Energy

IMPORTANCE OF ELECTRICITY The greatest scientific achievement of the nineteenth century is the discovery of electricity. The twentieth century is making use of electricity so extensively that it has almost changed the face of the earth. “Electricity—carrier of light and power, devourer of time and space, bearer of human speech over land and sea, is the greatest servant of man, though it is itself unknown. Lenin saw Russia’s hydro-electrical potentialities.

The application of electricity to industry and agriculture was Lenin’s dream. In India, we have staked our whole future on a rapid growth of our hydroelectric power. The modern age is the age of machinery. The true object of substituting human labour by mechanical labour is to find greater leisure for man. Machines must be driven by natural power. And the most pervasive of all sources of natural power is electricity, mechanical, hydro wind followed by electronics now-a-days. Look at life today in a modern city.

Electricity regulates the clock that rouses us from bed; boils the water that makes our tea, cooks our food on heat-proof cooking ranges or cookers; works the radio and TV that tell us the news; rings the bell that announces a visitor; carries our telegraphic message to distant places; conveys us to our office in luxurious tram-cars and trains; takes us to our room somewhere in some multi-stroied building on elevators; electricity lifts; refrigerates the food to keep it completely fresh; lights our rooms when the sun goes down; warms it in winter and cools it in summer; in short, does everything for our comfort and convenience with the utmost efficiency at all hours.

To generate and harness electricity on a large scale means the development of machinery capable of doing so. The various multipurpose schemes, which we are running at such a heavy cost over the years, are for the production of large-scale electricity. But most of our electricity was based on coal: the total output was lamentably low. Now that such multipurpose schemes as those of Bhakra Nangal, Damodar Valley or Hirakud have made it possible to provide to even remote villages with electric powers, and help change life beyond recognition. India’s resources for generating electricity are second to no other country in the world. Even some Atomic plants have generating electricity.

Eutrophication is the depletion of oxygen in an aquatic ecosystem. Eutrophication occurs when a body of water enriched with excess nutrients, nitrogen and phosphorus from dead plant material and waste. Nitrogen pollution largely derived from agricultural fertilizers and emissions from the combustion of fossil fuels. Phosphorus pollution comes from wastewater treatment and detergents. These elements and compounds make their way to coastal areas through the drainage networks of rivers and streams.

This nutrient and phosphorus mix results in increased algae growth that makes water cloudy and unhealthy. There are two ways for eutrophication to occur; the first is artificial eutrophication through the release of sewage, fertilizers and grey water into natural waterways. The second occurs is naturally occurring over lakes and tributaries that flood and pick up dead vegetation, cattle manure and fertilizer. This can lead to loss of biodiversity, global warming, and pollution of drinking water, fish kills, acid rain, and ozone depletion.

However, the main culprit behind human caused eutrophication is the phosphorus released from sewage, septic systems and fertilizers. This point source pollution enriches the water and causes a buildup of algae and cyanobacteria in the ecosystem. The process of photosynthesis then starts as the begin feeding on the nitrogen and phosphorus enriched environment leading to murky and hard to see through water this is a sign of eutrophication. My sustainability plan is to educate others on the causes of eutrophication and the effects it has on ecosystems.

Increasing awareness will allow many to pinpoint possible sources and causes of eutrophication in their local ecosystems. My first step is to educate myself on the causes and effects of eutrophication. I will research the internet as well as peers reviewed articles. I will then develop an educational tool such as a PowerPoint Presentation to highlight how humans through artificial eutrophication add to the already naturally occurring process. I will include how eutrophication affects humans, animals, fish and plant life.

I will then schedule a meeting with the community board members and invite local residents to discuss eutrophication. 1) I will spend the first three months studying and learning about the cause and effects of eutrophication on ecosystems. 2) I will use the library to research the topic to find peer reviewed articles. Using the internet to research magazine, newspaper articles, and DOH and EPA websites, I will gather information regarding how phosphorous and nitrogen get into ecosystems what it involves and how to stop them from forming. ) I will spend several weeks creating a PowerPoint presentation that explains what eutrophication is how it develops, what cause it, and how to prevent it. 4) In the final month, I will schedule the time and day of the presentation. 5) I will invite the community and homeowners. I will first spend time at home gathering the necessary information and research. I will then incorporate this data together to create a cohesive story involving eutrophication. I will then place all this into speaker notes and find scenes for use as pictures in the presentation.

In order to schedule a meeting with the Homeowners Association I will first create time to introduce myself to the homeowner’s committee. I will use several friends and associates to make introduction easier. I will then request permission to present information to the committee at the next available meeting. After scheduling the meeting, I will proceed to invite fellow businesses and homeowners to attend. The research will require anywhere from 1-3 months to finish while the PowerPoint presentation will take anywhere from 1-3 weeks.

Scheduling time with the homeowners association will be at the next scheduled meeting. Overall, it will be an ongoing process but should take no more than 5 months to complete altogether. The problems that may occur are that point source pollution is not the only cause of eutrophication. There can be several causes of eutrophication including nonpoint source pollution such as urban runoff. There are areas that have limited supplies of drinking water and count on areas infiltrated by eutrophication.

The local vegetation that live and thrive in this infected ecosystems are choked and killed off. The dead vegetation allows many different species of algae to thrive and form. While the lack of oxygen created from the photosynthesis kills many species of fish. There is an upside to this plan the excess phosphorous taken from these areas can be placed into landfills. There is a shortage of phosphorus on land and this would help revitalize many fields. There are several limitations to the plan the plan would need the community as a whole to effectively combat eutrophication.

This would require not only the cooperation of the local Home Owners Association but every local business in the community. Eutrophication also increases with the rising demand of meats and fossil fuels. Developed nations and developing nations alike will see a rise in eutrophication. The problem overall would be resources funding an operation to clean up local waterways and make local industry and sewage systems compliable can cost millions of dollars easily many cities and states are cash strapped and tightening their budgets.

References Eisberg, N. (2009, August 10). Getting to the clean point of use. Chemistry & Industry , 11. retrieved from Pheonix University online library website Powersearch . Welch, M. A. (2009). Lake Clean up Plan Panned. Winnepeg Free Press , B. 2. retrieved from Pheonix University online library website Powersearch . Writers, S. (2009). Nutrient Pollution Chokes Marine And Freshwater Ecosystems. Space Daily . retrieved from Pheonix University online library website Powersearch .

Executive Summary

With the growing demand for environmentally friendly products in the market today, many companies are now strengthening their Research and Development (R&D) in order to address such requirements for their loyal customers.  From food industry to big manufacturing industry like cars, it has been a big investment and decision to make for these industries to adopt the need for protecting our environment for the future generations.  In this paper, it provides an in-dept study on how hydro cars starting to create buzz in the car manufacturing industry.  This is the challenge that truly provides bigger impact in our future.  With pollution and ozone layer starting to create unstable climate all over the world, such as extreme heat and cold which affects the health as well as the other living things around us, these has been a no stopping for industries which not only help the environment but also can contribute to business superiority and later on market supremacy.

This is what some of the known car manufacturer’s in the world, like Honda, Mazda and BMW has carefully staring to move closer of achieving though continuous research and development as well as testing for almost a decade now.  The main focus of this paper is to provide a conceptual support on the case that was provided in the paper that carefully addresses issues as well as development regarding hydro cars in the world.  It will also provide some meaningful and related information that relates to science and technology, the health, political and economic factors.  In other words readers and future researcher may also find this research paper a good starting point on understanding some of the basics, situations currently happening, initiatives and factors that are affecting this hydro cars development and studies.

