Geography

The report covers the important global chlorinates markets. It further divides the market on the basis of types, Methyl Chloride, Methyl Chloride, Chloroform, and Carbon Tetrachloride; its applications, and geography. The market data for these types is given with respect to volume (kilotons) and value ($million). The market value of chlorinates was estimated to be $1,401 million in 2012 and is projected to grow with a CARR of about 4. 2% from 2013 to 2018. The data mentioned in the report are based on the overall demand for the chlorinates.

Market & Its Future Outlook 3. 3. 2 PETE Market and Its Future Outlook 3. 5 Chlorinates: Market Attractiveness, By Geography 3. 6 Market Attractiveness: By Types On the basis of product type: Global chlorinates markets Overall chlorinates industry Key companies in this market High growth markets On the basis of geographic: North America Europe Asia-Pacific ROW Other industries we cover: Advertising and Media Automotive and Parts Consumer Goods Healthcare and Medical Finance and Banking Food and Beverages Travel and Tourism Textiles and Clothing SOOT Analysts About JOBS Market Research:-

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For the purpose of this essay I will critically discuss aspects of empiricism and the empirical method and their use in geography. I will discuss these aspects with close reference to a recommended reading for our course by Ward et al (2007). Empiricism is a philosophical idea that experience, which is based on observation and experimentation, is the only source of knowledge. Empiricism believes that the mind is a blank canvas and all knowledge arrives in the mind through the portals that are the 5 senses. It believes that all that we as a race know about the world is what the world wishes to tell us.

Empiricism states that only information garnered using ones senses should be decreed as credible when making a decision An essential characteristic of it is its commitment to the position that all knowledge is dependent on experience.. It is directly in opposition with the fundamental ideas and attitudes associated with another philosophical doctrine, Rationalism. Rationalism champions all knowledge which is gathered through reason as opposed to through the senses. Essentially Rationalism vs Empiricism is a battle of reason vs. experience.

Empiricism has been largely discredited as a discipline in an academic Geographical context but is still widely used in both human and physical geography. The Empirical Method is defined as a method of using a collection of data to form the basis of a theory and essentially form a scientific conclusion. The word empirical means information gained by experience, observation, or experiment. The central theme in scientific method is that all evidence must be empirical which means it is based on evidence. There are two prominent men who are credited with the development of modern empiricism.

Francis Bacon was termed the ‘father’ of empiricism. He deemed that the human mind gained their knowledge only through the senses and that the development of the ability to free the mind of all biases and consciences that could inhibit the truth about certain things. This method was called inductive reasoning. Following Bacon’s death in 1626 other philosophers were free to elaborate on the groundwork he had laid down. One such influential figure was John Locke. Locke believed that from birth human beings are ignorant and all that we know is derived from experience.

It was lock who coined the term synonymous with empiricism, ‘tabula rasa’ which basically means blank slate. The reading from Ward et al (2007) is entitled ‘Living and Working in Urban Class Communities’. It was compiled by Kevin Ward, Collete Fagan, Linda McDowell, Diane Perrins and Kath Ray. All the authors hold esteemed positions in prestigious third level institutes in the United Kingdom, among them the University of Manchester, the University of Oxford and the London School of Economics. This fact alone leads the reader to automatically assume that the reading is a credible piece of work.

All but one author are in the geographical field. Collete Fagan is part of a school of Sociology and therefore she brings a social viewpoint to the table. The reading was completed fully in May 2006 making it 6 years old at present. It focuses on an area of Manchester, England called Sharston. Sharston is a smaller district of the larger Manchester region called Wythenshawe. Sharston is predominately what the reading terms a ‘disadvantaged’ area which suffers from social and economic deprivation. Most of the residents are involved in semi or unskilled work in the local area with low rates of pay.

There are also low levels of home ownership in Wythenshawe and the levels of people who are on permanent sick leave and disability are above average. Also to add onto all of this four in ten people there have no formal qualification. The reading focuses on the way that low income mothers cope in Sharston as they perform paid and unpaid work while at the same time juggling to maintain the social reproduction of the household. Manchester is the 2nd most deprived local authority district according to the 2004 index.

