Developments

Select two recent or current developments in the travel and tourism industry and explain how these developments have affected career opportunities and job roles within the industry.

In this first part of the question, I will talk about how technology has affected careers and job roles within the travel & tourism industry.

Technology has been the biggest development on the travel & tourism industry within the last ten years. It has allowed many companies to offer improved service to customers and help with the start up of many other businesses. Computers have been used for many years especially within the airline industry for tasks such as check in and ATC (Air Traffic Control), but now computers are being used in travel agents and tour operators. This could have affect on jobs, as computerisation will lead to less paper work. Computers are also used to access the Internet and customers are seeing the benefits of using this method of booking. Online booking also cuts out paying the travel agent commission; prices are also generally lower on the Internet.

A new type of travel agent is appearing on the Internet, which specialises in e-commerce (electronic business) and example of this type of organisation is Expedia. Organisations such as this can be used to book all the principles of a holiday in one place. This also affects jobs, as only two or three people will need to be employed to ensure the systems work properly. This could affect many travel agents; some have already closed, as they cannot compete with the competition that is being given from online organisations. Some companies may choose to integrate, but this can also lead to a loss in jobs, as the amount of staff required maybe lower.

As I mentioned previously, computers have been used in the airline and airport sector for many years. Airlines now use computers in a different way. Thanks to the advances in technology, passengers can now check in using a kiosk within the terminal building and at Waterloo Station, London, when travelling with British Airways. It is also possible to check in online 24 hours before a flight departure. The introduction of check in kiosks will inevitably mean that fewer customer service agents will be required. Not all development within the industry will lead to loss of jobs; one example of this is Terminal 5 at Heathrow Airport. More staff will be employed when British Airways moves all of its flights and services from Terminal 1 & 4 to Terminal 5. More staff will be employed to work within shops, stations and facilities that will be available to customers when the terminal opens in 2008.

Aircraft are also becoming more technologically advanced, two of the world biggest aircraft manufactures, Boeing and Airbus are developing new aircraft that will changed the way passengers travel. The Airbus A380 will become the largest civil aircraft in the world; and will have a maximum captivity will be 840 passengers. Singapore Airlines among others will be modifying the cabin to included bars, shops and gyms that will require staff to attend and maintain while in the air. There will be more career opportunities such as cabin crew and aircraft pilot when the new aircraft are introduced into service. An extension of aircraft is the possibility of space travel. Staff that will be employed for space travel will have to be trained to a higher level of health and safety and will be specialised in the working of and running of the craft.

Visitor attractions have been using technology to their advantage. The safety of rides in theme parks can closely be monitored with computers, if a hazard occurs it can be located quickly and action can be taken. This will reduced the amount of mechanics needed to look after the rides. Technology has also allowed rides to have a higher thrill factor without compromising the safety of riders. Thorpe Park is the first theme park in the world to have a ten-loop roller coaster. It is kept safe with the use of computers, so that the ride operators can ensure high levels of safety.

As parents we continue wondering if the outside influences will be a positive influence on our children as they form relationships. This paper compares the systems of the Bacteriological Model of Human Development by providing examples of the influences on a child’s growth of standard and irregular development in children as well as puberty, the interaction between cognitive, physical, and psychosocial development and its ability to influence overall child development. Development The model of human development has been summarized through Erie Frontbencher one of the world’s foremost professionals in the field of developmental psychology.

Within the writings of Frontbencher it is understood that his belief in the development of children is not Just one thing or system; Frontbencher reports there are numerous outside influences that help mold the child’s personality/character (1990). The Microsystems stands for the connotations concerning other Microsystems. For example, how the family relates to the school, church as well as to how the family interact with their peers. The Ecosystem associates the social setting that a person does not have an active role. For example, a spouse’s or youth’s knowledge at home possibly will be swayed by a mom’s Involvements at work.

For instance let’s say the mom received an advancement that necessitates additional travel, this could cause an argument between she and the husband that in turns changes the communication all use with each other. When addressing the Microsystems we address the culture In which persons live. Everyone’s Microsystems grows and changes over time, each continual peer group could change the Microsystems that Is unique to each person (Call, R. V. , & Caving, J. C. 2010). The Imitating of ecological actions In Dalton to the changes that occur such as divorce Is an example of the final system called the Chronometers.

Influence It is clear along with the usual role of educating; schools have a larger part to play in the progress of our children. However, they cannot and should not be the only responsible fragment of our children’s education/development. Along with the incorporated into the Micro-system which makes a child’s Microsystems complete (Beer 2000). When communication is poor between different micro-systems, more gig risk people develop and are more unlikely to adjust in the general public. To reach the best outcomes for a child, stimulating yet active styles must be combined in the teaching method.

The family is the most powerful unit of the Microsystems and such as controls how the youth performs in school. For that reason it demands that the school and the family interact to yield the best results. The family generates an inspiring atmosphere by getting involved with their children’s accomplishments (Addison 1992). The parental/school collaboration exists because it is the general public that allocates all the means to the school. Furthermore, the public also defines what material and which programs will be used in the school curriculum.

Unfortunately in many of our school districts children do not have an equal playing field nor do they have the opportunity to succeed as well as learn equally as individuals. One of the key reasons for this is directly traced to the child’s socioeconomic standing; a family’s socioeconomic status is based on family income, parental education level, parental occupation, in addition to their social status within the community. According to Frontbencher (1990), outcomes uncovered that children from upper class cultures have a better chance of success than children of low income families.

In addition, upper class individuals have the chance to go to better schools with better/healthier services. However, not all children who come from poor backgrounds are assured to fail but then the following circumstances need to be accessible; there needs to be an atmosphere at home that stimulates the child to study, the family sets reasonably high expectations for their children as well as the family is involved with the child in avian fun, recognizing the accomplishments of the child and then praising the child for their effort.

One of the main barriers for lower class families is the lack of ability to enroll their children in extracurricular activities, for example, after school programs, summer camps etc. I agree with Beer (2000) when stating the experience or impact the child brings with them into the classroom can be in itself an incentive or motivating factor for success. Children from poor backgrounds will try to be successful so that they can escape the difficulties that they have experienced.

On the other hand, since children with upper class parents have many more opportunities than those from a lower income status, they may see no need to work hard. In this case, chance has no part to play in how well a child does in school. Need is what drives children to grab the chances that come their way. Just as it is stated that not all poor children will fail in becoming successful not all upper class children have had the proverbial spoon feeding. Brotherliness’s biological methods are focused on the quality as well as circumstance of the child’s surroundings.

He states that as a child ages, the message inside these surroundings come to be more complicated. This complexity can increase as the child’s physical and cognitive structures grow and develop. For example, our economy has moved from a manufacturing model to a technical model; however the designs of the office have been determined by the faith of the manufacturing work code. Adults/parents are likely to work a schedule that revolves enables workers to be free of manual labor should free them from the time, place boundary restriction which would allow more participation from parents. Impact

Our views of learning and development have changed dramatically over the past several decades. Our perspective has changed from seeing learning as an individual and passive experience to recognizing learning as an active, dynamic and developmental process. We now understand learning and growth as happening surrounded by a broader context of persons, places, and natural settings. Family life in this country has taken a back seat to the needs of the workplace. Also the debt model used to decide the level of support allowed by the public to low income family’s needs to be review, and revised.

Adults must announce themselves to need in order to meet the requirements for help that may possibly have come about because of our national price of freedom. The more amount of failure reported means a larger amount of possible support the family could receive. If it is not enough we ask the family to demoralize themselves by taking what pride they have we expect them to have the mental strength to climb up the thread that had been thrown for assistance. The volatility and impulsiveness of family life that we have let our budget generate is the greatest damaging force to a child’s growth (Addison, 992).

Children do not have the endless interaction with significant adults that is necessary for their development. According to Frontbencher we must nurture social outlooks that value work completed on behalf of children at all levels: patisseries, educators, extended family, counselors, work administrators, lawmakers. The bio ecological systems theory combines sociology and thinking, through persons, and their surroundings influencing one another. Families continue to struggle balancing work and family [micro-system and ex. system].