Case Study about Hydro Cars

Introduction

            The competition in the car industry these days are becoming more and more competitive.  Technology and price are usually the main reasons.  But with the emergence of hydro cars, competition creates a different outlook that is why most car manufacturers continue to invest on conducting research and testing on the benefits of hydro cars.  In fact it was already launched to some highly industrialized countries like the US, and in Europe as well as in Asia like in Japan and Korea where cars are not only being studied but already being distributed to the buying public, but only with very minimal production.  That is why the main purpose of this paper is to really find out if hydro cars are a viable option in the economy as well as for the public, like in terms of safety and security as well as cost.

Assumptions

            In this paper there will be no financial data to be presented; instead it will focus on current developments and issues that hydro car industry is currently doing.  Added to that are some scholarly articles that relates to the continuous study of the study and its effect, particularly in macroeconomics, management, etc.  Lastly, is to provide current initiatives and development from some of the most trusted car manufacturing company in the world.

Situation Analysis

            Presently, hydro cars have been studied closely by a number of car manufacturing companies, most specially in the side of viability for the public.  This is also the reason why hydro cars are not yet formally launched in the market.  Like for example one of the simplest questions is that where can drivers fuel up their hydro cars?  Because, for some countries, they might have enough, but does this can be like commonly stationed gasoline station which sometimes has their presence at least every 5 kilometers interval.  Other questions also like how can this be fair against cars who used gasoline or diesel, exactly how far it can go if in case I will use or purchase hydro cars? This was also what made BMW-H2R model not yet launched to the public.  It has been said that even that BMW has created the car for barely 10 months, they are still not confident that it will still work for their customers.  And they even mentioned that in order to say that they are ready for it, will take more than 10 years, which means that, BMW as one of the well-known car manufacturing company would not gamble and do a drastic move of providing it to the market.  Not only it will be a big cost and at the same time, other factors such as safety is important to addressed.  Another main concern for the public is hydrogen filling station; it is very obvious that this is much of a concern for most, the availability of hydrogen most specially for long drive getaways like in the US will be a main issue.

Unlike for Europe where most highly industrialized countries has already adopted it and even make used of the car itself and constructed a manageable number of filling station which made it so easy and acceptable for them.  It was dated, January 24, 2005, when BMW launched a biofuel car which again works for hydrogen as well as for petroleum and these is employ in BMW 7 Series sedans.  That is why in Europe as it continuously adopt and popularity of hydro cars are happening in some of its major cities where filling stations were also developed has been administered even by its government.  While in the US, it just started to look into this matter, in 2004, where in that time the President Bush while formally giving his State of the Nation Address, at that point, provided $318 million for the Energy Department to work on the viability of Hydro cars in the country.

This was mainly a very straightforward decision that helped find and study some important aspects within the economic scale and environmental scale as well in adopting this kind of advancement in the transportation industry as well as most especially in the environment.  And he even mentioned and very optimistic to that mass hydro cars will be used in the US by 2020.  (Wald, M, 2004).  It was even followed up by having a $190 million project in developing hydro filling station in major cities in the US and again this project was assigned to the US Department of Energy.  California through its good Governor, has also initiated of providing a good plan regarding hydro cars and how it may help the entire state not only in its economic development but also improved its environment since it was considered as one of the most polluted state in the US.

SWOT Analysis

            To start with the strength, it is obviously that hydro cars provide better effect in the environment.  But first, it is necessary to understand what does hydrogen cars exactly look like and also what doe hydrogen economy means.  One of the car company that launch the first hydro car is Honda in California through the assistance of one well-respected research institute, Los Alamos National Laboratory and these institution continuously conducted study for almost 3 decades now.  Based form LANI, “Hydrogen & Fuel Cell Research at Los Alamos has made significant technological advances in Polymer Electrolyte Membrane (PEM) fuel cells, Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC), and related technologies such as the electrolyzer (a fuel cell in reverse, liberating hydrogen from electricity and pure water).”  Unlike other ordinary powered cars, hydro cars has zero emission technology system which provides zero pollution in the environment since it was air is being produced and not liquid.  And this may alleviate the long time problem on oil.  (Hydrogen Cars, n.d.).  The other terms that must be clear is the hydrogen economy, it simply refers to the future economic effect of country of nation applying hydrogen energy.

Hydro cars also provides distance, like in the case of a test done in France where the BMW hydrogen cars with its build in bi-fuel efficiency, with its standard 215 miles and once it runs out hydrogen power, it will immediately shift to fuel, where it add additional 500 miles.  Secondly in terms of reserves and abundance, hydro cars have it, since it is one natural energy that can even store for future use.  It also enhanced the environment by eliminating pollution, and also provides power and stability in the performance of the car provided it employs latest technological advancement like bi-fuel and others.  (Brown J, n.d).  This benefit of providing a big help in the environment was seen by the US Government as the administration has found out that like problems with pollution that affects a number of Americans who afflicted with related illness like respiratory diseases are much higher that the investment that can be made for hydro cars, which will truly reduce pollution problems.  With this the president even supported it and allocated $1.7 billion for the development of the initial car and fuel station and that was called freedom cars and freedom fuel.  (‘Can Hydrogen-Fueled Cars Really Save the Environment, n.d.).  Safety and Refueling practicality are still two of the top most weakness of hydro cars; there are still problems on how to effectively secure these typical hydro cars.  These are already common to LPG gas where it also does the same as hydro cars, which in some of its findings that if not properly installed it may be subject for explosions and fire.

The other one is refueling practicality, unlike in regular fuel station, where you can see a bunch of stations almost the minimum is about 5 kilometers interval.  But in Germany, since through the priority set by the government itself, the project has moved up to a point that it already reaches acceptance in its community.  (Hydrogen Powered Cars Will Never Work, 2007).  In terms of opportunities, there are definitely many opportunities that may be considered and one is for the government to provide subsidy or backup to this kind of project.  This can help a country in studying more of its benefit and making it more adoptable to the environment of the country.  Take for instance in the case of  Norway, where it has supported its country and even look for other global institution in conducting a careful study in its viability to its own country.  (Statistics Norway advises against subsidizing hydrogen cars, n.d.).  Secondly, it may also be an opportunity for the country to enhanced its knowledge in terms of science and technology which will be beneficial for future researches, like what came out as a scientific findings where it can impact the earth’s surface, it can contribute to positive effect if effectively applied but on the other hand if not like leakage happens, it can also provide negative impact in the earth surface as the California Institute of Technology reported it. (Hydrogen economy might impact Earth’s stratosphere, study shows, 2003).

In terms of threat, still the main threat are fuel companies where it still at the dominant end of its proper establishment to the public.  Another one is threat for high cost of investment, it may continue to go high, most specially the faith of its application continues to be not as acceptable and as fuel still used as the main source for power and energy for the economy.  The last threat is with regards to its non-cooperation and focus by big car manufacturing companies, which will leave all this effort of introducing it into failure.

Competitor Analysis

            At the moment even though there are proven studies that hydrogen has been a breakthrough for the environment, there are still some studies most specially in its viability in the global economy.  This is also why it main competitor which is the natural gas still being used as the primary source of energy. Starting with the study that was conducted in South Central Alaska Natural Gas is that there are many developments that are going on, first it was proven that natural gas reserves will be available until 2025.  There will also be expected shortage by 2009 and this will be due to the ordinary seasonal swing of demand that will also be projected by that year.  While that was a very important anticipation or concern to look at, on the other hand, there was also a discovery of a new source of gas at Ninilchik and Happy Valley fields on the Kenai Peninsula.  With the large amount of supply for low-cost gas has allowed Alaska to export some of its reserved abroad like in Japan where large amount of natural gas is needed to power up their industrial power plant.  (Thomas, C., Doughty, T., Faulder, D. ; Hite, D, 2004).  One of the most recent study which gives a better stand for natural gas which was about fertilized microbes makes natural gas fast, based on the study, scientist was able to convert heavy amount of oil into usable methane in just two years, which usually takes thousand of years.  (Borenstein, S, 2007).

