ( rare instances ) and therefore it is more of an inherent aptitude based memory. Our encephalon is trained to register merely a selected portion of the information which has the opportunities of being utile in future and therefore most of the clip our centripetal memory goes live. For an event or an experience to hold an impact on our memory at the sensory ( instantaneous ) gait it needs to hold a really strong contact with our either of our five senses. ( mastin, 2010 )

Like for illustration: when you do a trek to Kheerganga through those thick woods and the soft slippery Shivalik mountains of Himachal Pradesh you can ne’er think what will come next and so all of a sudden you enter into this huge vacant vale perfectly untasted and pure, surrounded with immense mountains all about and you stand in the in-between lick a pinpoint of dust.

Or when in the metropolis of Ajmer, you decide to go all the manner up to the Taragarh garrison, off from the pandemonium and the hustle hustle of the metropolis. You reach the top and so you look back, down onto all the flashing visible radiations and a immense nothingness ( the lake ) amongst them, the contrast and the astonishment, can non be ignored.

Or when you enter the edifice of the National Institute Design ( Ahmedabad ) through its low tallness reception/gallery/display country and you all of a sudden happen yourself into this immense courtyard where the edifice merely opens itself to you, the courtyard filled with cold visible radiation and a immense tree turning right in the center of it.

Or for that affair the same edifice pull offing to keep the sensitiveness towards the natural environment to an extent that we can happen alien birds like Inachis ios rolling in the campus like pigeons in Delhi.

Such experiential topographic points do non necessitate a long procedure of recollection and acquaintance to develop an association and a lasting topographic point in 1s memories. These brushs generate a sudden daze, opening themselves as a surprise box and acquire absorbed by 1s centripetal perceptual experience, immediately lodging to his/her memory.

But the restriction of such a memory is that it can merely be generated with a first-hand experience as it requires the response of our senses in the purest signifier which can merely be generated when we ourselves are physically involved in the event ( shabeeb, 2014 )

Short-run MEMORY ( WORKING MEMORY )

The following phase of our memory procedure is the short-run memory or the on the job memory, working on the footing of impermanent callback.

It is the memory formation working analogue with the apprehension of the event. We can take reading as an illustration. When we read, in order to understand the sentence we are reading we need to retrieve the old sentence we merely read. Brain is fundamentally remembering the prequel and understanding the subsequence at the same clip, but the encephalon can be forced to switch the sentences to the slot for long term memory be insistent readings or by calculated effort to consciously retrieve the reading through concentration and apprehension. ( mastin, 2010 )

This is how our encephalon processes pilotage, be it through pages or through roads.

So why is it that we remember certain paths clearly and be given to bury certain once more and once more?

There can be two replies to this inquiry:

Either we travel a certain path more often so the repeat or the timely reoccurrence of the same event makes it stick to our long term memory.

Or while going through certain paths we witness such landmarks which merely can non travel unnoticed and they at the same time form a mental map of our path.

Metro Stationss in Delhi are a perfect illustration of this. They non merely ease the users of the tube but besides end up steering many going on the roads. The cut to Preet Vihar where my uncle corsets is right opposite the pillar figure 100 of Anand Vihar metro line. Now how do I retrieve this? Equally shortly as I made the bend into Preet Vihar through that dense, confounding route of Anad Vihar my encephalon tried to at the same time remember the most high and the closest thing around which my sense of sight absorbed. The pillar figure 100, written with black in a xanthous circle on a gray concrete pillar.

Long-run Memory

Long-run memory is, evidently plenty, intended for storage of information over a long period of clip. Despite our mundane feelings of forgetting, it seems likely that long-run memory really decays really small over clip, and can hive away a apparently limitless sum of information about indefinitely. Indeed, there is some argument as to whether we really of all time “forget” anything at all, or whether it merely becomes progressively hard to entree or recover certain points from memory.