Laws pressure and even est. the very existence of some people, for example, migrant inhabitants who cannot live together with their relatives [micro-system and macro-system]; treacherous regions or possibly schools that create wild and disloyal troposphere for families and children [micro-system and macro-system]. Brotherliness’s model shows how the individual matures inside, how the person is swayed and also by identifying the affects the systems [Coloratura context]. Relationships and Interactions To have the greatest effect, supports need to be flexible, balancing one another, moving in and out of their comfort zone.

Collaborating with an available set of community wide assets that support learning as well as adult influences on the child’s community growth; this can be divided into direct and indirect patterns of influence. Direct influence is linked with a parent or caregivers personal intervention or guidance of a young child’s social attitudes, reactions and behaviors. Indirect influence is related with a parent’s or caregivers example and the atmosphere he or she creates for children to comprehend in addition to supervising social contacts.

Parents and other adults influence children in both direct and indirect ways. For example, a parent could help a child Join a group of children playing a game together; this is an example of a direct influence. An indirect example could look like a teacher who spent a little time counseling a specific student while other students observed; they come to the conclusion through this observation that the teacher who was spending the time with their friend is now seen as approachable. With social examples. Parents and other adults often are unconscious teachers of young children.

Young children may sift through and cast off the information parents or other adults consciously try to teach them. But the pattern a parent or caregiver demonstrates in how to treat others tends to leave a more powerful and lasting impression. Practice Positive Discipline, the discipline style of parents or caregivers can have a large influence on children’s social skills. Children seem to learn how to interact with others from the model their parents use with them. A very important action a caregiver can give to each child is finding playmates for their children, setting play dates for their children.

Enrolling children in organized social activities, such as swimming, soccer, preschool, 4-H clubs, helping children achieve access to a social position by making introductions, participating in a game with other children, etc. Encouraging children to practice appropriate social interaction, such as sharing toys, asking for favors, saying please and thank you, in addition to arranging and organizing a play group that meets regularly, providing your home or yard for a play environment, giving some supervision to the play Parents and caregivers can model positive conflict resolution for children.

If possible, parents and other adults should use disputes as an opportunity to teach ND demonstrate peaceful ways of negotiating and compromising to children. Parents and caregivers can step in to help children negotiate differences with others and mediate for them as needed when they are not getting along with others. Model effective conflict resolution and encourage appropriate behavior. Be a positive example of working through conflict or differences with others.

Practice parental coaching, which involves varying levels of supervision based on a child’s age and needs, and superseding as needed when social situations become too challenging for young child to manage. Supervision of social interactions should become less intense and less obvious as children grow older, taking place more from a distance. With older children, children can be coached on their interpersonal relationships in private and with follow-up.

Coaching and supervision may inhibit social development if done harshly for example, if the parent is overly involved [poor boundaries] or uses physical force or aggressive verbal communication to intervene. Conclusion While there is no crystal ball and only hind sight is 20/20, the birth of a child signifies the beginning of a new life. New lives that are unprotected and will be subjected to several significant experiences that will play have a major influence on the growth of the child.

Even though every child born is different from any other we have discussed the one constant that all children need weather they come from a family of means or a family that has little to offer financially. Children are looking for the affirmations that should be present within their home and with the child/parent/ caregiver relationship. However when the person is missing that bond he or she will kook for attention in unsuitable places; and unfortunately especially in adolescence they will learn anti-social behavior, display a lack of self-discipline, as well as have the inability to provide self-direction (Addison, 1992).

The objectives of this case study are; a) to develop a better understanding of Aspirer syndrome, b) to identify the role of the unit in assisting the students in their education and personal development and finally, c) to investigate how integrated are students with Speaker’s in main stream schooling. Case Study As a secondary school teacher for the past five years in a mainstream school the aim f this case study was to gain a deeper understanding of how Special Needs Assistants help students with Speakers, as well as investigating how included these students are in our educational system.

During the initial stages of planning the research, both qualitative and quantitative approaches were considered. Firstly, the use of survey questionnaires was considered to study teachers’ perception of their role in educating students with special needs as well as measuring the experience of students with special needs in mainstream schooling. However, the nature of the search questions involved a lot of ethical considerations and the time scale available was not sufficient to address for the purpose of this assignment.

Due to the fact that the unit currently catered for two students with Speaker’s syndrome a qualitative approach was more appropriate for this research study. The unit in which the research took place is situated in a community college in North Dublin, where the socio-economic profile ranges from working to middle class. There are three Special Needs Assistants currently working in the unit and the unit caters for six full time students with autism and two students with Speakers. The students with Speakers spend the majority of their time in mainstream education but come to the unit if exempt from certain subjects and on a needs basis.

For example, if there had been difficulties with behavior or the student required time out for themselves. It was for these reasons that it provided the ideal setting needed to investigate the research questions posed by the author. In the initial visit it was clear to the author that the unit was differed in it’s lay out and atmosphere too normal class room. The unit was very bright, airy and spacious, as opposed to rows of tables and chairs there ere little working areas. Each of the students had their own working space and computer. The unit also had an art area, kitchen, common room, office and a sensory room.

It was immediately sensed by the author that overall it was very relaxed area and the students themselves were very content and calm. The layout of the unit helped to create such an atmosphere giving the students the opportunity to sit at their own workspaces and listen to music if they became agitated. The author was hugely interested in the sensory room especially built for the two students with Speakers. There are frequently sensory issues with those with Speakers meaning that they can have a heightened sense of smell, taste, or sound.

Their senses are often hyper-acute resulting in an over-reaction to ordinary sounds such as fluorescent lights, fans, and other electrical appliances. Thus, things that might be annoying for the average person can be amplified and uncomfortable to the person with Speakers. The aim of the sensory room was to help the students with this hyperactivity of their senses. Also the room was used as a space for them to withdraw if they had being involved in a highly stressful situation for example argument with teacher or another student.

Over-reaction to situations is common occurrence for students with Speakers. Therefore, “time out” is an essential coping mechanism for students with Speakers. Results from eleven studies published from 1989 to 2003 indicated that those students with disabilities, both visible and non-visible, experience bullying more than their non-disabled educational peers and that boys were bullied more often than girls (Adkins, 1996; Memory & Hillier (1989). Both students with Speakers involved in this case study were themselves victims of bullying.

John (student one) was recently a victim of bullying and as a consequence was now suffering from very low self esteem. The Special Needs Assistants were working with John, rebuilding his self esteem and helping to create new friendships. In order to accomplish this, the Special Needs Assistants organized that John would learn how to make a pizza and have John invite some students in his class to have a pizza party. San (student two) experienced bullying within the classroom. San has great difficulty differentiating between appropriate and inappropriate social responses.

He has learned to be argumentative and aggressive which has caused some problems for him in school. SNan’s behavior made him the perfect target for bullying where other students would provoke him within the class causing him to lash out at teachers and at students. The teachers felt that San was the culprit and causing hassle and was often removed from the classroom. Clare his Special Needs Assistant is helping him to identify different approaches to certain scenarios’ he may encounter in the school environment.

She uses teaching material which looks at recognizing SNan’s feelings ND improving his social skills. The Special Needs Assistants in the unit are all in agreement that their role is to develop the students social and life skills. Clare highlighted some of the characteristics of the syndrome which include ‘poor choice of words when speaking, motor clumsiness, non-verbal communication and social interaction which is the most noticeable difficulty. Clare stressed that these impairments in social interaction work strongly against people with the syndrome.

Therefore, it is important that this area in particular is worked on with the students. While great work is being carried out with the students it can sometimes be difficult for the Special Needs Assistants. While they work on strategies to help San and Johns’ behavior in the classroom it can be frustrating as cooperation from colleagues doesn’t come easy at times. Clare feels this is partially due to the fact that teacher training colleges and universities don’t give time to train teachers in regards to special needs.

Also Special Needs Assistants are seen as a quick fix for students with special needs. But it can often lead to isolation rather than inclusion for the students. Analyses theoretical aspects One of the most striking aspects of the above case study is the huge impact the lack of social skills has on those students with Speakers, as they can be excluded by other students in a school environment. One of the most significant problems is their difficulty understanding the thoughts and feelings of others, since empathic imagination is lacking (Convict, Dizzied, Hastens, Rogers, & Wolf, 2007).