Statement of Alternative options

            Still one of the alternatives is fuel and the slightly focused study on battery.  The latter might not be that as a good alternative as further study might need to be considered.  Fuel is still the main alternative and other emerging green fuels around the market.  This is very important that it needs to be performed.  Like take for example in the case of the US, where it provides an alternative advise for its major public that while waiting for hydro cars, it is better to apply these government advises to help reduce pollution and improved mobility and that helps increase health awareness as well.  Strategies such as reduce the number of vehicle; instead encourage people to walk if near to the office.  But the following are the most complete guide that the US Government has released as a better alternative, like reducing the number of cars in the road and encourage the public if possible to walk going to the office not only better for the health but also can help reduce traffic and pollution.  (Cars, Air Pollution and Health, n.d.).

Recommendation

            Just like what the US has initiated, I will still highly recommend using the standard fueled powered cars, wince there are no clear and effective and proven study of the viability of hydro cars.  But, the study and research must go on and there should be deeper study that needs to be conducted, like more technical and more safety related issues should be addressed.

Company Analysis

            For Honda, Mazda and BMW as three of the most popular car manufacturing companies.  What they are currently doing must continue but again the main focus on safety and affordability should be considered in order to have a more effective implementation and release of information can be done.

Stakeholder Analysis

            For stakeholder, as based on the case, investing big amounts and sometimes it does not only cost for millions but billions is enough to say that it should be carefully studies and analyzed its effect to the business.  This is most specially for the stakeholders where big burden of allocating financial support and huge investments is needed.

Macro-Environmental Analysis (Economic, Social-Cultural, Political, Technological, Geographic, Demographic)

            To start with economic, hydro cars has a big potential in improving the economy, as there will be better management of energy and power in case hydro cars will reach the time it will be sure that it will be fine and affordable for the market.  This was clearly stated that the over-potential of fuel may still be present if in case there will be no careful study and effective research that may be conducted for hydro cars.(‘Current Status of Hydrogen storage, 2005).  For social0cultural, it also creates a big impact in improving the mobility of humans as it will be healthier environment will come soon.  Technological, no question it also enhanced the skills and knowledge and could even raised the technological level of one country.  And lastly are geographic and demographics, more and more people may be benefited from it and that will be expected to happen probably count another 10 to 15 years from now.

Reason for rejecting other option

            Rejecting battery powered and hydro powered cars at this time, is mainly due to again lack of safety study and prioritization to cost.  This is the main reason that affects my decision in rejecting these options and still recommends fuel powered cars and reduces the use of cars.

Sustainable Competitive Advantage

Since car manufacturing companies is the main subject for these changes, it is important that they will continue to perform their competitive advantage. And this should again not mainly focus on hydro research but still improving the fuel powered cars.  Designs may also be a factor that can be continuously exploited for competitive advantage.

Conclusion

            In this paper it clearly shows that even hydro cars and hydro economy proven to be very efficient for the economy and at the same time environment friendly, still there are many things that need to study.  First, in terms of security and safety, it was clearly stated in this paper that it was not yet proven yet if hydro cars are safe for the general public.  Second, in terms of its viability in the local economy of a country, this is due to its very expensive cost, that is why highly industrialized and developed countries are the ones who are currently applied for it.  Lastly, is with regards to its availability for the public, since it is not only car that is needed to be studied here but also its consumables like filling stations, etc.  That is why in this paper it is clear that natural gas with some of its own recent developments remains to be the most desirable source of energy and best suited for cars and this will continue until issues stated earlier will be addressed seriously.

References

BMW hydrogen cars: beauty or beast, BBC News, [Accessed n.d.], Available from: http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/business/6154212.stm

Borenstein, S., 2007, Fertilized Microbes Make Natural Gas Fast, Study Says, National Geographic News, [Accessed 13 December 2007], Available from: http://news.nationalgeographic.com/news/2007/12/071213-AP-new-energy.html

Brown, J. n.d, What is the Hydrogen Economy – Hydrogen ; Fuel Cell Markets for Australia – 2004 / 2010, [Accessed n.d.], Available from: http://www.hydrogen.asn.au/hydrogen-economy.htm

Can Hydrogen-Fueled Cars Really Save the Environment?, Carnegie Mellon News, [Accessed n.d], Available from: http://www.cmu.edu/cmnews/030905/030905_hydrogenfuel.html

Cars, Air Pollution and Health, Neutramed, [Accessed n.d], Available from: http://www.nutramed.com/environment/cars.htm

Current Status of Hydrogen storage, Overpotential – the World of Fuel Cells, [Accessed 21 August 2005], Available from: http://overpotential.blogspot.com/2005/08/current-status-of-hydrogen-storage.html

Economic Impact, South Carolina Hydrogen and Fuel Alliances, [Available n.d], Available from: http://www.schydrogen.org/economic_impact.html

Economic Instruments for Long-term Reductions in Energy-based Carbon Emissions, National Round Table on the Environment and the Economy, [Accessed n.d], Available from: http://www.nrtee-trnee.ca/eng/publications/energy-based-carbon-emissions/full-report/Section11-Energy-Based-Carbon-Emissions-eng.html

Hydrogen Cars, Hydrogen Cars Now, [Accessed n.d.], Available from: http://www.hydrogencarsnow.com/

Hydrogen economy might impact Earth’s stratosphere, study shows, California Institute of Technology, [Accessed 12 June 2003], Available from: http://www.theozonehole.com/hydrogeneconomy.htm

Hydrogen Powered Cars Will Never Work, 2007, etbe, [Accessed  28 August 2007], Available from: http://etbe.coker.com.au/2007/08/28/hydrogen-powered-cars-will-never-work/

Lackner, K. & Sachs, J., 2005, A Robust Strategy for Sustainable Energy, Brookings Papers on Economic Activity. Issue: 2-13

Liebman, A., n.d, Trickle-Down Hegemony? China’s Peaceful Rise and Dam Building on the Mekong, Contemporary Southeast Asia. Volume: 27. Issue: 2-14

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Mazda celebrates Rotary Revolution at Goodwood Festival of Speed, Mazda UK, [Accessed 15 June 2007], Available from: http://www.mazda.co.uk/AboutMazda/MazdaNews/LatestHeadlines/Articles/news_15-Jun-2007

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Apple Inc. is investigating how to charge electric cars, talking to charging station companies and hiring engineers with expertise in the area, according to people familiar with the matter and a review of LinkedIn profiles.

For more than a year, Silicon Valley has been buzzing about Apple’s plan to build an electric car. Now the company appears to be laying the groundwork for the infrastructure and related software crucial to powering such a product.

The moves show Apple responding to a key shortcoming of electric vehicles: “filling up” the batteries. A shortage of public charging stations, and the hours wasted in charging a car, could be an opportunity for Apple, whose simple designs have transformed consumer electronics.

Apple, which has never publicly acknowledged a car project, declined to comment for this story. Neither the LinkedIn profiles nor sources said specifically that Apple was building charging stations for electric cars.

But automotive sources last year told Reuters that Apple was studying a self-driving electric vehicle (EV), as the Silicon Valley icon looks for new sources of revenue amid a maturing market for its iPhone.

Apple is now asking charging station companies about their underlying technology, one person with knowledge of the matter said. The talks, which have not been reported, do not concern charging for electric cars of Apple employees, a service the company already provides. They indicate that Apple is focused on a car, the person added.

Charging firms are treading carefully, the person added, wary of sharing too much with a company they view as a potential rival.