Wythenshawe, where Sharston is located is the most deprived region of Manchester. Therefore, it makes perfect sense that the authors would choose Wythenshawe as the basis for their study. The reading discusses the mass emergence of a working class in Sharston and how most families have to rely on either one and a half or 2 incomes to support themselves financially. A high proportion of women choose to maintain part time hours in employment so that they can be there for their children when they come home from school and begin their caring and nurturing duties within their home.

In the study, it became clear that the majority of women are employed in one of the 5 c’s of employment: cashiering, caring, cleaning, clerical and catering. The researchers gathered their information through the process of 20 interviews with women from the area. These interviews took place in the women’s homes. The interviews were recorded transcribed and analysed. They asked the women to think of their past, present and future and most women were frustrated when they thought of their situation. Questions like here they lived and why they made the decisions they made were asked. The results of the interviews were all recorded in tables. There are six tables present in the paper. The tables were on the following: socio economic indicators of Sharston in comparison with the city region and nation, work performed by participants, summary of statistics of households in Wythenshawe, intergenerational mobility, paid work and the mix of unpaid and paid childcare. The results were illustrated on the paper in said tables. The tables were clear and easily legible, even to the untrained eye.

Upon a quick scan of the figures presented on the tables it was easy to ascertain the direction in which the trend of the women’s answers and other numerical data was going. There were clear links to what the authors outlined they were intending to research in the abstract at the beginning of the paper and to the data contained in the tables. They had spoken about how low income families who were mostly women had to live and depended on their jobs in order to just get by, along with being the primary carers of the children as well.

The authors of this paper clearly use the empirical method throughout their research. Seeing as they all were college educated, their own personal experience of the problems faced by the women in Wythenshawe as regards low income struggles would be low. They would not have had any previous experience of the women in Wythenshawe’s lifestyle. They also collected data from the women and used this to back up their findings which were outlined in the text and represented in table format on the paper.

However, that being said there is an area where this paper would not be on par with the empirical methods approach. As all of the compilers of this paper reside in the United Kingdom, they would have been aware of some of the answers they were going to receive from the women before they received them. In geography it is practically impossible to have completely empirical approach as they would have went in to this paper with some idea of what they were going to meet.

The authors of this article had set out to examine and use statistics to illustrate the area of Wythenshawe in the context of it’s deprived state and the effect its underdeveloped facilities had on the female residents and their families. It set out to investigate the women’s attitudes to Wythenshawe, their home. So it is true to say that they authors had an idea of the response they were going to get and just used the material gathered as a means to statistically illustrate it through empirical methods.

Prince Henry the Navigator Prince Henry the Navigator Prince Henry the Navigator was born 1394 and died 1460. Even know he died doesn’t mean I can’t refresh your memory about him. Prince Henry was a Portuguese royal prince, solider, and patron of explores. Henry sent many sailing expeditions. Prince Henry father is of King John I of Portugal and his English wife, Philippa of Lancaster. When he was 21, Prince Henry attacked the Moslem port of Ceutha in north Morocco. This successful attack in 1415 inspired Prince Henry to explore Africa, most of which was unknown to Europeans. Prince Henry created the school of navigation.

About 1418, Prince Henry started the first school for oceanic navigation along with an observatory at Sagres, Portugal. In this school, people were trained in navigation, map-making, and science, in order to sail down the west of Africa. Prince Henry of Navigation traveled all over the place like West Africa at this time, no Europeans had sailed past the treacherous Cape Bojador and returned alive. Cape Bojador is on the coast of Africa just below latitude. Prince Henry the Navigator established his own court at Sagres and sponsored voyages of discovery in the Madeira Island and along the western coast of Africa.

As grand master of the Order of Christ, he gained funds for backing voyages aimed at the conversion of pagans. His patronage led to development of the Portuguese caravel and improved navigational instruments and the advancement cartography. See I told you can learn a lot from reading my essay I bet you barely knew some of the things I told you I even learned a lot to. Bibliography http://en. wikipedia. org/wiki/Henry_the_Navigator#Early_life http://www. enchantedlearning. com/explorers/page/h/henry. shtml

With reference to examples, assess the degree to which the level of economic development of a country affects planning and management in urban areas. The economic development of a country can be defined as the growth of industry, wealth, employment and the level of urbanisation. The planning and management issues that are linked to economic development, are those associated with processes such as urbanisation, suburbanisation and counter-urbanisation of cities. These may include pollution of water, air and noise.