In addition, their brains work differently more effort is required to be in a relationship than for neurological people. As expert Tony Attwood points out, “Conventional social occasions can last too long for someone with Speaker’s syndrome, especially as social success is achieved by intellectual effort rather than natural intuition. Socializing is exhausting,” (2007, p. 91). So the desire to be social and the difficulties involved with being social are often at odds, creating an uncomfortable dilemma that requires understanding and patience from others.

They often behave in unattractive ways to others, leading to repeated rejection and ridicule (Gauss, 2007). Bullying is also common (at least 4 times the rate reported by neurotically from 4-17 years old), nice those with Speakers tend to have a trusting nature along with the inability to predict the thoughts of others (Attwood, 2007). As a result, there is often a lack of adequate social support resulting in a sense of isolation, which has such clinical repercussions as depression and anxiety (Gaudiness, 2005).

Speakers display varying degrees of international dysfunction in that some may suffer greatly and be noticed for it while others “pass” as normal (Standard, 2004). Some examples of unspoken social rule errors those with Speakers make include speaking too loudly in inappropriate situations, cutting ahead of lines, interrupting invitations, failing to notice social cues such as when someone wants to leave or finish a conversation, taking innocent Jokes as serious criticisms, and taking Jokes too literally so that the punch line is not responded to in the desired manner (Gauss).

Sensory integration problems that are common in Speakers can make “touching and physical closeness uncomfortable or even painful” (Love, 2005, p. 199). Unaware individuals may touch or hug a person with Speakers, unwittingly putting him or her in the awkward position of wanting to avoid that person yet still seeming interested in being social. As seen with the case study, the lack of social skills can cause those individuals with Speakers to be Judged negatively by others with higher expectations for their functioning, such as parents or teachers. According to Love (2005, p. 72), “There is research that shows that autism spectrum disorders do seem to cause many people to live in a state of hyper-arousal – a sort of preparing state that can be very debilitating. ” Thus, those with Speakers need more time to rest, recuperate and become refreshed between activities causing difficulties in cases where regular work schedules are demanded. In addition, sensory issues like problems tolerating the light wavelengths and intensity of fluorescent lights, which are common in workplaces of all kinds, may interfere with comfort and performance at work (Attwood, 2007). L have spent my life trying to find a place for him in our educational system. It must be appreciated how different children with autism are from each other and no one recipe will work for all children simply because they have a diagnosis of autism/Speaker’s ” (The Educational Provision and Support for Persons with Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Report of the Task Force on Autism 2001). Another issue highlighted from the case study was the inclusion of students with Speakers in main stream schooling.

Due to the fact that many students with Speakers have proficient verbal expression skills and an overall IQ within the normal or above normal often mask outstanding deficiencies observed primarily in socially demanding situations, thus decreasing other people’s perception of their very salient needs for supportive intervention (Kiln and Palomar, 2000. P. 342). ‘Inclusive Education’ and ‘mainstreaming’ promote the ideal of equality of opportunity, acceptance, belonging and social inclusion by roving choice and quality of support.

The Education for Persons with Special Educational Needs (EPEES) Act (2004), considers home, school and community sources of information about children with special needs. All can provide perspectives to implement programmer and strategies that can help the needs of a child with Speakers. However, this collaborative approach can have its difficulties, for example the diagnosis of an autistic spectrum disorder is a stressful and significant event in the lives of families.

Such a diagnosis often follows years of uncertainty where parents struggle to cope tit their child’s ‘difference’ and try to rationalism behavior that is unusual, unmanageable and often unresponsive to parental controls. In Ireland, diagnosis of autistic spectrum disorders remains problematic, with significant delays being the norm in many instances (The Educational Provision and Support for Persons with Autistic Spectrum Disorders: Report of the Task Force on Autism 2001).

Also a label can be incredibly systematizing for an individual, and some interpret this dark mark as a message that society has given up on him or her, which may lead to learned lifelessness and giving up on one’s self too (Standard, 2004). Another issue of inclusion for students with Speakers is that inclusion can be left to the discretion of the individual teacher.

In a study of provision for pupils with special educational needs by the European Agency for Development in Special Needs Education (1998) it was indicated that the main areas of concern that emerged were teacher training, teachers’ attitudes, and the less developed nature of second-level systems in dealing with special educational needs. If inclusion is to be affective the Task Force considers he legal obligation on all schools to submit a Whole School Plan which includes a description of how the school plans to include students with special needs in the mainstream, as an important feature of department policy.

Conclusion As seen from the case study improving social skills is important to the development of students with Speakers. Counseling can provide an environment to work on such skills, one such technique is Cognitive behavior therapy (CB). CB teaches people to monitor their own thoughts and perceptions with the hopes that they will become more aware of their interpretive errors.

Psychotherapy is becoming more widely perceived as a viable treatment modality for individuals with Speakers (Attwood, 2007; Jacobsen, 2003) and some authors have recommended the use of cognitive- behavioral therapy (Attwood, 1998, 2004, 2006; Gauss, 2007; Hare & paten, 1997). CB can help people with Speakers learn to re-conceptualize social interactions and become more able to more accurately “read” the behavior of others. Once they understand others’ motives they can more easily monitor their own behavior and adjust their responses to other people and situations.

It is quiet evident that living tit Speakers poses many obstacles. These obstacles have implications for the individual’s personal life, physical well-being and employment. As a Career Guidance and Counselor it is vital to provide appropriate and effective supports and accommodations to students with Speakers. While counseling might be seen to be helpful for students with Speakers, it is vital to acknowledge that they may not have the ability to recognize problems they may be experiencing especially emotions. Therefore, it would be critical to work on the client/counselor relationship in the initial stages.

Counselors are able to develop positive relationships with clients when they possess the personal qualities of Warmth, sincerity, congruence, understanding, acceptance, concern, openness, respect for the client and the willingness to be challenged by others’ (Corey, G, 2008 IPPP). These characteristics pave the way for counselors to develop positive therapeutic relationships with students, which would be vital to students with Speakers which sometimes are excluded by society. References Attwood, T. (1998). Speaker’s syndrome: A guide for parents and professionals. London: Jessica Kinsley Publishers.

THE ROLE OF NGO’S IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT AND SECURITY By ( IBRAHIM TUDU) Chairman, Zamfara State Coaltion of NGOs, Nigeria email: ibrahimtudu@yahoo. com INTRODUCTION: The term NGO has now become a popular in academic, policy and international cycles. The letters N. G. O is an abbreviation, which stands for Non-Governmental Organization, literally speaking because they are not formed by the government, not controlled by Government bureaucracy and they do not participate in decision or policy making of Government(s). SOME HISTORICAL PERSPECTIVES

For a better understanding of the present topic, one needs to have an insight into the history or evolution of NGOs. Community based organization’s evolution dates back decades ago. Some of the then existing voluntary organizations were very small, inexperienced and generally localized and some exist with different names, such as societies and clubs committees which are mostly friends, relations, professional groups, etc. Generally, they lack some relevant organizational capacities, funding and networking. Some of the oldest voluntary organizations established were the Anti-Slave Trade Society established in the year 1840.

Another old and still surviving NGO established for humanitarian services was the International Committee for the Red Cross and the Red Crescent, an organization that out dates even the United Nations. It was established in the year 1863. It has played a major role in offering humanitarian services in major wars and conflicts. NGOs globally are developed from the need to coordinate some specifically defined activities and objectives. Beginning from 19th century, Mosques, Churches, Professional, Scientific and Cultural groups formed all kinds of associations that execute the work of NGOs.

In the 20th century, specialized bodies started to spring up in such areas like sports, businesses and communications. This paper would now try to fully define the meaning of NGO and also go further to answer some questions on how, why and the need for NGOs, before finally addressing the roles they play in the national development and security which is the topic this paper is designed to address. What is an NGO? Let me begin by asking us this question. What does the term NGO stands for or what is the meaning of an NGO?