It is unclear whether Apple would want its own proprietary technology, such as Tesla Motors’ Supercharger network, or design a system compatible with offerings from other market players.

Several charging station suppliers contacted by Reuters declined to comment about any dealings with Apple, which typically requires potential partners to sign non-disclosure agreements.

Arun Banskota, president of NRG Energy Inc.’s electric vehicle charging business, EVgo, did not respond directly to questions about Apple, but said repeatedly his company was “in discussions with every manufacturer of today and every potential manufacturer of tomorrow.”

Apple has also hired at least four electric vehicle charging specialists, including former BMW employee Rónán Ó Braonáin, who worked on integrating charging infrastructure into home energy systems as well as communication between EVs, BMW and utilities, according a LinkedIn review.

As recently as January Apple hired Nan Liu, an engineer who researched a form of wireless charging for electric vehicles, for instance. Quartz earlier this month reported that Apple had hired former Google charging expert Kurt Adelberger.

Electric vehicle charging stations are manufactured, installed and operated under varying business models. Players in the space include private companies such as ChargePoint and ClipperCreek, public utilities, infrastructure companies such as Black & Veatch and AECOM as well as General Electric, Siemens and Delta Electronics Inc.

For a graphic on electric vehicle charger demand in California, click .

Charger shortfall

The electric car industry has faced a chicken-and-egg paradox with the installation of charging stations. Property owners have been reluctant to install them before EVs hit the road en masse, and drivers are wary of buying EVs until charging stations are widely available.

Apple’s home state of California by 2020 will need about 13 to 25 times the roughly 8,000 work and public chargers it currently has, to support a projected 1 million zero-emission vehicles on the road, according to an estimate by the National Renewable Energy Laboratory.

Tesla recently goosed electric vehicle demand, unveiling its more affordable Model 3 sedan, generating hundreds of thousands of reservations from potential buyers and leading many experts to calculate the number of EVs will soon outstrip the charging station supply.

Tesla also has led the way with a proprietary network for customers, who also can use public chargers. Its more than 600 “Supercharger” stations juice up a car in about 30 minutes, more than twice as fast as the standard “fast charger,” called Level 2.

One global engineering and construction firm already has reached out to Apple to offer its services, a person at the firm said.

“It would be natural to assume if Apple is going to have a full battery electric vehicle that creates a seamless consumer experience the way Apple does, the charging infrastructure and its availability would be of paramount importance,” the source said.

(By Julia Love and Alexandria Sage; additional reporting by Ed Taylor in Frankfurt; editing by Peter Henderson and Edward Tobin)

By helping to grow the North American economy, Enhance helps build sustainable communities (Enhance, 2011). They have the land, the resources, the people, technology, culture and financial strength to win the changing natural gas game. We determine change by recognizing that energy production is shifting to ‘green’ alternatives, thus contributing to a downturn in profits for must of the energy industry. Encases operations also include the transportation and marketing of crude IL, natural gas, and natural gas liquids; as well as the refining of crude oil and the marketing of refined petroleum products.

Enhance Corporation was formed in 2002 by the merger of Pan Canadian Energy and Alberta Energy (Anonymous, 2009). It is Canada’s largest natural gas producer and the second largest such producer on the continent. The company came together under the guidance of Gwynne Morgan and David O’Brien. Their original vision was to create a Canadian-based, flagship company that would successfully compete in the international oil and gas business (Anonymous, 2009). Pan Canadian Energy was a member of the Canadian Pacific group of companies and administered large collections of mineral rights and natural gas (Anonymous, 2009).

Enhance has since focused its interests on two unconventional energy resources: Tight gas reservoirs are formations such as sandstone, shale, silt or coal, each requiring the application of advanced technologies for companies to achieve effective and efficient production value (Anonymous, 2009). In this area, Encases goal is to develop a methodical manufacturing style to extract large tight gas resources spread over a large land base. The second target focus for Enhance is the potential locked in the Albertan oil sands.

Enhance performs in-situ extraction using steam-assisted gravity drainage for production purposes in this sector (Anonymous, 2009). Last October, Enhance unveiled plans for a new 58-storey office headquarters building project in downtown Calgary, calling it The Bow building. This building project, which is owned and is being developed by H&R Reid, a real estate trust, would become Canada’s second largest office building (Anonymous, 2009). In December 2009 Enhance split into two firms, forming the new Enhance which is a pure play natural gas many and integrated oil company Census Energy (Ghanaian & Abraham, 2011).

Current Competitive Analysis: Industry Analysis Enhance is one of North America’s biggest energy companies and are set apart from the other companies for a number of reasons. Enhance focuses on separating themselves from the competition by going above and beyond the industries standards. Enhance has a low cost focus which makes them among the lowest cost structures in the natural gas industry, thus Enhance is “full of opportunity with the reserves and their economic contingent base. ” (Hookah, 2011) .

Enhance also established a disciplined approach to capital spending, financial stewardship and environmental and corporate responsibility. Enhance is always searching for alternatives to increase their operational efficiencies, to reduce their environmental impact, and to lower their energy use while at the same time trying to increase production (Rescan, 2009). Enhance also puts priority to the safety of their workers. Their goal is to reduce health and workplace risks for everyone. This sets them apart from other companies in the industry who prioritize profits margins and competitive growth structures.

Enhance truly believes in the importance of new technologies to make their company more efficient and effective and lowering cost structures in order to maximize margins (Rescan, 2009). In 2010, Encases President and CEO Randy Rescan stated, “Our teams achieved superior performance by efficiently delivering double-digit production and significant reserves growth. We reduced our operating costs and cash flow targets, achieved solid operating and financial results in this challenging environment which saw prices at unsustainable low levels, illustrating our continued structures. ” (Business Wire, 2011).

Analysis of Competitors Supply and Demand for consumption gas and fuel, and the profitability of refineries depends on efficient operations. Although there are significant economies of scale in refinery operations, effective competition with larger corporations occurs within (1) favorable markets and (2) production of specialty products in high demand (Hoovers, 2011). It is arguable that major oil companies like Exxon Mobil and BP are too large and diverse to fairly be called “competition”. Therefore, among Encases top independent competitors according to an analysis done by D&B Company are

Chesapeake Energy Corporation, Talisman Energy Inc. And Apache Corporation. Chesapeake Energy Corporation is a natural gas production company with projects in Arkansas, Kansas, Louisiana, New Mexico, Oklahoma, and Texas involving the acquisition and development of conventional and unconventional natural gas reserves, on and offshore; and employing 62,00 people. The company recorded revenues of $7,800 million in the fiscal year ended December 2007, an increase of 6. 5% over 2006. The company’s operating profit was $2,649 million in fiscal year 2007, a decrease of 22. % compared to 2006 (Data Monitor, 2008). Talisman Energy Inc. Canadian independent oil and gas exploration and production company is active in North and South America, Southeast Asia, and the North Sea. Talisman introduced a new strategy in 2009, which focuses on developing key growth properties, such as unconventional gas assets in North America, supported by gas developments in Southeast Asia. In 2009 Talisman invested $1. 4 billion in developing its shale assets in North America. In 2010, they reported a Net Income of CNN$648 million, an increase over the 2009 fiscal year (Talisman, 2011).

Apache is an oil and gas exploration and production company with onshore and offshore operations in North America and in Argentina, Australia, Egypt, and the UK (offshore in the North Sea). Apaches strategy is a unique one; the company buys up “mature” properties from oil majors and then extracts more from them, taking advantage of the high price level to keep margins up despite the use of expensive technology. In 2009, Apache reported a Net Income of CNN$8,615 million, a 30% decrease in revenue from the previous accounting year (Apache, 2011).