Other issues may be the increase in transport and waste, created by people living, travelling through and working in urban areas. These problems need solutions, which often leads to planning and carrying out redevelopment of urban areas. The effects of urbanisation on a city can be seen in Sao Paolo, a newly industrialised country in Brazil where housing improvement schemes are evident. Furthermore we can see issues of planning and management in the UK, a more economically developed country, due to increasing re-urbanisation and suburbanisation.

Using these 2 counties of different levels of development, I will be able to eventually assess to what extent the level of economic development will affect planning and management of cities. Urbanisation (the movement of people from rural to built-up areas) in Sao Paolo is increasing rapidly. Being the largest city in the southern-hemisphere, with a population density of 21,000km2, it is constantly growing in size. However the rate of increase is slowing, along with the reduced rural-urban migration and natural increase rates.

The population of central areas is also decreasing; a pattern that mirrors that of cities in more affluent parts of the world. The city was initially increasing in size because it was a ‘centre of agriculture’, with exports including coffee and cotton. The city continues to develop today as an industrial centre with manufacturing and services. These industries offer reliable employment to people living in rural areas where the main industry of agriculture is unreliable. Another pull factor is its temperate climate in comparison to the tropical low-lands surrounding it.

The huge population means that social provisions are of a much higher quality, including education and healthcare. However this movement of people into the city brings its problems, mostly in the variation of quality of life. Although a prosperous city, it does have the highest unemployment rate in Brazil at 5. 3% in August 2012. The contrast between rich and poor is very extreme. A survey of living standards carried out in 2002 revealed that HDI indexes for Sao Paulo varied from the Portuguese national average to Sierra Leone’s (the world’s poorest country. This is reflected by the housing available in the city, from condominiums (luxury housing blocks), to corticos (inner-city dilapidated accommodation) and favelas (illegal slums. ) It was estimated that the sub-standard housing occupies 705? of Sao Paolo, and that 605? of population growth in recent years, has gone straight to the favelas. Not only are these areas unsightly and extremely over-populated at 100,000? , absolute poverty is present. The services and infrastructure are inadequate, with little running water, drainage or rubbish collection and many open sewers causing diseases like cholera and dysentery.

Many are unemployed and try to find work in the informal section of the economy. The pollution in the city is high, with 255? of Brazil’s vehicles circulating Sao Paolo. However, improvements are being made: air quality is improving with the reduction of sulphur dioxide and lead levels, although ozone and carbon monoxide are still of concern. $1 million is spent each day on rubbish collection and with only 2 landfill sites in 2001, there isn’t enough space for all the rubbish created. However, urbanisation is decreasing and urban regeneration is taking place to improve living conditions for those already living there.

Housing improvement schemes are aiding the regeneration of the city. Favelas have been the main target since 1990, when the city- funded community groups allowed families to renovate their existing homes to include electricity. Despite great publicity only 8000 houses were built, which would on average house 40,000 people (in comparison to the 100,000 living in the favelas. ) Improvements have been attempted since, for example in 2000, when investment was put into Santo Andre. The aim was to alleviate poverty by providing work for entrepreneurs, community healthcare workers and literacy programmes.

So although this is an LEDC/RIC, it still faces overpopulation problems; it does seem that the planning and management changes are aiding the over-population problem and improving the overall quality of life. In contrast Notting Hill is in the UK, an economically developed country with an average GDP (ppp) per capita of $35,494 in comparison to $11,719 in Brazil (World Bank 2011). Notting Hil is an area of London, an example of re-urbanisation; when people move into the city centre or inner city due to regeneration.

Gentrification is what has happened in Notting Hill, as individuals moved into old housing that was formerly in a state of despair and refurbished and improved it. This changed the composition of the whole neighbourhood, because the affluent newcomers displaced the low-income groups that formerly lived there. Often the new comers work in professional or managerial jobs. A positive outcome of this is that more affluent people have been attracted to the area and therefore their purchasing power is much greater.

This means that some house prices now rival those of upmarket Mayfair, but it has meant that the area has become more prosperous. The demand for services to meet the needs of these new-comers has meant new bars and restaurants and services of a higher status. In turn this brings employment to the area for those in design, building, decoration etc. Not only is this a hotspot for people such as Stella McCartney, but it is also a popular area for families. There are parks and communal gardens making the area extremely desirable to those who can afford it.