Even though there is no generally or universally restricted definition of NGO, however let us bring in some definitions by some institutions and international bodies in order to explain more the meaning or the message behind the term NGO. To enable us capture the idea behind the NGOs, four of these definitions would suffice; i. The British Library, for example agrees that NGOs has to do with voluntary participation by average citizen in the affairs of his environment or communities. This is so because there is no imposed membership, control by Government or State.

They are now often called Private Voluntary Organizations (PVO). ii. The World Bank, defines NGOs as private organizations that pursue basic social services, or undertake community development services. They in whole or in part depend on charitable donations and offer voluntary services. iii. The United Nations, the present name N. G. O was first coined by the U. N in the year 1945. This was mainly to distinguish them from States and Governments. iv. The International Community generally adopts another name for NGO’s, which is “Civil Society Organizations”.

This is generally because they are being formed by the citizen for the good of society and are generally not for profit. NGOs are known to be legitimately engaged in activities that touch on the lives of their communities. These include economic, social, humanitarian, security and philanthropy. They are nevertheless broad in names and activities depending on their objectives, focus and mode of operation. These include associations, societies, forums, foundations, networks, charities, organizations, trusts, centers, clubs, committees, etc.

Why Are NGOs Established? Let us try to address the question or give answers to the reasons on why NGOs are established by communities. The belief that not all areas, activities, fields, needs and services of the communities are perfectly and completely offered or addressed by Governments however highly advanced or principled. This makes the establishment of NGOs absolutely necessary, complimentary and very encouraging in the history and developmental need of any nation. It is generally agreed that human capital is another form of economic capital.

Therefore, the vast resources and capacities accumulated by the voluntary, non-profit organizations could not be disregarded. The zeal to serve ones community and offer services to the poor and the needy or participate in developmental activities or other humanitarian and relief services are some of the motivating factors that give rise to the establishment of NGOs. Recently, the activities of NGOs are on the rise, they are at the forefront in the fight for good governance, accountability and transparency by public office holders. So many factors and challenges have caused like minded eople to unite and forge common front on some issues of the day ranging from the quest for offering social services to the people, to offering relief, humanitarian and emergency services. So also the issue of globalization, environment and anti war issues has united communities. Between 1945 to 1995, the number of NGOs has increased astronomically. Currently, even in the absence of accurate data of the number of NGOs worldwide, one can safely say that their proliferation is directly associated with the coming of new technology, communication and the Internet. On the average, a new NGOs is created somewhere in the world every day.

Generally, it is our opinion that the number of CBO and NGOs in a particular locality, state or nation providing non-profit services in a very healthy development which should not be over looked by any state or government. More recently, there has been growing interest in the activities of NGOs not only in Nigeria but worldwide. How Does NGOs Operate? Worldwide, the activities and contribution of NGOs to societies through their participation and providing inexpensive, value driven and usually completely free services to communities has been acknowledged and is increasingly coming to the lime light.

Even though, NGOs operate in different capacities and with numerous objectives, motivation and focus. Generally they work as pressure groups, watchdogs and developmental organizations. The United Nations for example has found it very necessary to deal with NGOs. In fact, the term NGO as earlier explained was coined by the U. N. after the WW II. Since then it has extended the ways and principles of it engagement with the NGOs by expanding and improving the way it works with them. The British and American Governments have also created a variety of regional assemblies and grouping to try to bring more people and communities into ctive participation in democratization and other major campaigns. The International Community uses numerous names to describe NGOs. These names include: Non- partisan organizations, not-for-profit, Watchdogs, Pressure Groups, Voluntary Sector, Complimentary Institutions, Stakeholders, Non State Actors, Bridge Builders, Development Partners, Grassroots Organizations, Community Based Organizations, Private Voluntary Organizations, Peoples Organization, Value Driven Organizations, Third Sector of the Economy, etc.

The world of NGOs has continued to widen and assume more dimension and relevance today. LEGAL STATUS OF NGOs The right to establish, create or form an NGO is a fundamental human right that belong to the individuals or group of people and are not bestowed on the States or Governments. These rights are derived from the fundamental rights of an individual, group or community to free speech and association that exist in almost all civilized constitutions.

However, even though NGOs have right to exist and operate as informal organizations, a crucial part of the enabling environment for NGOs requires them to incorporate and acquire formal or legal personality or status this would in turn protect the principles of such NGOs from personal liability for the affairs of the organization, such as contracts, debts or legal action. In Nigeria, for example, Corporate Affairs Commission (CAC) is the body charged with the power to register NGOs that desire to operate in Nigeria. CAC derives its powers from the Companies and Allied Matters Decree No.

I part C, which took effect from 2nd January 1990. So also States and Local Governments have departments of Social and Community Development and that of Youth and Sports Ministries overseeing the registration of NGOs. AN IDEAL NGO It is expected that every organization should meet some certain requirements in order to engage in legitimate activities as opposed to criminal and illegitimate groups. An ideal NGO is expected to among other things abide by the following: – • To be registered with relevant authorities at the Local, State or National levels depending on the level of operation. To have a well articulated constitution or articles of association or charter. • To have an executive body, and an open and simple criteria for membership or volunteers. • To have an office, correspondence addresses like; post office box, telephone, email, fax, etc. • To have clear and well-defined mission, vision or aims and objectives. • To engage in programmes and activities that helped the community. • To have a clean, transparent and verifiable sources of funds for their activities. • To have a leadership, organogram and well established channel of communication. To have very good rappour with their community, other organizations and relevant authorities. CATEGORIES OF NGOs Even though their activities are sometimes similar and aimed at development, NGOs differ in so many ways and aspects. They can be safely categorized into various groupings. They can be CBOs, FBOs, and they can also be INGOs. The World Bank for example classified NGOs into 3 main groups, they are: – a. Community Based organizations (CBO); these are NGOs that are based or directly in touch with the Local communities and usually set up by the communities themselves, e. g.

CODEC, CDF, PAMUHE in Zamfara State. b. State NGOs (SNGO) & National NGOs (NNGO); these organizations as the name implies operate as State or at national level in their countries of origin e. g. GLONIJ, FOMWAN, PEDO in Zamfara State etc c. International (INGOs); there are typically in developed countries and they usually carryout their activities in more than one country e. g. CARE, OXFAM, etc. Some of the other categories also include; d. BINGO; Business Oriented International NGOs. e. RINGO; Religious International NGOs. f. FBNGO; Faith Based NGOs. g. ENGO; Environmental NGOs. . GONGO; Government Operated NGOs. i. QUANGO; Quasi –autonomous NGOs. Further sub-divisions are also possible; Active NGOs; these are the ones that strive to address the root causes of societal problems they stage programmes that even attract the media. They are either advocacy, service or development oriented. In active NGOs; These are the less functional ones that have less or no funding whatsoever but attend conferences, seminars and workshops. Brief Case NGOs; These are usually one-man show often described as “Portfolio Type” or a collection of “Family Business Groups”.

Umbrella Organizations for NGOs exist with names like; Networks; These are groups of NGOs from different areas, states or regions that comes from different backgrounds but working in the same field but not necessary the same focus and mission. e. g Cisnan Coalitions; these are umbrella organizations that consist of different NGOs working in different fields of human endevour. They are of differing focus, objectives and missions but they are united for the betterment of their causes and social welfare. e. g Zacons Who fund NGOs? There are a number of funding sources or bodies working with different NGOs.

They may be categorizes in the following; 1. Self- Funding; Registration fees, Dues, Levies, Donations, Investments Returns, etc. 2. Local, State or Federal Governments; Naca, Zamsaca, etc 3. Foreign Governments; Like the U. S (USAID), U. K (DFID), E. U, etc. 4. UN Agencies; UNDP, UNICEF, WHO, UNIFEM, etc 5. International NGOs; Global Fund, Oxfam, AAIN, etc 6. Philanthropies/Foundations; Ford Foundation, Rock feller Foundation, Carnegie Foundation, Heinrich Foundation, Melinda Gates Foundation, Packard Foundation, Macarthur Foundation, etc THE ROLE OF NGOs IN NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT

After casting a picture of what NGOs are by showing how they operate and why they are established, we can now safely delve into their contributions national development. NGOs as non state actors, have played and are stilling playing very important and major role in initiating and supporting various Local, National and International developmental activities. To make sense out of this, one may digress a little to show how NGOs are also playing their role internationally. For example concerted campaigns, enormous pressure and actions by States together with NGOs led to the establishment of the International Court of Justice.