Business Level Strategy Enhance draws its resource nationally and abroad from British Columbia to Texas and Louisiana. They are committed to provide output while keeping costs low through efficiency and encouragement of technological advances. During all this Enhance “Enhance is committed to the key business objectives of maintaining financial strength, optimizing capital investments and continuing to pay a stable dividend to shareholders attained through a disciplined approach to capital spending, a flexible investment program and financial stewardship. (Anonymous, 2009) Corporate Level Strategy Enhance corporate-level strategy strives to please all of its key stakeholders. Its main corporate strategy is to fare well in the unpredictable market. They want to continue investing in the company in order to encourage and fund long-term growth. It looks to double the production per share over the next five years. They have stated: “Enhance is focused on sustainable, high-growth natural gas plays in major North American basins. Enhance has a history of entering resource plays early and leveraging technology to unlock resources.

With the Company s significant portfolio of natural gas resources, Enhance has the capacity for substantial production growth” (Anonymous, 2009). Competitive Position Enhance has a diverse portfolio of international holdings; with over 12 trillion cubic et of natural gas and 1. 1 billion barrels of oil in its reserves (most of which are proven), a large part of its production is derived in North America. The spikes in oil and gas prices have been highly beneficial to the company, as they raise profitability in an otherwise commodity-like market.

These high oil prices lead to increased production, and as the supply of oil and gas increases, as determinant by economic structures prices will eventually fall. Enhance is also greatly affected by the Canadian-U. S. Dollar exchange rate. Furthermore, the Government of Alberta recently raised royalties on operations in the Alberta oil sands, making the company’s operations in the region less profitable. For Enhance, Oil and Gas Prices determine profitability; and although subject to heavy fluctuation since the economic downturn of the past few years, the most recent trend is a return to rising prices.

Because oil and gas are both non-renewable forms of energy, slowing discoveries of new sources combined with increasing pricing has led to speculation that production is approaching peak oil quantities. Whether this is true or not, oil and gas are commodities: one company’s gas can only be differentiated from another company’s f the current market will drive increased exploration and production, which could eventually cause prices to fall and margins to drop (Gandhi and Abraham, 2010). Though many of Encases expenditures occur in Canadian currency, the worldwide price of oil is recorded in U.

S. Dollars. If the Canadian dollar appreciates relative to the U. S. Dollar, the value of the oil that is extracted in Canada would decline. Furthermore, Encases long-term debt is held in U. S. Dollars; thus, the depreciation of the U. S. Dollar hurts the company in the short term and the appreciation of the U. S. Alular hurts the company in the long term (Ghanaian and Abraham, 2010). Coming to the real market of these giant companies, Encases stock value opened at CNN$33. 80 on 28, March 2011; compared to its competitors, Apache (IIS$125. 8), Talisman (CNN$23. 75) and Chesapeake (US$34. 38) (Globe and Mail, 2011). See Appendix C for Figures. 5-year Business Environment Projection “In five years, Enhance will be an even more focused natural gas and in-situ oil sands resource company. More than 80 percent of our production will come from resource plays, our decline rate will be among the lowest in the industry and our sales growth re share will be among the highest. There will be clear, long-term potential for the company to continue to add value over time.

Enhance will continue to high grade its portfolio to be more focused on our key resource plays where we can provide more profitable growth for our shareholders,” (Rescan, 2004). Legal and Regulatory Environment for Enhance In order to be law-abiding business administrators, we must negotiate a vast web of constitutional, federal, regulatory, criminal, civil, common, substantive and procedural, public and private; business, contract, product-liability, patent, nonuser-protection, environmental, employment and labor, insurance, cybercafé, agency, and a host of other forms of law.

In fact, being a truly law-abiding corporation is virtually out of the question. According to one estimate, the average American driver deserves ten speeding tickets a day (Sexton, 2008). The legal and regulatory environment plays an important role in the success of innovation based economic development (Anonymous, 2011). Charges that Enhance breached the Canada Wildlife Act were filed in 2007 by the Public Prosecution Service in response to Trotter’s documentation of the construction of three hundred meters f gas pipeline in the NNW sometime prior to April 2005 (McClain, 2011).

After the announcement of the charges in 2007, Enhance spokesperson Alan Boras told the News, “The pipeline was inadvertently and unknowingly placed within the wildlife It is issues such as the ignorance of environmental law that can prove costly for corporations. Regulations and restrictions incorporating environmental policies are growing at an alarming rate in recent years, a trend that is expected to continue. That being said, Enhance needs to prove due diligence is responding, recognizing and adhering to future legal and regulatory initiatives, given that the gas and oil industry is commonly concern at the forefront of regulatory issues.

In an increasing attempt to ‘go green’, Enhance must continue to invest in its Research and Development practices and their search for conscious and safe energy resource procurement. Economic Projection of Enhance Enhance should be concentrating on maximizing margins and delivering value to its shareholders on a per share basis through low cost structures and maximizing their scales of efficiencies (Hookah, 2001). The corporation has stated that they are firmly omitted to pursuing aggressive and organic growth, driving down their costs and applying strict capital growth whereby maintaining flexible growth and financial stability (Rescan, 2010).

The emergence of shale gas plays a role in the changing game of oil and gas reserves along the reduction of surface disturbance in this extraction process. Following the 2008 recession, as the market stabilizes, Enhance maintains that they hold sufficient inventory to double their production in the next five years, meeting the increasing consumer demand (News Release, 2010). Technology Projection for Enhance Technology is so important in improving efficiency, and new technology is being created every day become more environmentally friendly. Enhance understands the importance of finding new technologies to leave a lighter “carbon footprint”.

Encases competitors are advancing with new technologies, seeing the future competitive market potential of solar and wind power. Solar power has zero carbon and greenhouse gas emissions which means there is absolutely no water or air pollution. “Wind energy uses the energy in the wind for practical purposes like generating electricity, charging batteries, pumping water, or grinding grain. Large, modern wind turbines operate together in wind farms to produce electricity for utilities. Small turbines are used by homeowners and remote villages to help meet energy needs. ” (Anonymous. 010) These new technologies look like they will be great competition to natural gas companies like Enhance. The challenge is then for Enhance to match their efforts with new innovative strategy as well. Even though Enhance is focused on reducing their emissions, natural gas still produces harmful emissions; so, it is important for Enhance to develop new technologies that will enable them to continue to compete in he future Enhance is focused on areas of key competitive advantage. Conventional North American gas fields have been on a high-decline, with high-replacement-costs.

In contrast, Enhance has built an asset base focused on unconventional properties? characterized by gas-charged sandstones, silts and coals, with much higher production life than conventional reservoirs (Morgan, 2003). Encases technical and operating teams have grown up in a company principally focused on resource plays, whereas the main focus of the vast majority of the industry has been on the search for new conventional fields (Morgan, 2004). Encases 2004 sales growth target rose from 10% to 15% by mid-2004, with quarterly profits that topped $1 billion for the first and second quarters of 2004 Gang, 2004). With about 16 million net acres, 12. 4 trillion cubic feet equivalent of proved gas reserves and 3 billion cubic feet per day of natural gas production, Enhance (Sagas) is expected to retain its standing as a leading North American natural gas producer with strong growth potential,” (Rescan, 2009). Social and Global Factors for Enhance Encases new global plans are to move to other continents and begin extracting oil. Since Enhance plans to move to other parts of the world; that might mean a loss of jobs. Encases global domain also includes Joining with Petrol China. Enhance, 2009) With this new Joint venture Enhance will be able to develop at a faster rate (Enhance, 2009). The future however is hard to predict. Again, new technologies like wind and solar power do not have any negative emissions to the ozone so these types of technologies are being recognized as safer alternatives to natural gas. Given that natural gas is having a negative impact on people’s lives many have sought alternative means of energy resource, as evident in the increasing production and sales of fuel efficient vehicles.

