Human

[pic] Today one in every five persons of the world believes Muhammad (pbuh) as the last messenger of Allah (pbuh) and millions of others are continuing to bear testimony to this fact….. Yaqeen ul Haq Ahmad Sikander writes. Ever since dawn of the civilization, mankind has witnessed the emergence of a large number of great people who did significant contributions in their respective fields and immortalized their names forever. Their contributions, which they left behind, have been responsible for moulding the intellect of the people into the fashion of their teachings.

The Teachings of Buddha, Jesus, Confucius, Ashoka, Aristotle, Plato, etc even today have an avid influence upon the lives of masses globally. But among all these great people, only Muhammad (pbuh) possessed the most distinguished and determined personality. Across the centuries Across the centuries millions and billions of people have lived their lives loving Muhammad (pbuh) and following his principles and guidelines in every sphere of life. No one other than Muhammad (pbuh) in the history has been so much adored and followed.

Today one in every five persons of the world believes Muhammad (pbuh) as the last messenger of Allah (pbuh) and millions of others are continuing to bear testimony to this fact. He was the one who brought has billions of people from darkness of ignorance to light. He brought peace and set of ideals to countless hearts and lives. He is the inspiration for countless people over the globe. Even today Muhammad (pbuh) motivates and induces whole masses to strive to shape their lives according to his teachings.

Indeed never before in the history has anyone influenced humankind up to such extent as Muhammad (pbuh) did even beyond his death. That’s why Qur’an rightly tells Muhammad (pbuh) to proclaim that He is the mercy for all nations which clearly depicts the universality of his mission. The Qur’an mentions: “And We sent you not (O Muhammad), but as a mercy to all the worlds”. (Al Qur’an 21:107). Among all the great emerged lives, only Muhammad (pbuh) was most influential and successful and both ‘Religious and Secular’ levels and this made Michael. H.

Hart, an American Mathematician, Historian and an Astronomer to put Him on the No. 1 in the list of the top 100 men which he quoted in his world-famous book “The Hundred”. And the Argument that he puts forth for it is as follows: “Since there are roughly twice [the latest estimate is that there are more than one thousand million Muslims in the world and one thousand two hundred million Christians] as many Christians in the world, it may initially seem strange that Muhammad has been ranked higher than Jesus. There are two principal reasons for that decision.

First, Muhammad played a far more important role in the development of Islam than Jesus did in the development of Christianity. Although Jesus was responsible for the main ethical and moral precepts of Christianity (in so far as these differed from Judaism), St. Paul was the main developer of Christian theology, its principal proselytizer, and the author of a large portion of the New Testament. Muhammad, however, was responsible for both the theology of Islam and its main ethical and moral principles. In addition, he played the key role in proselytizing the new faith and in establishing the religious practices of Islam”. Michael H. Hart in his book – “THE 100? – pages 38-39) Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) : the only answer In the words of Maulana Wahiduddin Khan, “Humankind needs a set of moral principles having universal validity as well as a real personality in which these moral principles are exemplified. The Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) is the only answer to this question. He proclaimed the ethics that bear the stamp of divine authenticity, and is, moreover, a model of perfect conduct and character for all mankind. In bodily appearance he lived in this world, but, spiritually, he was on a different plane”.