The film ‘Notting Hill’ gave the area huge amounts of publicity, despite the fact that gentrification was well established by this time. There are lots of well known and expensive restaurants that line the streets to accommodate the affluent people coming to the area. These include The Westbourne Pub, the Lazy Daisy Cafe and the Goulbourne Road Area. However, there are negative impacts; unfortunately those who lived here before the gentrification are finding it increasingly difficult to either buy houses or afford the living costs of the ones they already own/ rent – the average house price is ? ,320,599. This also means that private rentals are starting to decline, as more and more properties are purchased. Furthermore the friction between residents and newcomers can cause crime to increase (seen during the 1976 riots. ) An article in the Daily Telegraph by Ross Clark revealed, “Parts of Notting Hill are still run-down and prone to crime. ’ However in general it is clear the Notting Hill is a very desirable area for the people who have sufficient income to live there.

Transport has also been managed in Notting Hill, and this year (2012) the Metropolitan Police would like to restrict the use of roads in specified ‘safety zones’ by both vehicles and pedestrians which in turn would reduce pollution from cars and overcrowding of people. Also London has the famous congestion charge which has recently been extended to Notting Hill at ? 8 on the day or ? 10 on the day, once again reducing pollution and congestion. Equally this area has a tube station and many bus routes, facilitating travel during the ban of cars, and reducing carbon emissions per person.

Waste is also heavily managed in this area with ‘ Transfer and Recycling’ which is managed by the City Council. Not only can people dispose of waste and stop it littering and polluting the water and streets, but it also gives residents a chance to recycle, reducing the amount put into landfill, and reducing the amount of unrenewable resources we use. Equally in the U. K. the opposite is also happening with counter-urbanisation, where people migrate to rural areas, often ‘leap-frogging’ the green belt to get away from the pollution and crime that cities are famous for.

This is often families who increase the affluence of an area but unfortunately this means they work in professional or managerial jobs which requires transport links to the city, and services for the whole family within the rural area. For example Crosby in the Isle of Man. The ‘A1’ commuter route has been extended, which although facilitating travel, may also increase congestion and pollution towards the rural area, which almost defeats the point of ‘clean and peaceful living. In addition modern facilities are in demand from the families; extentions, garages etc. A perfect example being the Eyreton Barn Conversions. However, this would provide work for the construction industry within the village, benefiting the local economy. However, the addiction of all these services, including a refurbished play park and BMX track, although necessary for recreation of young people within the village, are arguably expanding what should be a centre of agriculture.

Expansion can also be seen in Ballawattleworth Estate, Peel in the Isle of Man where people are moving from the centre of the city to the outskirts (suburbanisation. ) Once again this has meant the increase in the building of schools. At the Queen Elizabeth II high school a new dining room, classrooms and KS5 learning Centre have been necessary to cater for the increased intake of pupils as more people move to the area. When comparing LEDCs and MDCs it is vital to take into account other, wider issues.

For example LEDCs may have more natural disasters and less revenue to deal with them. In Brazil between 1980 and 2010 there were 146 natural disasters and over 4000 people killed; in the UK there have been 67 with only 751 killed. Therefore planning and managing an urban area which is more prone to natural disaster is going to pose far more problems socially, economically, environmentally and politically. Not only is it more difficult, but the country as a whole can’t afford the damage so has to seek aid from other countries.

A lot of natural disasters are also weather related, for example the floods in Brazil, due to the tropical climate. Located right next to the equator, it is a perfect target for tropical down-pours as the rising condensation comes straight down again as precipitation. Furthermore pollution is a much larger issue in Sao Paolo due to the favelas with open sewers; in the UK clean drinking water and plumbing mean that pollution isn’t an issue. Finally, the health issues created in the favelas mean that healthcare is needed for more people than in the U. K.

This is economically counter-productive for the city as paying more health-care for residents also means less money available for improvement of the areas that need it. Whereas in the U. K. the NHS means healthcare is free, although diseases such as cholera don’t need treatment as working sewers are something we already have. In conclusion, I think it is true that the level of economic development has an impact on planning and management issues. If a country such as Brazil had more money then they would be able to combat poverty and sanitation by demolishing the favelas.