Short-run memories can go long-run memory through the procedure of consolidation, affecting dry run and meaningful association. Unlike short-run memory ( which relies largely on an acoustic, and to a lesser extent a ocular, codification for hive awaying information ) , long-run memory encodes information for storage semantically ( i.e. based on significance and association ) . However, there is besides some grounds that long-run memory does besides encode to some extent by sound. For illustration, when we can non quite retrieve a word but it is “on the tip of the tongue” , this is normally based on the sound of a word, non its significance.

Long-run memory is frequently divided into two farther chief types: explicit ( or indicative mood ) memory and implicit ( or procedural ) memory.

Declarative memory ( “knowing what” ) is memory of facts and events, and refers to those memories that can be consciously recalled ( or “ declared ” ) . It is sometimes called expressed memory, since it consists of information that is explicitly stored and retrieved, although it is more decently a subset of expressed memory. Declarative memory can be farther sub-divided into episodic memory and semantic memory.

Procedural memory ( “knowing how” ) is the unconscious memory of accomplishments and how to make things, peculiarly the usage of objects or motions of the organic structure, such as binding a shoe lace, playing a guitar or siting a motorcycle. These memories are typically acquired through repeat and pattern, and are composed of automatic sensorimotor behavior that are so profoundly embedded that we are no longer cognizant of them. Once learned, these “ organic structure memories ” allow us to transport out ordinary motor actions more or less automatically. Procedural memory is sometimes referred to as inexplicit memory, because old experiences assistance in the public presentation of a undertaking without explicit and witting consciousness of these old experiences, although it is more decently a subset of inexplicit memory.

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Climate Council

The organisation chosen is Climate Council, which has made great part in doing study on the clime alteration to the populace. Climate council is non-profit organisation set up to go on to register studies to the populace to do them be cognizant of the clime alteration state of affairs at the present.

1. Introduction of Climate Council

Climate Council is an Australian non-profit organisation ( NGO ) , which is established to supply a better image and manner for the populace to acquire to cognize facts of clime alterations. Till now, the NGO is funded by contributions from public. At first, Climate Council is named as Australian Climate Commission, launched by the former opinion party Labor Party in 2011 as an independent consultative group to register studies to the populace on clime alteration. After the new party came into force in 2013, the Climate Council is dismissed for avoiding duplicate of services. But thanks to the state of affairss that many people are appealing to the reinstatement of Climate Council both in world and online, the Climate Council was set up in 2013 by Tim Flannery, a former head commissioner of the Climate Commission. And harmonizing to Flannery, the council members are working pro bono. Till now, Climate Council is running based on people’s contribution. And the head director has promised that people could donate, but they could ne’er impact their independency and credibleness by contribution ( Guardian, 2013 ) .

2. Valuess of Climate Council

Harmonizing to Smith and Gruber ( 2006 ) , throughout the history of Earth, clime alteration is a immense job at the present. The job is non whether clime alteration exists, but when, where and how much serious clime alteration is at the minute ( Bulkeley & A ; Betsill, 2002 ) .

The first value of Climate Council is consciousness of clime alteration state of affairs and its influence by the populace. Climate Council is set up by the Labor Party once more to assist the populace to be cognizant of the state of affairs of clime alteration and the influences clime alterations would hold on people’s life. At first it was dumped by the authorities governments, but as public is appealing to the Climate Council extremely both online and in world, Climate Council is established once more for the interest of the populace. As ideas of the populace is developing, clime alterations is more and more serious and the populace is more cognizant of the influences brought approximately by clime alterations, the populace would love to cognize more about the current state of affairs of the clime alteration and its consequence on different facets of our life. Furthermore, to cognize more about the society and universe people are populating in is an equal right for all the people. In Australia, people’s consciousness of clime alteration is developing and people would make more to assist the lone Earth to be a better topographic point for people and their coevalss to populate.

Therefore, people’s consciousness of the state of affairs of clime alteration and its consequence is a basic right for the people populating in Australia. That is to state, Climate Council is making a great occupation in recognizing people’s right of consciousness, as a non-profit organisation. What is more, when people know more about the consequence brought approximately by clime alterations, people would make more to cut down green-house gases, cut down pollution and assist the Earth to be a more comfy and sustainable topographic point for their coevalss to populate, which is a win-win motion.