Globally, NGOs have impacted direct and meaningful involvement in shaping the international agenda at the United Nations and regional levels through remarkable negotiations. NGOs are found in international and regional committees. They also contributed in the MDG and NEEDs programme. They are also engaged as partners in United Nations Agencies such as the UNEP, UNFAO, UNDP, UNCTAP and UNCHR. But since this is outside the scope of this paper there is no need to go further. NOW WHAT IS THE MEANING OF NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT?

To understand the contribution of NGOs to National Development especially in Nigeria, we need to acquaint ourselves with the meaning of the term National Development. Development of any nation is defined by the advanced learners Dictionary as that nation’s process of changing and evolving pattern of becoming larger, stronger, more successful or more advanced. ‘The Roles of Civil Society and Citizen organizations (in national development) are becoming better understood around the world,” says Martin Sime, Chief Executive Officer the Scottish Council of Voluntary Organizations. NGOs has been over the past decade ahead of government on many key issues of our times,” said Mr. Naidoo an Executive social worker. Another separate testimony by Mr. Mario “Whether we take the issue of land mines, environment, HIV/AIDS, global poverty agenda, gender equity, civil society’s impact is quite significant and remarkable in terms of facing difficult challenges of our time and putting forth solutions that are more bold, more courageous and more innovative than many who are constrained by their political office” says Mario Lubetkin, Director General of the Inter Press Service (IPS).

Even though NGOs as oppose to Governments, are well outside decision-making machinery of Governments, they have proved as dependable partners in the formulation of policies and programmes whenever consulted by Governments. Let us now list some areas of contribution by NGOs. 1. NGOs have contributed immensely in monitoring and exposing bad governance, corruption, child trafficking, etc. 2. They have also served as think tanks and resource base for training, capacity, research and advocacy, project planning and execution. 3.

Many NGOs have gained the trust of people and Governments, so the Governments machinery has begun to engage and dialogue with them thereby tapping their expertise and skills. NGOs are now no longer considered adversaries but partners in progress. 4. NGOs have had significant progress in raising public awareness on almost any issue that arose. This they do through increased campaigns, sensitization, information collection and data analysis. 5. They have forged ties and engaged in fruitful partnership and networking among themselves. This has boosted cooperation, unity and more developmental services they render to the people. . They have played significant role in shaping the debate for sustainable development. They execute concrete projects and advocate for the formal participation of women in division making. 7. NGOs are contributing immensely in the attainment of environmental justice through protection of social, economic and environmental rights. 8. They have contributed in MDG, NEEDs, Micro credit scheme and poverty alleviation. NGOs in Zamfara State that are affiliated and members of the coalition have contributed to the development of Zamfara States in many ways and at different levels.

Currently, NGOs have employed a number of youth both male and female as full time development staff and some on office routine. They can also boost of the largest collection of humanitarian volunteers from communities, civil services and the business sector. NGOs in the state have executed a lot of projects totaling more than 30 millions naira in the past 3 years alone. More then 60 projects in the area of education, health and good governance were executed in Zamfara State. NGOs have exalted themselves in areas of exchange of ideas and information. They have engaged in a number of capacity building workshops and other International Forums.

NGOs have attended and represented Zamfara State in a number of seminars, workshops and conferences. In the past few years NGOs in Zamfara can boost of accomplishing the following as their own contribution to state and national development; 1. Enhancing Girls Basic Education in Communities LGAs in Zamfara State. 2. Peer Education, Kasaurara II Project in 12 Northern States. 3. Self help Community Development Projects, 4. Construction of Culverts and Drainages, 5. Participation in Environmental Sanitation Programme. 6. Quiz competition on Radio and T. V among Youth in the State. 7.

Sensitization and Awareness on the Annual Hajj exercise. 8. Sensitization workshops on Reproductive Health issues. 9. Organizing of Leadership training courses. 10. Construction of Community Primary School in Tudun Wada, 11. Renovation of Boreholes. 12. Quarterly Training of Trainers Programme on HIV/AIDS. 13. Publication of Books and Journals for Adult and Children 14. Monitoring of Census and Election. 15. Youth and Women Skills training in Zamfara 16. Provision of Care and Support for PLHVA 17. Provision of Emergency and First Aid services. 18. Research Projects on Child Begging and offering solution 19.

Sensitization workshop on HIV to opinion leaders. 20. Public Enlightenment of Women on current issues 21. Provision of Public Pumps at U/Zabarma, Gusau 22. Organization of Inter-Secondary Schools Debate 23. Participation in Tree Planting Campaign. 24. Staging of Conflict mitigation workshops 25. Provision of HIV Resource Centre. 26. Sensitization on Affirmative Action for Women 27. Provision of Micro Credit to Women 28. Budget Tracking Workshops 29. Launching of VCT centers and Hotlines in the State In Zamfara State NGOs can be found in different communities set up to work at Local, State and National Levels.

This is in recognition of the role they can play in giving useful advises, constructive criticism and sound policy decisions. WHAT ARE THE ROLES PLAYED BY NGOs IN NATIONAL SECURITY Again let us address the term and notion of security and national security before indicating the role the NGOs play in ensuring national Security. In a summary National Security as defined by Wikipedia, the internet encyclopedia refers to the public policy of ensuring the survival and integrity of the nation state through the use of economic, social and military power and the exercise of diplomacy in both peace and war time.

The strategy used or employed by the states to protect national security is numerous. They include the use of diplomacy to rally allies and isolate threats; marshalling economic power to facilitate or compel cooperation of the enemy. Others measures include the use of intelligence and network of agents to depend, defeat or avoid threats and espionage and protect classified information. However, national security does entirely and solely depend on the military power or population of a nation but the social well being of the people of a nation.

The components that make up national security include the following: – i. Food security ii. Economic security iii. Political security iv. Social security As indicated above, the notion of national security does not only mean the enforcement of laws and security operations. National security is a collective and relative name. It does not only means enforcement of fear or restoration of Security, but the elimination of all sources of insecurity, which must include the provision of all of the above components.

The NGOs helped in no small measure in the maintenance of each of the three mentioned security components. Let us try and list them in this order; i. Food Security: NGO’s most visible role and contribution is in the fight against hunger, unemployment and poverty. They perform so well in these areas by demanding for good policies by governments on the issues of tackling poverty. They help in getting food to the hungry and the needy through humanitarian services, philanthropy, charity and endowments. “A hungry man they say is indeed an angry man and conversely a source of insecurity”. ii. Economic Security:

Through the pursuance of good economic policies by governments the NGOs press for economic reforms and better economic measure to ensure a secure economy that buttress businesses and other economic activities. NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for accountability, transparency and equity by public and private office holders. iii. Political Security: In the public and leadership arena, NGOs are in the forefront in the fight for good governance, democracy and human development. NGOs engage leaders and public office holders by ensuring public based legislation, participation and equal opportunities are provided. v. Social Security: This is one of the most and very important components of national security. Ensuring social cohesion, integration, participation, efficient and adequate distribution of social services and amenities. NGOs also help in the fight for equal opportunities and employment that are integral to their activities not only nationally but also globally. On the health sector the NGOs has reacted to HIV/AIDs, Malaria and Tuberculosis with unprecedented attention and dispatch it deserves. NGOs IN WAR AND PEACE

As generally believed, peace is not only the absence of war but a state of maximum security free from all forms of fear. Conversely, there is no security without peace. NGOs offer their services in peacetime and also offer humanitarian services in events of emergencies such as epidemics, earthquakes and other natural or man made disasters. NGOs contribute in no small measure in times of peace and security. This becomes evidently clear in the sense that NGOs themselves help in bridging gaps, resolution of conflicts and public enlightenment on contentious issues.