It was the exemplary life of Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) and his empyreal teachings that even made the non-Muslims bear testimony to the greatness of Muhammad (pbuh). Some of the verdicts of Non-Muslims on Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) that I have compiled from various sources are: “He must be called the Savior of humanity I believe that if a man like him were to assume the dictatorship of the modern world, he would succeed in solving its problems in a way that would bring it much needed peace and happiness. ” (The Genuine Islam, Singapore, Vol. 1, No. X 1936). Mohammed was the most successful of all religious personalities. ” (Encyclopedia Britannica, 11th edition). “Muhummad was the soul of kindness, and his influence was felt and never forgotten by those around him. ” (Diwan Chand Sharma, “The Prophets of the East,” Calcutta 1935, p. 122). “Four years after the death of Justinian, A. D. 569, was born at Makkah, in Arabia the man who, of all men exercised the greatest influence upon the human race … Mohammed …” (John William Draper, “A history of the lntellectual development of Europe”,- London 1875). By a fortune absolutely unique in history, Mohammed is a threefold founder of a nation, of an empire, and of a religion. ” (R. Bosworth-Smith, “Mohammed and Mohammedanism”- 1946). So the Qur’an rightly says to the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) that, “And have We not raised high the esteem in which) thou (O Muhammad are held)” (Al Qur’an 94:4). Exemplary Character Muhammad (pbuh)’s character was indeed exemplary for whole of the humankind. Before his death, the whole of the Arabian Peninsula was already under the rule of Islam.

He could have easily led a very luxurious life in High palaces and could have enjoyed every pleasure of life and this world. But instead of this, he led a very simple and austere life and created a best example for the generations to come. He used to do his work himself. It is narrated in various Hadith the Muhammad (pbuh) used to milk his goat, mend his clothes, do household work and repair his shoes and visited the sick. All his companions loved him excessively but he forbade them to even getting up for him as a sign of respect. He brought a real revolution to the whole humanity and it was the transformation of the hearts.

His companions who loved him more than anything else, were once his most staunch enemies but his sublime character transformed them to such an extent that they even gave up their lives for the sake of Islam. Muhammad (pbuh) brought masses from darkness to light. He was from a rich family that enjoyed highest status in Arabia but because of Islam, he suffered from worst persecutions and painful torture and sufferings. On a certain occasion, his uncle Abu Talib requested him to stop the preaching of Islam and for that he was offered the highest status of a chief and a lot of material wealth.

But to this Muhammad (pbuh) gave a very sincere answer. he replied, “I swear by the name of God, O Uncle! , that if they place the sun in my right-hand and the moon in my left-hand in return for giving up this matter (calling people to Islam), I will never desist until either God makes it triumph or I perish defending it” (Ibn Hesham). Such was the determination of Muhammad (pbuh). And the Qur’an again describing the character of Muhammad (pbuh) says that, “And most certainly thou (O Muhammad) are of most sublime and exalted character” (Al Qur’an 68:4).

It was the tolerance and sublime character of Muhammad (pbuh) that brought huge masses into the fold of Islam and the books of Seerah (Life Of Muhammad) are full of such incidents. On the fall of Makkah to the Muslims, the Prophet Muhammad (pbuh) forgave even his most staunch enemies including Wahshi who on the battle on Uhud had killed the beloved uncle and cousin of Muhammad (pbuh) namely Hamza and seeing this extraordinary behaviour of Muhammad (pbuh), Wahshi accepted Islam and became one of the Sahabees (The Companions of Prophet Muhammad).

There are so many other cases found in the books of Tafseer (exegesis) and Seerah (Life Of Muhammad) wherein Muhammad (pbuh) by his sublime character won the hearts of many including Abu Bakr (RA) and Abdullah bin Salaam (RA) and many others that are considered to be the most eminent Sahabees (The Companions of Prophet Muhammad). Peaceful Preaching It was the peaceful preaching of Muhammad (pbuh) that invaded the hearts of the millions and is still continuing to do so. It was only by the peaceful preaching of Islam that it spread to all the nooks and corners of the world.

And even now Islam is the fastest growing religion of the west particularly in USA and UK where many great personalities and intellectuals like Shaykh Yusuf Estes, Hamza Yusuf, Gary Miller, Dr Bilal Philips and Yusuf Islam have accepted Islam and are spreading its peaceful message globally and yet this is fulfilling an another prophecy of the Qur’an: “It is He (Allah) who has sent his messenger (Muhammad) with guidance and the religion of truth (Islam), that he may make it prevail over all religions, and enough is God for a witness” (Al Qur’an 48:28).