Second, its value is non-profit. Before 2011, Climate Council is a portion of Australian authorities and their staff get paid by the revenue enhancement of the people. After 2013, Climate Council is a non-profit organisation. Non-profit organisation is a sort of organisation which does non concentrate on profitable industry, and stress on public personal businesss to better public public assistance, such as instruction, human rights, environment and so on. Non-profit organisation is the sort of organisation reflecting people’s consciousness of attention, love and part. The staff in Climate Council is now working pro bono, which is worthy of regard from foreigners. And their good religion should be spoken extremely of.

Third, its value is independency. Till now, Climate Council gets contributions from the populace. But the current job is that the fund is non a stable flow of fund, but a flexible one, which would non be a good pick for a long-run run. As a consequence, the main executive of Climate Council is looking for a stable and large company or several investors to corporate. With the long-run stable fund, they might make better on their research and study on clime alteration. But here comes another job which is that its independency may be affected by the largest investors. But the main executive has stated that they will remain independency and will non be affected by any other 3rd party ( Guardian, 2013 ) .

Fourthly, its value is credibleness. The credibleness of Climate Council is an indispensable component to the consciousness of people. Peoples would make as they suggested to assist the universe to be a better topographic point, which means that the study people’s action is based on should be trusting. Since Climate Council is a 3rd party funded by contribution from the populace, its non-profit characteristic would assist Climate Council to be more creditable when doing studies on clime alteration to the populace. Since Climate Council is set up, non intend for money but meant to make more to assist the populace to acquire to cognize the clime alterations and its consequence so as to assist cut down the release of green-house gases, the credibleness of Climate Council is made certain. What is more, when Climate Council would acquire contributions from some certain companies or groups for stable and long-run undertaking, the head director has promised that the study of the institute would remain creditable and will non be affected by any other 3rd party. The statement of the main executive makes certain that the people could swear the study of Climate Council and so do some actions and motions towards the jobs it refers to or harmonizing to some suggestions Climate Council has made in those studies ( Guardian, 2013 ) .

I agree to the full on the values of Climate Council, which are warrant of people’s rights of consciousness of clime alteration and its side effects, non-profit, independency and credibleness. The rights of people’s consciousness is portion of human rights, which is pulling more and more attending on the international universe. As an institute of appealing to people to protect the environment, non-profit shows their purpose is environmental protection. Independence and credibleness make sure that the study of Climate Council is trusting and people could do reactions harmonizing to the studies. As a consequence, I am to the full for the above mentioned four values of Climate Council.

3. Interests of Climate Council

The involvements of Climate Council would be divided into three parts. First of wholly, from the position of capital, since the institute is non-profit and all the fund it receives would be used on the study of clime alteration, as a effect, the institute will non acquire capital as net incomes. And because the staff are working pro bono, the staff themselves will non acquire a big amount of money as payment. As a consequence, both the institute and its staff will non acquire money as involvements. Second, the involvements of the institute and staff are non-profit and for the public assistance and involvements of the populace. The public’s right of consciousness of clime alteration and its side effects to their life criterions would be served and guaranteed. Third, the involvements of the institute are for the interest the Earth and all the people populating on it. Because when people find out the current serious state of affairs of clime alteration and its side consequence to their life criterions and the Earth, the protection of the clime and the Earth would be enhanced. As a consequence, the Earth would be protected and the life criterions and wellness of people and their coevalss would be guaranteed.

As a effect, the whole involvements of Climate Council would be for the involvements of all Australians, all the human existences and the Earth. I am extremely for their high consciousness of part. To do it more practical than a promise, I would propose Climate Council would put up a promotion system to hold all their contributions and costs known by the populace, as many non-profit organisations do. This action would do its studies more independent, trusting and dependable.