Even though there some NGOs whose formation and activities draws some security concerns, one may hasten to say that those NGOs only strive as a result of inadequate security and failure of governments to provide checks and balances which fuels their existence and increase their activities. These “NGOs” may include extreme pressure groups, armed freedom fighters, criminal gangs, rebels, cultist, syndicates, cartels, ethnic and racial movements, nationalist fighters, etc. Therefore these organizations should be carefully separated from developmental and progressive NGOs.

Even though the above voluntary and community organizations may be initially established or formed by a law abiding community and legally, but later their activities may draw some special concerns, fears and security threats. Generally a good NGO should contribute and argument the effort of their communities, localities, states and nation in their chosen areas of operations. NGOs IN LAW ENFORCEMENT AND SECURITY There are numerous NGOs that are found in uniform or out of uniform that help security services in the maintenance of law and order. They participate in confronting emergencies by providing assistants and First Aid support. . g. Red Cross, Red Crescent, Man ‘O’ War Bay, Civil Defense, Volunteer Forces, Scouts, Girls Guide, Boys Brigades, etc. CONCLUSION: One painful fact still remains that security networks and by extension their Governments have not yet recognized and appreciated the huge reserve of knowledge, capacity and resources resident within the voluntary sector that can contribute to their policies and programmes towards National development. On their part, some NGOs underestimated their relevance and the role they can play in National Development and Security through engaging Governments at all levels on all issues.

Criticisms of NGOs from some quarters that are either not direct recipient of their services or are ignorant of the role they are playing in national development also abound. They are being called all sorts of names that include; they are self appointed, undemocratic, answer to no constituency, encroaches on National and International laws, long arm of their sponsoring partners, resembles multinationals, chase disasters, proponents of western values, aggressive organizations, extremist, etc.

Whatever the criticism, it is evidently clear that nationally and Internationally, political and economic developments has risen with the rise and rise of NGOs, Civil Organizations has become a vital link and force for social change. They put people first before profit; they put food first before reserve or politicking. The bottom line is that, the work of NGOs which is the provision of socio-economic needs of the people as well as caring for their well being are also the key elements in any development and security effort of any nation.

The security of people must starts from meeting their human needs. This implies that social amenities such as shelter, education, health and other infrastructural materials and the elimination of economic inequality are part of security. All of the above cannot be secured unless and until we have good governance, democracy, peace, security and sustainable national development. Fortunately, these are exactly what the NGOs are fighting for and were known for globally. …………………………………………………………………………………………………. The Author of the paper holds HND in Printing Technology from Kaduna Polytechnic in 1989.

He worked in the private sector and was one time Managing Director Nasiha Professional Printers, Sokoto and Zamfara States. He was also the Press Manager, Mazan – Fara Printing Press, Gusau. He worked in the public sector and was the Chief Superintendent of Press, Survey Division, Ministry of Lands and Survey, Zamfara State. He also served NGOs in different capacities: Executive Member, Muslim Students Society, Kaduna Polytechnic Branch, Secretary General, Joint Youth Islamic Organizations, Zamfara State.

Currently he is the Secretary General, Global Network for Islamic Justice, Zamfara State, Executive Director, Partnership for Muslim Health, Zamfara State, Chairman, Coalition of Non-Governmental Organizations, Zamfara State, President, Association of Nigeria Authors, Zamfara State Chapter. He has attended so many seminars and conferences both at national and international levels. The Author is currently employed with the Zamfara State Zakat and Endowment Board, in the position of Director Zakat Collection.

SOME ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS USED AAN-Action Aid Nigeria CSACEFA-Civil Society Action Coalition on Education for All. CISHNAN-Civil Society Network on HIV/AIDS. DFID-Department for International Development. SFH-Society for Family Health SACA-State Action Committee on Aids USAID-United State Agency for International Development CODEC-Community Development Centre NACA-National Action Committee on Aids CISCOPE-Civil Society Action Coalition on Poverty Eradication GLONIJ-Global Network For Islamic Justice

UNDP-United Nations Development Programme NEEDS-National Economic Empowerment Development Strategy IDASA-Institute of Democracy South Africa. ZASCON-Zamfara State Coalition of NGO’s AAIN-Action Aid International SEEDS-State Economic Empowerment Development Strategy TMG-Transition Monitoring Group PLWHA-People Living with HIV/AIDS CARE-Cooperative Assistant for Relief Everywhere REFERENCE The rise and rise of NGOs – Peter Hall-Jones, Public Services International, May, 2006.

NGOs the self appointed altruist – Sam Vakain, Ph. D – 2005 The role of Egypt C. S. O in Development & Reform – USEF Panel Discussion Notes, 2004. Categorizing NGOs; – World Bank Criteria. Towards an enabling legal environment for CSO – Sixteenth Annual John Hopkins International Fellows in Philanthropy Conference, Nairobi, Kenya. NGOs – Wikipeadia; the free encyclopedia. C. S. O & Democratic oversight of the security sector – Macina Caparini, DCAF, International Security Forum Zurich, 2002.

The Positive Psychology movement focuses on identifying protective factors that promote wellbeing and protect people from the negative psychological effects related to life’s everyday challenges. Research increasingly supports self-compassion as a key component in positive mental health outcomes. However, very few studies have examined factors that lead to the development of self-compassion. Attachment is known to contribute to the development of healthy social and emotional development (Sroufe, Egeland, Carlson, & Collins, 2005).

Theoretically, parental attachment should promote the development of self-compassion. Attachment is described as the socio-emotional bond between individuals (Wicks-Nelson & Isreal, 2009). Healthy parental attachment develops in the first year of life through consistent, sensitive, and responsive parenting from a stable caregiver (Ainsworth, 1979; Barnas & Cummings, 1994; Sroufe, 2005). The attachment relationship with a caregiver is an essential component in helping to form the foundation for healthy personality and functioning in society.

For example, attachment is known to influence cognitive ability, development of conscience, coping skills, relationship skills, and the ability to handle perceived threats and negative emotions (Sroufe et al. , 2005; Wicks-Nelson & Isreal, 2009). In a review of the Minnesota study, Sroufe (2005) highlights the importance of early attachment in the developmental course. The Minnesota study was a 30-year longitudinal developmental study, commencing in the 1970’s, which followed individuals from before birth until adulthood. The main purpose of the study was to evaluate the “major propositions of attachment theory” (Sroufe, 2005, p. 49). The primary goal of the study was to test Bowlby’s hypotheses that  quality of caregiver-infant attachment is influenced by the interaction history with the caregiver, ( individual differences in personality can be explained by variations in the quality of early attachment, and secure attachment is related to the development of self-reliance, emotion regulation, and social competence. The quality of infant-caregiver attachment was assessed through observation at 12 and 18 months, using Ainsworth’s Strange Situation procedure.

Many outcome variables, or patterns of behaviour, were extensively measured using various methods (questionnaires, observation, standardized testing, parental and teacher reports) at several ages including infancy, preschool years, childhood, adolescence, and emerging adulthood. During the preschool years outcomes such as self-regulation, curiosity, and effective entry into peer group were measured. In middle school, measures of real-world competence, loyal friendships, coordination of friendship, and group functioning were examined.

During adolescence identity, intimacy, and self-reflection were assessed. The findings from the Minnesota study provided support for Bowlby’s hypotheses (Sroufe, 2005). First, it was demonstrated that secure attachment is directly related to a history of sensitive, emotionally engaged, and cooperative interaction with a caregiver. Also as Bowlby suggested, secure attachment predicted the development of self-reliance such that individuals who used their caregiver as a secure base to explore during infancy, were later more independent.

Moreover, secure attachment predicted adaptive emotion regulation as demonstrated by securely attached individuals having more self-confidence, higher self-esteem, more ego-resiliency (ability to adjust), persistent and flexible coping strategies, and displaying affect appropriate to situations. Finally, strong links were found between secure attachment and measures of social competence from early childhood through adulthood. Individuals with secure attachment were assessed as significantly better on measures such as expectation of relationships, engagement with others, skill in interaction, empathy, and leadership qualities.