As an MDC we do have the funding to lessen the issues, but in 200 years time Sao Paolo will have developed demographically and moved to stage 4 of the DTM. With a slower increase or stable population they may find regenerating much easier, as there will be less people to cater for. Notting Hill expanded during the 19th and 20th Centuries due to rural to urban migration and by the 1950s slum conditions affected the area and poverty took hold – much like the current state of Sao Paolo. Gentrification and re- urbanisation may occur here too when and if the economy can support it.

Problem-solving: Flooding I think that the best solution from the Environment Agency is the Upstream Flood Storage. I think this would be the best option because it will stop the town from getting flooded but also, it would be better downstream. The water will be temporarily stored on fields upstream of the town, on farm land. There may be animals on the fields but they can easily be moved out of the way. This could also lead to new wildlife in the area, although also disrupt the wildlife already there. The flood storage reservoir upstream of the town can hold back floodwater’s, and so reduce the maximum flood flow through the town.

A flood storage reservoir remains effective so long as it does not become full of water. Although, if a larger flood occurs, the reservoir fills up and the extra water will flow over the top. One other point is that this will be costly, but could save many businesses and homes from being flooded. I think that the Floodplain Reinstatement (move the town off the flood plain so if the river floods, it won’t matter) is a bad idea because it would be extremely costly and very difficult to persuade the people living in the town to move away. It would be bad for the economy and people would also lose their jobs and businesses in the town.

Although, by moving the town out the way of floods, this would mean that the town will no longer get flooded. By doing this, it will also disrupt the wildlife where the town could be moved. The Bypass channels (building an extra channel to take some of the flood water) also would not be such a good idea because they would just make the flood worse downstream. The water would move very quickly through the town, causing the channel to meet the river where the flood will be at the same time. As a result, this saves the town from being flooded but the flood downstream will be worse.

Also, the channel may not have a lot of water in it all year round so could affect the wildlife in the area. The additional channel capacity (making the channel deeper and wider so it will hold more water) is a good idea as it could stop small floods from taking place. But, if there was to be a big flood then the water could rise over the top leading the town to flood. The secondary defenses (build flood walls to hold the extra water) could also work well for preventing the small floods, but not for a big flood. As a result, the water could still rise over the top of the walls.

Personal Statement Every year, thousands of people all over the world apply the best of themselves to Oxford. Some believe in the distinguished faculties producing groundbreaking research that addresses critical issues facing our academia, while the others believe in the synergy between fundamental and applied research and the “The Lord is my light” approach, which foster intellectual partnerships between faculties and students. As an up-coming graduate in Economics, I yearned to further my postgraduate study for an Oxford master programme in the School of Geography and the Environment because of a passion running deep inside my thought.

The passion is rooted from the place where I grew up, and sparked by a practice of enviromental change research I experienced recently. I grew up in Zhongwei, Ningxia, China — a small oasis located in the junction between the Yellow River and Tengri Desert in northwestern China. My feeling on this land has been a complex mixture of love and sigh, as folks are nurtured by this land, but also tortured by frequent sand storms and very dry weather. During my college life in Jiangsu University, I, as a volunteer, participated in a research project to study the environmental changes and the corresponding socio-economic effects around Shapotou.

I was impressed by the fresh scene of Shapotou, the place where once engulfed by desert has been covered mostly by vegetation. Because of the success in desert-control, Shapotou is known as a “Miracle in the history of the world’s desertification control”. I was honored to be invited to participate in the field investigation led by Professor A from the Chinese Academy of Sciences. Through participating in the research project, I obtained the knowledge on the history of the desert movement and principles governing the desertification control.

I have also learned that the achievement of Shapotou desertification control project has attracted the attention of experts and scholars from many parts of the world, including the Dean of St Cross College of Oxford University, Professor who visited Tengri Desert with Professor Huang in 2007. Deeply impressed with the success of desertification control at Shapotou, I have been very interested in topics related to geography and environmental conservation since then. For this, I have done some studies on climate change, ecological protection, energy conservation and environmental economics. I have also been keeping in a close contact with Prof.

A for consulting and discussing issues on geographical and environmental aspects. Through my contacts with Professor A, who used to be a research fellow at Oxford University, and many other sources including the information shown on the website of Oxford University, I understand well that Oxford University is one of the leading universities in geography in the world. Following my passion and maturing self-conscious, I started to draw my own blueprint catiously – I would make all my effort to earn an offer from Oxford University for studying in the programme of Nature, Society and Environmental Policy.