4. Advocacy Positions.

From the studies of Climate Council, the protagonism place it takes is that human existences should take duty of clime alteration due to factory pollution, coal combustion and other industrial actions, merely as Susan ( 2009 ) has wrote in her book. And it has stand for animate beings that animate beings are non the chief grounds for clime alteration, merely the same with Steinfeld’s point of position ( 2006 ) . What is more, natural catastrophe is non chief cause for clime alteration, either ( Climate Council Report, 2014 ) .

There are two facets of its protagonism place Climate Council stands for. On the one manus, its protagonism place could be that the rights of Australians to hold a better apprehension of clime alteration and its bad effects to human being’s life could be realized and guaranteed. On the other manus, one time the public get a better apprehension of clime alteration and its side effects, Australians would make their best to protect the environment, tonss of runs would be launched to cut down the release of green-house gases, such as C dioxide and so on. After people’s consciousness has been aroused and motion has been made to better the quality of environment, a better topographic point for life could be looked frontward to in the close hereafter.

To sum up, the protagonism place of Climate Council is people’s consciousness and the environment protection. On the one manus, the consciousness of clime alteration and its side effects could be get by the pubic, which is besides their right to hold a better apprehension of the continent they are populating on. On the other manus, the Earth would be protected in a more effectual and efficient manner. In the terminal, the concluding purpose of Climate Council would be realized.

5. Use of Science

The usage of scientific discipline could be divided into two parts, one is that Climate Council is utilizing scientific discipline to distribute their thought of environment protection and the other is that people could utilize scientific discipline power to construct a better universe with less pollution, as what Americans ballot for ( National Research Council, 2010 ) .

Because of the development of computing machines, laptops, smart phones, web sites and other on-line societal webs, Climate Council could be small to distribute their study and environmental positions to other people online. From the studies, one can state that people are reading and distributing the studies through Tweet, its official web and other societal webs. In this means, more people could acquire to their clime studies with no fees attached.

In the study “Be prepared: clime alteration and NSW bushfire threat” , statistics and economic statistics are used throughout the study, such as “ in 2013, bushfires in January and October burnt 768,000 hectares of land and destroyed 279 homes” , “total economic costs of NSW bushfires in 2014 are projected to be $ 43 million” ( Climate Council Report, 2014 ) and so on. Thankss to science development, statistics could be used to depict the influence of bushfire and clime alteration in a specific manner. Peoples would be moved by the particular and big figure of losingss, which would elicit their willingness to protect the Earth female parent.

In the study named “Your forenoon caffeine hit is at risk” ( Climate Council Report, 2014 ) , picture is used to show their thoughts, which is a field, graphic manner for audience to detect, besides thanks to the development of scientific discipline.

In the study related to coastal flood menace ( Brisbane Times, 2014 ) , thanks to the power of scientific discipline, scientists would acquire to cognize the grounds doing coastal flood menace and would supply ways to work out the job scientifically.

In another study named “Solar: people’s choice” ( Climate Council Report, 2014 ) , scientific discipline development aid people to utilize solar power as a agency to warm their bath H2O and room. The clean and natural resources could non be turned into power for human existences to utilize without the aid of extremely developed engineering and scientific discipline. Science could assist the universe to cut down pollution and do a more comfy topographic point to populate.

About usage of scientific discipline by Climate Council, I would propose that more work could be done. For illustration, I find out that people would love to portion a picture study made by Climate Council instead than a written version. As a effect, Climate Council could do more video study to better their influence. After all, their purpose is to do more and more people get entree to the clime studies and know the study content which would elicit their purpose to protect the environment and the continent they are populating on.

6. Decision

As for values of Climate Council, I speak extremely of its four values, which are warrant of rights of people’s consciousness of clime alteration and its side effects, non-profit, independency and credibleness. As to involvements of Climate Council, I would state that, the institute is working for the public assistance of the populace of Australian, even people throughout the universe. It would be better if they have their contributions and costs known to public. With respect to its protagonism place, Climate Council is working to protect environment in the terminal. About the usage of scientific discipline, they could utilize video more when distributing the studies to do more people get entree to the studies.