Sroufe (2005) suggests these findings indicate the critical importance of attachment because it plays an initiating role in the pathways of development and is related to crucial developmental functions. Thus, attachment is associated with adaptive psychological development. One construct associated with positive mental health outcomes, and in consequence is likely to be engendered by attachment, is self-compassion. Self-compassion is a self-attitude that originates from Buddhist philosophy and has recently begun to appear in Western psychology research.

Neff (2003a) has proposed that self-compassion plays an important role in psychological health and describes self-compassion as extending kindness and caring towards one’s self. As the term itself insinuates, self-compassion involves treating oneself with compassion, especially when experiencing negative feelings and events. Being compassionate towards oneself entails being able to forgive one’s perceived failures and shortcomings, accepting oneself as human and therefore as limited and not perfect, and also desiring wellbeing for oneself.

Neff (2003a) conceptualized self-compassion as comprising three components: self-kindness, common humanity, and mindfulness. Self-kindness refers to extending kindness and understanding to oneself rather than being harshly self-critical and judgmental. Being less judgmental of oneself should also minimize judgment of others. Common humanity is the ability to view negative experiences and limitations as a shared aspect of the larger human experience, instead of seeing experiences as separating and isolating. Consequentially, common humanity also involves recognizing one’s equality with others, which prevents one from being self-centered.

Finally, mindfulness requires clearly seeing and accepting one’s emotions as opposed to the tendency to exaggerate or become absorbed with one’s painful thoughts and feelings. These three elements are linked such that they each promote one another. Research has established and continues to support the benefits of self-compassion. Indeed, there is evidence that self-compassion is associated with emotional intelligence, intrinsic motivation, emotion focused coping strategies, and life satisfaction (Neff, 2003b; Neff, Hsieh, & Dejitterat, 2005).

Additionally, self-compassion protects persons from self-criticism, anxiety, and depression (Neff, 2003b; Neff, Kirkpatrick, & Rude, 2007). Self-compassion also involves taking responsibility for one’s mistakes, and in turn being motivated to change maladaptive thoughts and behaviors (Neff, 2003a; Leary, Tate, Adams, Allen, & Hancock, 2007). Furthermore, self-compassion, not self-esteem, accounts for the attenuation of people’s reactions to negative events (Leary et al. , 2007). Together these findings indicate the importance of self-compassion as it promotes adaptive psychological functioning while preventing negative outcomes.

Self-compassion is also perceived to be distinct from and more beneficial than self-esteem (Leary et al. , 2007). Self-esteem refers to our overall attitude about ourselves (Baron et al, 2008), and has recently been criticized for inconsistently predicting positive outcomes. Although having high self-esteem is known to be related to such factors as positive self-feelings and motivation (Baumeister, Campbell, Krueger, & Vohs, 2003), it has also been linked to narcissism, distortions in self-knowledge, increased prejudice and aggression (Baumeister et al. , 2003; Sinha & Krueger, 1999).

Self-compassion may be a better alternative to promote because it does not involve judgments about oneself or comparison with others as self-esteem does (Neff & Vonk, 2009). Self-compassion leads to positive outcomes without the negative drawbacks associated with self-esteem (Neff, 2009). To date, only one study has demonstrated that maternal support and secure attachment predict higher levels of self-compassion (Neff & McGeehee, in press). Neff and McGeehee (in press) examined the relationships between self-compassion and psychological wellbeing, cognitive, and family factors in a sample of high school and college students.

Because adolescence is known to be a difficult emotional period involving the formation of one’s identity or sense of self (Arnett, 2007), the first goal of Neff and McGeehee’s study was to determine whether self-compassion promotes the same positive mental health outcomes in adolescence as those found in adulthood. Self-compassion was expected to be related to reports of higher levels of social connectedness and lower levels of anxiety and depression. As expected, the results demonstrated that self-compassion was strongly associated with low depression, low anxiety, and high feelings of connectedness.

The second goal of Neff and McGeehee’s (in press) study was to explore factors that may contribute to adolescents’ development, or lack of development, of self-compassion. Self-compassion was hypothesized to be associated with maternal support, functional families, and secure internal working models of attachment. Self-report measures were used to assess self-compassion (Self-Compassion Scale), maternal support (maternal subscale of the Family Messages Measure), family functioning (Index of Family Relations), and attachment (The Relationship Questionnaire).

The results show that adolescent’s self-compassion partially mediated the relationship between their reports of mental health and maternal support, family functioning, attachment style, and adolescent egocentrism, indicating that family factors can impact wellbeing through self-compassion. Additionally, individual differences in self-compassion were predicted by family factors. In particular, maternal support and secure attachment were positively correlated with self-compassion, whereas maternal criticism and insecure preoccupied and disorganized attachment styles were negatively associated with self-compassion.

Unexpectedly, there was no relation found between the insecure dismissing attachment style and self-compassion. The results regarding attachment styles were interpreted using Bartholomew’s model of attachment styles (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991). Bartholomew’s model (Bartholomew & Horowitz, 1991) characterizes four different prototypic attachment styles of adolescence and adulthood, according to one’s views of the self (dependence dimension) and others (avoidance dimension) as either negative or positive.

Secure attachment, corresponding with low dependency, low avoidance, and a positive view of both self and other, involves being trusting and comfortable with intimacy and autonomy. Having a secure sense of self-worth and trusting others to be supportive may have facilitated the development of self-compassion among adolescents in Neff and McGeehee’s (in press) study. Insecure preoccupied attachment corresponds with low avoidance, high dependence, a positive view of others, but a negative self-image, and is characterized by clinginess, jealousy, and being preoccupied with relationships.

Insecure dismissing attachment is distinguished by low dependence, high avoidance, a positive view of the self, a negative view of others, and involves inflating self-worth, being counter dependent, and being dismissing of intimacy and the importance of relationships. Disorganized or fearful attachment involves distrust of others, social withdrawal, feelings of inadequacy, fear of intimacy, and corresponds with high avoidance, high dependency, and a negative view of both the self and others.

The anxiousness about deserving care or not expecting support from others in relationships may hinder individuals with insecure attachment styles from developing self-compassion. Given the findings from Neff and McGeehee’s (in press) research, the characteristics of secure attachment should promote the development of self-compassion. Namely, a positive self-image may help form a sense of self-worth that should in turn lead to self-kindness. In addition, being able to trust others helps form a connection with others that may foster common humanity.

Conversely, the characteristics of insecure attachment may impede the development of self-compassion. Doubting one’s worth and lacking trust in others suggest a lack of an emotional foundation necessary for self-compassionate thinking (Neff & McGeehee, in press). Similarly, dependency on others to feel good about oneself may prevent the ability to accept oneself, which is a necessary feature of self-compassion (Neff & McGeehee, in press). Futhermore, considering the relation of early attachment to positive developmental outcomes (Sroufe, 2005; Scroufe et al, 005), attachment conceivably contributes to the development of self-compassion. Attachment is important in initiating the development of adaptive psychological functioning (Sroufe, 2005; Scroufe et al, 2005). Self-compassion is a healthy self-attitude, which promotes positive mental health outcomes (Neff, 2009). Therefore, the development of a self-compassionate mindset should emanate from early attachment. Neff and McGeehee’s (in press) findings are the first to establish a relationship between attachment and self-compassion.

However, Neff and McGeehee’s (in press) study is limited in that it they did not examine how attachment promotes self-compassion, due to its cross-sectional and correlational design. The study was restricted to adolescents and young adults, and used self-report data rather than observational measures. As a result, only the status of the attachment relationship and level of self-compassion present in adolescence were assessed. Further research is necessary to investigate the role of parental attachment in the development of self-compassion.

It is of crucial importance to identify the early factors and processes associated with attachment formation which could promote the development of self-compassion among children. Following this, there is also a need to create a measure for self-compassionate thinking and behaviour among children. Being self-compassionate may involve different thoughts and behaviours according to ones age or stage of development. In order investigate the development of self-compassion, it is essential to be able to recognize and measure self-compassion among children.

Findings from such prospective research can be used to help encourage healthy attachment, perhaps through parent sensitivity training, and educate parents how to foster self-compassionate thinking and attitudes in their children.