To identify the parts of a chemical equation. Students need to identify subscribe pets, coefficients, reactants, products, chemical formulas, and chemical symbols 2. To appreciate that scientific discoveries are often the result of inquiry. 3. To distinguish between an element, a compound, and a mixture (and between heterogeneous and homogeneous mixtures) 4. To balance a chemical equation in order to prove that the Law of Conservation n of Mass works quantitatively as well as conceptually 5.

To respect that chemicals can be both helpful and harmful safety must be a p rarity and the intention of scientists can play a large role in determining if chemicals do ended hurt or help humanity 6. To prove experimentally the Law of Conservation of Mass that matter is not car dated or destroyed in a chemical reaction Standards NJ CORE CURRICULUM (SCIENCE) STANDARD 5. 2 (science and society) All stud .NET will develop an understanding of how people of various cultures have control etude to the advancement of science and technology’, and how major discoveries and even TTS have advanced science and technology.

You can either print o t the story or tell the story in your own words. This lesson corresponds with slides 14 on the pop written presentation. Slide 4 contains a short video (approximately 5 minutes) in which h the work of Lavisher is discussed. Be sure to mention the connection between his scientist fix work and the necessity of the work for Paris at this time in history. Why did he begin this pr Eject? And similar questions can be used to place this work in its proper historical context. B. Introduce the law of conservation of mass experiment.

Be sure to emphasis zee the purpose of the experiment, mainly, to serve as a comparison to the work of Lavisher. C. Students should perform the activity. You may want to have students perform ram part A in day 1 ND save part B for day 2 unless you have a nice block of time. D. Following the conclusion of parts A and B, as well as the conclusion queue’s ins, discuss the conclusion questions. Specifically, spend time on number 7 and 8. Number 7 asks students to draw connections between Lavaliere’s work and what they have done.

Number r 8 asks students to brainstorm ideas for other law of conservation of mass experiments. This is is unification because students will be choosing one of these ideas and designing an experiment lat err on. Lesson 2 Instructions for Teachers: Tell the story of Lavaliere’s work with combustion. Make the connection bet en science and mathematics. Precise measurements were not common until Lavisher m dad them so. Observations, estimations, and generalizations were commonly found in ice once investigations.

If you are planning on handing out the story rather than tell it be sure to explain what is meant by call. Powering slides 57 pertain to the connection between the law of conservation of mass and math, namely balancing equations. Slide 7 is a short video (approximately 5 minutes) in which balancing is explained as well as a short e explanation on naming compounds. Math teachers can teach balancing equations. This ca n be done in edition to the time that we spend balancing equations in science or the mat h teacher may take full responsibility for the balancing of equations. To further explain call a demonstration may be valuable. You can burn magma enemies and allow students to make observations, qualitatively and quantitatively. 2. First, introduce coefficients and subscripts and explain how they can help to s how us how the law of conservation of mass is present in every chemical reaction. Balance a simple equation, the formation of water is a good one to start with since most studs ants are familiar with the chemical formula for water.

After 1 or more examples have students attempt to balance equations based on level of comfort with balancing. Have an answer key posted in the room so that students can see that they have correctly balanced the aqua actions. There are many websites dedicated to balancing equations. I usually have my more am obvious students Google search a good site and write it on the whiteboard so that pee people who need extra practice or more of a challenge know where to go. 3. The selfsameness rubric can be completed by students at the end of this less son or at the end of this minutia. Suggest completing it at the end of the unit since you m y introduce more equations within the context of the lessons thus allowing students audit IANAL opportunities to improve their understanding. Lesson 3 Instructions for Teachers Begin this lesson by telling the story of Lavaliere’s role in discovering oxygen. Be sure to mention the role played by Joseph Priestley. This is a good opportunity to disc us how technology, or the lack of technology played a role in the dispute regarding car edit for the discovery.

Language barriers, difficulty in traveling far distances, and slow communication definitely played a role. Slides 810 should accompany this less son. Slide 10 contains a short video narrated by Bill Nee in which he discusses, with a m ember of the Chemical Heritage Foundation, the story of the work of Lavisher and his role discovering oxygen. Joseph Priestley role in this discovery is also mentioned. Have students refer back to our first law of conservation of mass experiment, specifically conclusion question number 8.

Students will now decide on a scientific quests on that relates to the law of conservation of mass and design a controlled experiment in which they attempt to explain data and confirm or refute a hypothesis on the basis of this data. I live that students should be encouraged to choose a question that allows for a lengthy study, requiring multiple measurements. This will reinforce the concepts pert air-ling to the law of conservation of mass and allow you, the teacher, to draw connections between the law and your other chemistry topics. The final activity is a reflection pertaining to a science demonstration.

The bur inning of paper ties in nicely with many aspects of Lavaliere’s work. See the attachment and ask students to discuss, in words, the similarities, or differences that they notice. This can be completed in class or it can be a homework assignment. A homework assign meet may be more appropriate if you feel that students need time to review the story of the e law of conservation of mass that you have told. Towards this end it is also useful to post your notes of the story on your aboard or whatever form of communication you ha eve with students.

While I have dedicated the story of Lavatories work to some of his experiment s there is another story that can be told. Lavisher, who founded a business whose prim responsibility was collection of taxes, was beheaded during the French Revolt Zion. This sad story can be told in science of course, or it can take place in humanities (h story) or in language arts (English). The stow of Lavisher can tie in to the American and F ranch Revolutions for history class. In English class it can be told within the scope of excerpts or entire books that tell stories relating to revolutions.

An example might be while e reading Charles Dickens’ A Tale of Two Cities. The language arts connections offers the teacher an opportunity to focus on the irony that with the beheading of Lavisher the Free inch people removed a person who had arguably helped them a great deal and who wool d most likely have made many more significant contributions to the life of Parisian. Background Information A: the Antoine Lavisher lived and worked in the 18 century, during the time of the French revolution (Grey, 1982).

Lavisher is often referred to as the father of modern chemistry (Discovery Education, 2005). Lavaliere’s first experiment to lead him toward the e discovery of the law of conservation of mass was part of an experiment to study the CLC manliness of the drinking water in Paris (Culled, 2005). Lavisher boiled drinking water. According to Culled (2005) the first part of this experiment involved cleaning a glass flask, drying it, and then carefully weighing it. Next, a precisely assured sample of water was poured into the flask and for 101 straight day s heated.

The water was heated so that it just reached the point of boiling. Eventually, solid sediment formed on the glass walls of the flask. Culled adds that after weighing the flash k Lavisher concluded that the weight of the flask, the water, and the solid sediment was exactly the same as the mass of the flask and the water with which he started this experiment. If anally, Lavisher removed the water and found that the mass of the water had not chi engaged. However, the mass of the flask and the solid sediment was equal to the mass of the origin anal clean flask.

At this point in the experiment Culled (2005) tells us that Lavisher concluded t hat due to the longer exposure to high temperatures the flask some part of the flask muss t have turned into a new substance, although mass had not been lost. It is worth noting that in his time, many, if not all scientists believed that the e earth was comprised of the four elements of earth, fire, air, and water (Culled, 2005). Du ring the aforementioned experiment Lavisher wondered if water could be converted t o earth, which at the time, Culled states, included any solid substance.

Because the mass oft he water in the experiment did not change Lavisher concluded that the answer was that no, water was not converted into earth. A less perceptive scientist would have concluded others sis due to the presence of the particulate. It was his attention to the mass and to exactness in measurement that allow De him to conclude that contrary to what others were espousing, the water did not Chain GE. Grey (1982) adds that the mass of the particulate was exactly equal to the mass that was missing when Lavisher measured the weight of the dried flask at the end of the 101 days.