Mentions

Bulkeley, H. & A ; Betsill, M. ( 2002 ) .Cities and Climate Change. London ; New York: Routledge.

National Research Council. ( 2010 ) .America ‘s Climate Choices: Panel on Advancing the Science of Climate Change.Washington, D.C. : The National Academies Press.

Smith, T. M. , Yin, X. & A ; Gruber, A. ( 2006 ) . Variations in one-year planetary precipitation ( 1979–2004 ) , based on the Global Precipitation Climatology Project 2.5° analysis.Geophysical Research Letters, 33 ( 6 ) .

Solomon, S. , Plattner, G. K. , Knutti, R. & A ; Friedlingstein, P. , ( 2009 ) . Irreversible clime alteration due to carbon dioxide emanations.Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America, 106 ( 6 ) .

Steinfeld, H. , Gerber, P. , Wassenaar, T. , Castel, V. , Rosales, M. & A ; C. de Haan. ( 2006 ) . Livestock ‘s Long Shadow: Environment Issues and Options.

Climate Council. ( 2014 ) . Be prepared: clime alteration and the NSW Bushfire Threat, retrieved Oct 28^Thursday, 2014 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.climatecouncil.org.au/be-prepared-climate-change-and-the-nsw-bushfire-threat

Climate Council. ( 2014 ) . Your forenoon caffeine hit is at hazard, retrieved on Oct 26^Thursday, 2014 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.climatecouncil.org.au/your-morning-caffeine-hit-is-at-risk

Climate Council. ( 2014 ) . Solar: the people’s pick, retrieved on Oct 26^Thursday, 2014 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.climatecouncil.org.au/solar-the-people-s-choice

Hannam, P. ( 2014 ) . Coastal flood menace rises, says Climate Council,Brisbane Times,retrieved on Oct 26^Thursday, 2014 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.brisbanetimes.com.au/environment/climate-change/coastal-inundation-threat-rises-says-climate-council-20140916-10hqe6.html

Milman, O. ( 2013 ) . Climate council faces ‘titantic struggle’ , says Tim Flannery,The Guardian,retrieved on Oct 26^Thursday, 2014 from: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.theguardian.com/environment/2013/sep/24/climate-council-faces-titanic-struggle

Can Machines Think ? This paper regards several points of view on the subject of, what is commonly referred to as Artificial Intelligence, or AI. AI is the attempt to make machines, specifically computers, perform intelligently through programming. Already, this definition has a problem in that the word intelligence can have many interpretations. This essay will attempt to put forward some ideas for how to approach this problem.

It could be said that the human brain is nothing more than a machine, and as we know it to be capable of thought it would be fair to surmise that therefore machines can think and it is probably this, or a similar premise that inspired AI. However, within AI there are many schools of thought. Some believe that if a computer can be programmed correctly to emulate certain human processes, then it is to all intense and purposes thinking as we do.

One of the early pioneers in the world of computers, Alan Turing, outlined a test in which participants are asked to interrogate a computer terminal in order to determine whether they are communicating with a human, or a computer program. Examples of programs which were put through the Turing test are ELIZA and SHRDLU both of which attempted to emulate one side of human conversation. But even if these programs did appear to be totally human, could they be said to actually be thinking ? John Searle(1984) puts forward a scenario in an attempt to devalue this idea.

He refers to a program by Roger Schank at Yale university which, after being given a story will be able to answer questions regarding it. It would seem at the outset that this program would therefore be understanding the story. Searle then argues that despite not being able to understand Chinese, he would, under the correct circumstances, be able to answers Chinese questions in Chinese, relating to a story also written in Chinese. The scenario is summarised as follows; Sitting isolated in a room, Searle is given a wad of Chinese script, followed by another. In addition he is given a list of English rules, for correctly correlating the two.