References

1. Ainsworth, M. S. (1979). Infant-mother attachment. American Psychologist, 34, 932-937. Arnett, J. J. (2007). Adolescence and emerging adulthood: A cultural approach. Saddle River, NJ: Pearson/Prentice Hall.
2. Bartholomew, K. , & Horowitz, L. M. (1991). Attachment styles among young adults: A test of a four-category model. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 61, 226-244.
3. Baumeister, R. F. , Campbell, J. D. , Krueger, J. I. , & Vohs, K. D. (2003). Does high self-esteem cause better performance, interpersonal success, happiness, or healthier lifestyles? Psychological Science In The Public Interest, 4, 1-44.
4. Barnas, M. V. , & Cummings, E. M. (1994). Caregiver stability and toddler’s attachment-related behaviour towards caregivers in day care. Infant Behaviour & Development, 17, 141-147.
5. Baron R. A. , Branscombe, N. R. , & Byrne, D. R. (2008). Social Psychology. Boston, MA: Pearson/Allyn and Bacon.
6. Leary, M. R. , Tate, E. B. , Adams, C. E. , Allen, A. B. & Hancock, J. (2007). Self-compassion and reactions to unpleasant self-relevant events: The implications of treating oneself kindly. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 92, 887-904.
7. Neff, K. D. (2003a). Self-compassion: An alternative conceptualization of a healthy attitude toward. Self and Identity, 2, 85-101. Neff, K. D. (2003b). The development and validation of a scale to measure self-compassion. Self and Identity, 2, 223-250.
8. Neff, K. D. (2009). The role of self-compassion in development: A healthier way to relate to oneself. Human Development, 52, 211-214.
9. Neff, K. D. Hsieh, Y. , & Dejitterat, K. (2005). Self-compassion, achievement goals, and coping with academic failure. Self and Identity, 4, 263-287.
10. Neff, K. D. , Kirkpatrick, K. L. , & Rude, S. S. (2007). Self-compassion and adaptive psychological functioning. Journal of Research in Personality, 41, 139 – 154.
11. Neff, K. D. , & McGeehee, P. (in press). Self-compassion and psychological resilience among adolescents and young adults. Self and Identity.
12. Neff, K. D. , & Vonk, R. (2009). Self-compassion versus global self-esteem: Two different ways of relating to oneself. Journal of Personality, 77, 23 – 50.

Advanced Chemistry January 30 2013 The Development of the Modern Submarine Since the invention of the submarine, all water travel and warfare have dramatically changed. A submarine Is an underwater vessel that men have transformed since it was first introduced to being a perfect underwater machine that moves Like a fish. The first serious proposal for a ship designed to travel underwater was made by the English mathematician William Bourne in 1578. It is rumored that Alexander the great walked under water in a bell like shaped device that acted as a submarine.

In 1776 David Bushnell invented a submarine that was nearly totally round in shape and was made of wood propelled by a man turning a crank with a propeller. Nearly 100 years later In 1864 an American Invented the H. L. Henley submarine which was operated by nine men turning a long crank to propel it. It was used In the us call war. Three years later, the first steam powered submarine called the, Extinct II, was invented and was used. After all these years submarines were made not really for combat but during and after world war one. Nations began using binaries to attack opponent’s ships.

This added to submarines things such as missiles, torpedo’s, high-speed propellers and periscopes to assist them to acquire and destroy targets above the sea level. The first working submarine was made in 1620. It was called the Drabber and it was tested by Cornelius Drabber. The current most advanced submarine is a 1 billion dollar submarine called the Deadly Hunter Killer Submarine. Submarines have been great at diving to depths that no man can dive to without protective armor and a major question is how this is possible. The answer Lies in their structure and build.

They are built following Archimedes’ principle and Bole’s law. Submarines are completely enclosed vessels with cylindrical shapes, narrowed ends and two hulls: the inner hull and the outer hull. The inner hull protects the crew trot the Immense water pressure to the deep parts to the ocean and it insulates the sub from the freezing temperatures because It Is very cold deep under water This hull is called the pressure hull. The outer hull shapes the submarine’s body. The ballast tanks, which control the pub’s buoyancy, are located between the inner and outer hulls.

The way that ballast tanks work Is that they till up with alarm from reserve tanks and are able to float then to dive they open and are filled with water. Another huge question is now oxygen Is produce In submarines way under the water. Modern submarines use what’s called an Oxygen Generator. This oxygen generator uses a simple process of electrolysis to separate Hydrogen and Oxygen molecules from distilled water. Using the ocean water It can create endless supplies of 02 until the generator itself stop working. Binaries are very Interesting machines that really have changed water travel and warfare and keep developing every day. Http://wick. Answers. Com/Q/How_do_you_make_oxygen_in_submarines http:// www. Manhood. Consumer-5/Nuclear-Submarine. HTML#b http://science. Housework’s. Com/nuclear-submarines. HTML http://www. History. Navy. Mil/branches/teach/dive/whist . HTML http://www. Dilemma. Co. UK/consistence/article-2203110/Deadly-Hunter-Killer- submarine-capable-hearing-ship-leaving-port-New-York–sat-underwater-English- channel. HTML http://marine. Org/oceans/submarines/index. Asp

Throughout history belief systems as well as systems to governing have grown from one another and also built from the others ideas. In many instances civilization, government and religion have become one, they both play off the other. In the age of Hamburg Beethoven 1792 and 1730 BCC a code of laws was constructed for all to see by witch the standards of Babylon were set, (Andrea. 13) The Jewish people also had a standard by which they lived and it was called the Torah.

In this were set guidelines to show the ways that they should live. The Torah was created around 1000 BCC and Is still a huge factor In the Jewish lifestyle today. Andrea. 52) Both of these codes or guidelines were shaped by people before them and both shaped the civilizations the were to follow them. These historical texts both discuss the concepts to “an eye tort an eye, tooth tort a tooth”, as well as slavery and how it played a part In each civilization.

It is very interesting to see how the texts compare In their look on both of these harsh topics_ In line 196 of the code of Hamburg it is clearly stated, “If a man put out the eye of another may, his eye shell be put This may seem to be e harsh punishment when compared to the standards of judicial systems today, but in this mime of a short lived united Mesopotamia this Is what Hamburg believed would be able to keep his kingdom a united front. This code was carved on a monumental stone for all to see.

In doing this, the entire population would be able to know for sure what is expected of them and what the punishments would be If these codes were broker We also see this same concept stated in the Jewish Torah which came into being about 700 years later then the code of Hamburg. From the book of Exodus, chapter 21 line 23, “But It any harm follow, thou shall give elite tort elite, Eye tort Eye, tooth for tooth, hand for hand, foot for foot, Burning for burning, wound for wound, stripe for stripe_” (mechanic-mare) This excerpt Is stating the same concept almost identical to that of Balloon’s Hamburg.

It is also placed in full public view because of the fact that It Is the key point of the Jewish lifestyle, When comparing these two texts it would seem that the Jewish Torah has built trot the Hamburg’s code and elaborated it into parts of their religious teachings and their way of life. In the Torah, from the book of Exodus, we see a good example of the early Jewish sews on slavery. “If a man strikes his male or female slave with a rod, and the slave dies under his hand, the death must be avenged.

However, If the slave survives for d day or two, his death shall not be avenged, since he is his masters property. ” (arbitrator) Obviously this shows that slavery was something that was everyday life and that slaves were clearly property of their master. This same Idea Is stated in Hamburg’s code. In Babylon slaves were clearly looked on as property and belonging to d master. In many separate lines where crimes can be committed against tree man or slave the debt to be paid tort harming a slave is drastically less than that of a free man. Yet. Even though slaves were considered merely property, they at least were shown a little more respect In Babylon sense they were still worth enough to be able to draw some value from their losses. The Jewish Torah seems to have built from the Ideas that were stated more than 00 years earlier by Hamburg in y on. The Jews took a code to laws and expanded on them to form crucial points in their ideology. This was also passed on to the Christians years later and would form into their belief systems as well and also o other governmental and religious groups, organizations, and civilizations that still exist to this day.