Armed by the knowledge and skills I gained from my college study, I will dedicate myself on environmental protection in my hometown. I am truly convinced that choosing to become an Oxford’s “dark blue” is the best choice to fullfill my life’s pursuit. I sincerely hope that I can be admitted as a postgraduate student of Oxford University, and I am very confident of my capability for completing my studies at Oxford University.

Water is an essential resource. No one can live and survive without water. Hence, we should not let the source of the life waste, instead we must store it. We can do so by the methods of Rainwater Harvesting. Rainwater Harvesting refers to the process of collecting and storing of rainwater. Rainwater harvesting helps in providing drinking water, water for irrigation, agricultural purposes or for groundwater recharge. It is one of the best solutions to water problem in the areas having inadequate water resources. Rainwater systems are simple to construct.

Usually, rainwater is either harvested from the ground or from a roof. During the rainy seasons, the rain water can be collected and stored in the tanks. There are many methods to harvest the rainwater. Usually, the methods used are: Catchments Areas i. e. the areas which receive rainfall directly. In this, paved areas like roof of a building or unpaved area such as open ground or lawns can be used for the catchment areas. Ground catchment techniques has more chances of collecting water from the larger surface areas.

Storage system: It is designed according to the amount of water that is needed to be stored. Storage system must be sealed and does not leak. Chlorine must be put from time to time to keep the water clean. Conveyance systems which transfer the rainwater collected on the rooftops to the storage tanks and that is done by making connections to one or more down-pipes connected to the rooftop gutters or pipes. The gutters must be made as such that if it rain starts,the dirt will be washed into the down-pipe and clean water comes out. Advantages/Benefits of Rain water Harvesting:

It is one of the best solutions to water problem in the areas having inadequate water resources Reduction of soil Erosion. Improved quality of ground water. Raising of water level in wells and borewells. Reduction in the choking of storm water drains and flooding of the roads. Rain water flows down the hills in the form of small streams which join together to form rivers and lakes. And this is the important and the natural source of water for the living beings. Some of the rain water percolates down the earth until it reaches the hard surface.

There it collects to form a large underground water reservoir. Such water is obtained on digging wells and it is called sub-soil water or ground water. Thus, there are three important natural sources of water besides abundantly available sea water. The sea water being saline can not be sued as such either for industries or for domestic consumption. (a) Rain water or snow water. (b) Surface water (river, lakes, streams, canals, ponds, etc. ) (c) Ground water or sub-soil water wells and springs. Rainwater Harvesting

In urban areas, the construction of houses, footpaths and roads has left little exposed kuchha earth for water to soak in. In parts of the rural areas of India, flood water quickly flows to the rivers, which then dry up soon after the rains stop. If this water can be held back by storage or by reducing speed of flow, it can seep into the ground and recharge the ground water supply. This has become a very popular method of conserving water especially in the urban areas. Rainwater harvesting essentially means collecting rainwater on the roofs of building and storing it underground for later use.

Not only does this recharging arrest ground water depletion, it also raises the declining water table and can help augment water supply. Rainwater harvesting and artificial recharging are becoming very important methods. It is essential to stop the decline in ground water levels, arrest sea-water ingress, i. e. , prevent sea-water from moving landward and conserve surface water run-off during the rainy season. Town planners and civic authority in many cities in India are introducing by-laws making rainwater harvesting compulsory in all new structures.

No water or sewage connection would be given, if a new building did not have provisions for rainwater harvesting. Such rules should also be implemented in all the other cities to ensure a rise in the groundwater level. Realizing the importance of recharging ground water, the CGWB (Central Ground Water Board) is taking steps to encourage it through rainwater harvesting in the capital and elsewhere. A number of Government buildings have been asked to adopt water harvesting in Delhi and other cities of India. All you need for a water harvesting system is rain, and a place to collect it.

Typically, rain is collected on rooftops and other surfaces, and the water is carried down to where it can be used immediately or stored. You can direct water run-off from this surface to plants, trees or lawns or even to the aquifer. Some of the benefits of rainwater harvesting are as follows: I. Increases water availability II. Checks the declining water table III. Is environmentally friendly IV. Imporves the quality of ground water through the dilution of fluoride, nitrate, and salinity V. Prevents soil erosion and flooding, especially in urban areas