By simply following the English rules, he writes a third set of chinese words which he then returns to someone outside the room. If the first set of script was a story, the second a set of questions, he could be said to be answering the questions. In fact, from the point of view of someone standing outside the room, he would be correctly answering the questions, and thus would appear to be conversant in Chinese. This of course is not the case, as Searle would have no knowledge of what the story was about, and what the questions were asking – he would not be understanding the story.

This argument is an attempt to demonstrate that although a computer program appears to be understanding a story, it is merely obeying simple instructions, and has no understanding at all. “In the linguistic jargon, they have only a syntax but no semantics” (Searle 1984) However, depending on hown one observes this problem, it can appear very differently. Regarding the entire room, the person in the room (to whom I shall refer for the sake of continuity of terms as a demon), the scripts and the person outside as a whole, we do have a system that is capable of reading and interpreting Chinese.

Hofstadter extends this idea by modifying the scenario so as to shrink it to brain size, the scripts becoming neurons and so on. This effectively creates a system equivalent to the human brain. So what would be the difference between the two. Why would one be acceptable as a thinking system and one not ? Searle frequently refers to ‘causal properties’ and ‘intentionality’ stating that the artificial system proposed by Hofstadter would lack both of them, and that somehow the human brian has both.

It is here where the subject of duality comes into the fore. Are the mind and the brain one and the same, or are they separate entities ? Many religions favour this dualist approach and refer to the mind, as it is in this instance, as a persons soul and regard it as being separate to the physical self. Whether the mind is separate or not, Searle’s argument implies that the human brain has a mind, because of its natural causal properties, yet an artificial machine does not. But what are these natural causal properties, and from what do they derive ?

Are they a result of the biological material from which the brain is made, are they a result of the brain’s structure or are they a result of a breath of life from the lips of a god ? “Machines as simple as thermostats can be said to have beliefs, and having beliefs seems to be a characteristic of most machines capable of problem solving performance” (McCarthy 1979) At what point does a functioning machine gain intentionality ? Here Zenon Pylyshyn is cited from a reply made to Searle, to illustrate the complex connotations involved in the idea of the natural causal property of the brain. If more and more of the cells in your brain were to be replaced by integrated circuit chips, programmed in such a way as to keep the input-output function of each unit identical to that of the unit being replaced, you would in all likelihood just keep right on speaking exactly as you are doing now except that you would eventually stop meaning anything by it. What we outside observers might take to be words would become for you just certain noises that circuits caused you to make. Surely, the person in the above example would have conscious, intentional thought, despite being constructed from artificial parts. Or would this person simply be acting in the same role as the chinese room demon ? Another area rapidly developing in AI is Parallel Distributed Processing, or neural networks. These are complex structures that emulate the brains neural structure, and are usually modelled within a computer, although in theory there is nothing to stop them being constructed electronically, or even mechanically!

The effect of a neural network is similar to that in Pylyshyn’s example – an electronic replacement for a part of the brain. Functionally it operates almost identically to a brain and can be made to do tasks similar to those performed by Schank’s story program. Could a neural network equivalent be said to have any more ‘causal properties’ than just a computer program ? Searle acknowledges that since we are merely machines, it is possible that machines can think.

However he finds the idea of a computer program thinking implausible. However, if we could model a brain, with atomic accuracy in a computers memory, for example in the form of a neural network, surely it would work in exactly the same way and would therefore be just as valid a thinker as a human. It seems that this whole debate rests its most basic principles on a belief; either one believes that our ‘intentionality’ derives purely from our brain and its structure or one doesn’t.

Even if we ever do manage to construct an exact replica of a brain that appears to work identically to the real thing, how could we tell if it really is a conscious entity with true intentionality, or merely acting like the chinese room demon ? Indeed, how can we define conscious, and intentionality in that context. There must be a level of functioning or reasoning that we can use as a cut-off point for deciding whether or not something is alive and thinking. Descartes stated “I think. Therefore, I am”. But was he thinking, or merely following a mechanical pattern, with no real understanding of the words ? References