Some of the sublime sayings of the Muhammad (pbuh) are as follows:The believers, in their love, mercy, and kindness to one another are like a body: if any part of it is ill, the whole body shares its sleeplessness and fever. (Bukhari & Muslim) The most perfect of the believers in faith are the best of them in morals. And the best among them are those who are best to their wives. (Tirmidhi & Ahmad) None of you believes (completely) until he loves for his brother what he loves for himself. (Bukhari & Muslim) The merciful are shown mercy by the All-Merciful. Show mercy to those on earth, and God will show mercy to you. Tirmidhi & Abu Dawud) Smiling at your brother is charity… (Tirmidhi) A good word is charity. (Bukhari & Muslim) Whoever believes in God and the Last Day (the Day of Judgment) should do good to his neighbor. (Bukhari & Muslim) God does not judge you according to your appearance and your wealth, but He looks at your hearts and looks into your deeds. (Sahih Muslim) Pay the worker his wage before his sweat dries. (Ibn Majah) A man walking along a path felt very thirsty. Reaching a well, he descended into it, drank his fill, and came up. Then he saw a dog with its tongue hanging out, trying to lick up mud to quench its thirst.

The man said: “This dog is feeling the same thirst that I felt. ” So he went down into the well again, filled his shoe with water, and gave the dog a drink. So, God thanked him and forgave his sins. The Prophet was asked: “Messenger of God, are we rewarded for kindness towards animals? ” He said: There is a reward for kindness to every living animal or human. (Bukhari & Muslim) So to conclude, Muhammad (pbuh) was bestowed by Allah with the most exemplary character. The nature of Muhammad (pbuh)’s teachings is universal and is directed for all generations and times.

Muhammad (pbuh) was not just a leader or statesman, but he was and he still is, the best role model for the one who seeks guidance on the path of the Lord. It is in his teachings that one can find solution to the ongoing spiritual turmoil and find an innovative solution to the problems challenging the mankind. And it is in him that every nation and generation can find its last hope and it’s his teachings that can bring a revival to this world and save it from the disasters of hatred, bloodshed, racism and anarchy. The path that was enlightened by Muhammad (pbuh) will guide us to the eternal path of salvation and finally Jannah.

Our deviated youth only by following the teaching of Muhammad (pbuh) can excel in all fields. The west has realized this fact and that’s why they are turning to Islam as it’s the only solution to all the problems confronting the humanity. If only our society would be framed and based upon the ideals and morals taught by Muhammad (pbuh), then it would bring an end to all our problems and then this world will really become a place to live in. The Qur’an mentions: “Most certainly, you have in Messenger of Allah an excellent pattern (of behaviour)” (Al Qur’an 33:21).

The human mind is something scientists have been trying to comprehend forever. Science can not alter how the mind communicates with one’s body, or even how it works. Mary Shelley’s Frankenstein uses the creation of a fake being to emphasize the fact that the human mind cannot be altered or replicated effectively. Dr. Frankenstein thought he would be able to create and control the mind of a creature. He had tried many times, but to no avail. After talking with a professor, he finally figured out a way that he would be able to complete what he had been trying to for years.

But does Frankenstein pass that natural boundary placed before us by our peers? To create life, a being with its own mind, had never been done before. What are the consequences of his actions and was it truly worth it to go beyond those limits? Mary Shelley says no, it was not worth it. Frankenstein thought he would be able to control this creature, control his emotions and how he would act on them. He would quickly find out that that was not the case. Immediately after creating this unnatural being, Frankenstein had to act as a somewhat fatherly figure to teach the “monster” how to walk and stand on his own.

I don’t think it was what he intended, but by doing this the creature naturally looked at Frankenstein as being his sole “creator,” or “father” if you will. There was nothing he could say or do, and certainly nothing science could do, to change the thinking of the creature. He, by creating life, had attached himself to this being from the very beginning. When the creature is out in the streets for the first time, the whole town is completely against him, trying to bring him down, throwing stuff at him, etc. There is nothing science can do to take the anger and sadness out from the creature.