L bolster included that part of the glass flask had undergone a change due to constant t exposure to high temperatures. Grey adds that this experiment was also significant because SE it lead Lavisher to conclude that “just looking at an experiment wasn’t enough to fin d out what was really going on” (p. 40). This experiment, notes Culled (2005) was significant n tot only because it lead Lavisher toward the law of conservation of mass but also beck cause lead Lavisher to the realization that precise measurements are critical in experiment notation, something that most scientists did not deem a necessity at the time.

Many of Lavaliere’s experiments, including the water experiment, involved co marring the weight of reactants to the weight of products. In other words, comparing the mass Of the substances he was experimenting with before a reaction to what he had after a reaction. Due to his emphasis on precise measurements Lavisher was able to show that the difference in weight between reactants and products was always small (Culled, 2005).

Whew n he initially started these experiments Lavisher was not certain if these tiny differences in mass were due to his inability to make more exact measurements or if matter was indeed bee g created or destroyed, a view that many scientists of the time thought was possible (Grey, 1982). Read about the science of alchemy if you are interested in how and why scientists o f the time believed that this was possible. It’s worth noting that Lavisher was eventually able to conclude that matter is not able to be created or destroyed in part because he asked the question, a simple queue’s n actually, concerning the missing mass.

Grey, (1982) notes that “He believed there were lots of questions about the world all around him that needed answers. He wanted to look for things no one else had ever found” (p. 26). As we learn more regarding the stories be hind science discoveries, large and simple, we will notice that almost every one involves in acquisitiveness on the part of the scientist followed by an experimental procedure designed t o answer the question, but it all starts with the question. Background Information B: Lavaliere’s next area of interest was combustion.

By the time Lavisher turned to the question of combustion he was well known for his emphasis on precise mess ornaments (Culled, 2005). This was helpful in experiments in which he was attempting to determine if mass had indeed been created, destroyed, or remained the same. Lavaliere’s combustion experiments consisted of burning metals and compared weights of the metal s before and after heating (Mechanical, 2004). When Lavisher burned sulfur, tin, lead, and phosphorus he found that the m ass of the metal actually increased.

However, he also found that when burned in a closed flask the mass of the air inside the flask decreased by the exact amount that the metal increased (G ere, 1982). When Lavisher heated the scales, metal bonded with air due to combustion) he found that air was given off as the mass of the metal decreased while the mass of the air in t e container increased by the same amount. Mathematics, which provides quantitative data, allowed Lavisher and later, tot her scientists, to prove that matter was not created or destroyed (Tab, 2004). The word co inspiration means that nothing has been lost.

After Lavisher, scientists began to conclude e that in an isolated system (for example, a closed flask) mass is a constant (Johnson, 200 8). We know that a constant does not change. If we are able to find the mass of the “system m” before anything reacts we can compare it to the mass Of the System after the reaction and the difference should be zero, according to Lavisher. Johnson (2008) notes that Lavisher was the first to conclude that the total ma as of a system must be equal to the mass obtained in the beginning of the experiment, regard idles of changes in states of matter.

Johnson adds that in France, the law of conservation of m ass is still known as Lavaliere’s law. We will attempt to prove experiment with chemical r actions in an open system as well as a closed system and yes, we will use mathematics to a assist us in doing so! As scientists learned more about elements and compounds (again, thanks to Lavisher) they ere able to further explain, in more detail, what is indeed happening in chew magical reactions in terms of elements and compounds being rearranged. Today we know that this accounting is done through balanced equations.

Balancing chemical equations is a techno queue employed by scientists in which simple, and sometimes complicated, mathematics IS use d to demonstrate the specific ratios of the substances involved in a chemical aqua Zion. We will also partake in the balancing Of equations and I think that you will find it inter sting to see that what Lavisher, the pioneer, first hypothesized over 200 years ago, because e he dared to ask a question, is now being analyzed and proven in our middle school science e class.

Background Information C: Lavisher is credited with discovering the element oxygen. He arrived at the co inclusion that oxygen must exist as a result of his interest in combustion. Prior to Lavisher, scientists such as Joseph Priestly who was based in London, had found that when something burned, like metal, the weight of the metal call would be greater than the mass of the origin IANAL substance (Mechanical, 2004). This Priestley explained, was due to the presence of a most absence that was thought to be found in any substance that burns, called p Hollister (Grey, 1982).

Scientists reasoned that the added mass (to the call’) after something b runner was attributed to phlogiston. Grey notes that at this time scientists were aware that t the mass of the original piece of metal also decreased, which lead them to the conclusion, alb tit falsely, that phlogiston was transferred when something burns. While most scientists were satisfied with the explanation, others such as Olivia sire found a problem. When metals were burned the mass of the burned metal (called call ) actually increased (Mechanical, 2004).

Introduction

During the nineteenth century, when power supply was dc, dc motors were used extensively to draw power direct from the dc source. The motor speed could be varied by adjusting field current by a rheostat. That was an open loop control. Most of the drives were constant speed and the characteristics could not be matched with a job requirement. A vast development in the dc drives system took place when the ward Leonard Control System was introduced in the 1980s. The system was motor-generator system to deliver power to the drive motor.

The supply power available was still dc and dc motor was used to drive the dc generator set at a more or less constant speed. Afterwards when the ac power system came into existence and became popular, ac motors were developed and became attractive owing to their constructional simplicity, ruggedness and lower initial as well as maintenance cost. Machine requiring variable speed drives use the ward Leonard System employing ac motors driving dc motors at a constant speed. In the 1950s electronic came into existence and brought about remarkable improvement in the speed control system.

The open- loop manual control system was replaced by close loop feedback control, which resulted in improved response and better accuracy. Initially, gas diodes and ignitrons were developed and ac to dc converters were used to control dc motors. The advent of thyristors capable of handling large current has revolutionized the field of electric power control. Thyratrons, ignitrons, mercury arc rectifiers, magnetic amplifiers and motor generator sets have all been replaced by solid state circuits employing semi-conductor diodes and thyristors.

Thyristor controlled drives employing both ac and dc motors find wide applications in industry as variable speed drives. In the 1960s ac power was converted into dc power for direct control of drive motors with solid state devices (high power silicon diodes and silicon controlled rectifiers). Initially saturable reactors were employed in conjunction with power silicon rectifiers for dc drives. Of late solid state circuits using semi- conductor diodes and thyristors are becoming popular for controlling the speed of ac and dc otors and are progressively replacing the traditional electric power control circuit based on thyratrons, ignitrons, mercury arc rectifiers, magnetic amplifiers, motor-generator sets, etc as compared to the electric and electro-mechanical systems of speed control. The electronic system has higher accuracy, greater reliability, and quick response and also has higher efficiency as there is no I2R losses and moving parts. Moreover four-quadrant speed control is possible to meet precise high standards. All electronic circuits control the speed of the motor by controlling either:

• The voltage applied to the motor armature or
• The field current or
• Both of the above DC motors can be run from dc supply if available or from ac supply, after it has been converted to dc supply with the help of rectifiers which can be either half wave or full wave and either controlled ( by varying the conduction angle of the thyristors used) or uncontrolled.

AC motors can be run on the ac supply or from dc supply, after it has been converted into ac supply with the help of inverters (opposite of rectifiers).

As stated above, the average output voltage of a thyristors controlled rectifiers by changing its conduction angle and hence the armature voltage can be adjusted to control its speed. When run on a dc supply, the armature dc voltage can be changed with the help of uncontrolled rectifiers (using only diodes and not thyristors). The dc voltages so obtained can be then chopped with the help of a thyristors chopper circuit. In this method of speed control of a dc motor, available ac supply is first rectified into dc supply using uncontrolled rectifiers. The supply is then filtered and smooth ended dc output is supplied to the thyristors chopper.

It allows dc to flow through for the time Ton and then disconnects for the time Toff. This cycle is repeated. During supply-on period (i. e. for the time period Ton) the dc motor gets supply and accelerates. During the supply off period Toff (i. e. for the time period Toff) there is no supply to the motor and the motor decelerates till the next on cycle begins. If the cycles repeated continuously at a definite frequency and the elements of the cycle are maintained in a fixed relationship, the motor will then operate at a constant voltage across the motor will be.

The dc voltage across the motor can be control by varying the Time Ratio Control (TRC) which may be accomplished by:

• Varying the duration of the on-time, Ton keeping the total time period, T or frequency, f constant
• Keeping the on- time, Ton constant and varying the frequency, f.
• Varying both.

The Variable dc voltage below the supply dc voltage is made available to the dc motor and therefore, the motor speed available is below base speed.

For automatic control of speed, both current feedback and speed feedback is used.

Brief Discussion On Chopper

A dc chopper is a static device used to obtain variable dc voltage from a source of constant dc voltage. The dc chopper offers great efficiency, faster response, smooth control, lower maintenance, small size, etc. Solid state chopper due to various advantages are widely used in the battery operated vehicles, traction motor control, control of a large number of dc motors from a common dc bus with a considerable improvement of power factor.

Principle Of Chopper Operation

A chopper is a thyristors on/ off switch that connects load to and disconnects it from the supply and produces a chopped load voltage from a constant input voltage. The chopper is represented by a thyristors (SCR). It is triggered periodically and is kept conducting for a period Ton and is blocked for a period Toff. During the period Ton, when the chopper is on, the supply terminals is connected to the load terminals. And during the interval Toff when the chopper is off, load current flows from the freewheeling diode Df.

So, the load terminals are short circuited by Df and load voltage is therefore zero during Toff. Hence the chopper dc voltage is produced at the load terminals. Now, the average load voltage, Eo is given by Eo = Edc*? [? =Duty Cycle=(Ton/Toff)] Or, Eo = Edc*(Ton/T) [T=Ton + Toff] So the voltage can be varied by varying the duty cycle, ? of the chopper. CLASSIFICATION OF CHOPPER: Power semiconductor devices are used in chopper circuits are uni-directional device. A chopper can however operate in any of the four quadrants by an appropriate arrangement of semiconductor devices.

These characteristics of their operation in any of the four quadrants form the basis of their classification as:

1. Type-A or First Quadrant Chopper
2. Type-B or Second Quadrant Chopper.
3. Type-C or Two Quadrant Type-A Chopper
4. Type-D or Two Quadrant or Type-B Chopper
5. Type-E or Four Quadrant Chopper.

Closed Loop Control Of Chopper Fed DC Motor

For practical purposes motors are required to operate at desired speed with low losses to meet the desired load –torque characteristics which depends on the armature current. Suppose a motor is operating at a particular speed an suddenly a load is applied, the speed falls and the motors takes time to come up to the desired speed . but a speed feed back with an inner current loop provides faster response to any disturbance in speed command ,load torque and supply voltage.

Another reason for the requirement of feedback loop in dc drives is that, the armature of a large motor represents very small impedance which when supplied with nominal voltage would result in an excessive current of up to 10 times the nominal value. Under normal conditions, this is prevented by the induced armature voltage, E which cancels most of the applied voltage, Va so that only the difference is driving the armature current, Ia. But under transient conditions or steady state over load of the motor, there is always a danger of excessive currents due to sudden torque demand and rapidly changing armature voltage or speed . t is therefore important to provide a fast current or torque limit to protect the motor, the power supply and the load. This is best realized by feedback control establishing an effective safe guard against electrical and mechanical stresses. In it the output of the speed controller, Ec is applied to the current limiter which sets the reference current, Ia (reference) for the current loop. the armature current is sensed by a current sensor, after being filtered by an active filter to remove ripples which is then compared with the reference current, Ia (ref. the error current is processed through a current controller whose output, Vc adjusts the firing angle of the chopper and brings the motor speed to the desired value. Any positive speed error caused by an increased in either speed command or load torque demand can produce a high reference current, Ia (ref) the motor accelerates to correct the speed error and finally settles down at any reference current, Ia(ref) which makes the motor torque equal to the load torque resultant in a speed error closed to zero.

For any large positive speed error, current limiter saturates and limits the reference currents, Ia (ref) to a maximum value, Ia (max) the speed error is then corrected at the maximum permissible armature current ,Ia(max)until the speed error becomes small and the current limiters comes out of the saturation . normally ,the speed error is corrected with the Ia less than the maximum permissible armature current, Ia max. For speeds below the base speeds, the field error, Ef is large and the field controller saturates thereby applying the maximum ield voltage and current. The speed control from zero to base speed is normally done at the maximum field by armature voltage control. When the speed is closed to the base speed, Va is almost near the rated value and field controller comes out of saturation. The speed control above base speed is generally done by field weakening at the rated armature voltage. In the field control loop, the back emf Eb is compared with a reference voltage , Eb (ref) the value of which is generally between 0. 85 to 0. 95 of the rated armature voltage.

For a speed command above the base speed, the speed error causes a higher value of Va then motor accelerates, back emf , Eb increases and field error, Ef decreases. The field current when decreases and the motor speed continue to increase until it reaches the desired speed. In this mode of operation, the drive responds slowly due to large field time constant. A full converter is generally used in the field because it has the ability to reverse the voltage thereby reducing the field current much faster as compared to the semi converter.

Industrial Applications DC

Drives are highly versatile energy conversion devices. It can meet the demand of loads requiring high starting, accelerating and decelerating torques. At the same time dc drives are easily adaptable for wide range of speed control and quick reversal. So, in industrial application where accurate control of speed and / or torque is required chopper controlled dc drives are unrivalled.

Therefore, chopper controlled dc motors are universally employed in steel and aluminum mills, power shovels, electric elevators, railway locomotives and large earth moving equipments.

Scope Of Modifications

Chopper controlled dc drives are widely used in hoists, cranes, elevators, shears, crushers, conveyor, blending mills, punch presses, air compressors, ice making machines, tractions, etc.

So these drives should be modified in the following ways to make them more efficient and accurate:

1. The chopper controlled dc motors should be made with large diameter armatures and large pole size of reduced height.
2. The yoke as well as the main and commutating poles should be well laminated to reduce the eddy current effect and to improve the commutation.
3. Large numbers of commutator bars should be used to reduce the voltage between the commutator segments and to improve the commutation.
4. The commutator should be made larger in order to provide extra insulation to withstand large and rapid voltage fluctuations.
5. Compensating windings should be used in large motors to reduce the armature reactions effects.
6. The current densities used for the armature and Interpol windings should be reduced as compared to the conventional dc motors of the same frame size and rating in order to reduce the effect of heating of armature and Interpol.
7. Low inertia armature should be employed for improving the response.
8. Split brushes of good commutating quality should be used for reducing the effect of transformer voltage in the coil undergoing commutations.
9. Better class of insulation should be used to allow higher temperature rise and dissipation of more losses from a given frame.
10. Now a days chopper controlled dc drives are widely used in the automobile industries. So, it should have high efficiency and accuracy, light weight, low maintenance cost.

Bibliography

1. Electric Drives – Ramakrishnan, Prentice Hall India.
2. Power Electronics – P. S. Bimbhra, Khanna Publishers.
3. Software: MATLAB 6. 5 and PSIM.