It is only natural to the mind that you will feel such emotions if a whole town is against you. That is just how the mind works. It reacts to certain situations in a certain way, beyond sciences control. Frankenstein tried to forget about the creature, but it crept right back up into his life with the murder of his little brother, William. The creature is angry with Frankenstein, angry for what he had done to him. Frankenstein made the creature much bigger and stronger than an average human being, and because of this, it isn’t necessarily easy for Frankenstein to say no to the creatures’ needs or wants.

He demands a female partner, which brings us to another argument brought forward by Shelley. When you venture into the unknown by creating life, by creating unnatural beings, you risk the threat of more than one being created. When you pass that boundary by scientifically experimenting with the human mind and life, only bad things can come from it. It is a loss-loss no matter how you look at it, from Shelley’s point of view. In the film, Frankenstein is put forth with a very dangerous task. Either creating a second unnatural being with it’s own mind, or telling the creature he has already made that he cannot do that.

Mary Shelley stresses that both of these outcomes are bad, and that it is impossible to avoid both circumstances. By giving an unnatural being its’ own mind, you are giving it the privilege to think on its’ own. This is incredibly dangerous, as you cannot control it after this point. If the being you gave life to is bigger or stronger than you, you are at the will of it to do what it asks. Because Frankenstein didn’t give in to the creatures’ wishes, the creature was not only responsible for the death of his little brother William, but also the death of the well loved servant, Justine, and ultimately the death of his wife, Elizabeth.

Frankenstein then proceeds to pass that boundary even further, by replicating the mind of his wife in the same manner in which he created the creature. His wife comes “back to life” but with little to no memory. The creature tries to bring her to his side, finally getting what he wanted, a partner. But, in a struggle over the possession of Elizabeth, she screams and commits suicide, hurting Frankenstein even more. What he thought would enhance science and bring innovation would ultimately be his downfall.

And that is because he ventured past that boundary by trying to create or replicate the human mind, something in which science has no control over. The human mind cannot be altered or replicated successfully in any way, and any attempts to do so will end in a disastrous manner. I agree with Shelley in this regard, as she proved in her film. The human mind is something so complex that scientists are still trying to figure it out entirely, let alone duplicate it, or create it from scratch. Frankenstein was attempting to use some brains from dead people in his attempts at creating life, but it is still all wrong just the same.

It is immoral and without a doubt beyond that limit that should not be passed. We saw a very clear example of what Shelley thinks would happen, and I think it is safe to say it is fairly accurate. You could theoretically try to pull something off like Frankenstein did, and you may even be able to control that being, but would it be worth it? Shelley says no, and I agree with her. The cons outweigh the pros indefinitely. You wouldn’t be able to control the created unnatural being, and it would cause havoc over society. The human mind is something not to be meddled with, and “Frankenstein” is a good example of this.

If you create someone or something so unique, it will naturally want to be among its’ kind. If you wanted to experiment, you would need two creatures, not just one, and that could become a very dangerous threat. Scientists do not fully understand the human mind, and thus cannot effectively control it. Mary Shelley’s Film, “Frankenstein,” effectively warns us of the consequences of what can come if you pass a certain boundary by meddling with certain things science does not fully comprehend. The human mind is a sacred, unique device that every human being has. It allows one to think, to feel emotion.

It is very dangerous to try to replicate this in the creation of an unnatural being. I agree with all the points Shelley is making in her film, in that it should not be attempted. It is immoral and very dangerous, and only bad things will come from it. Life is a natural thing that we are blessed to have, and we should not push our luck into trying to create beings in which we can control, because it can’t be done. The human mind cannot be altered or duplicated, and thus, scientists should not try to do so, especially not until they have a much better understanding of how it works so that they can learn how to control it. Word Count: 1,197

Human cloning, which was once thought of as the witchcraft involved in fictional stories, is a true thing in the real world. Human cloning involves replicating DNA of one organism into another one (Human Cloning). The controversial topic of cloning is seen by citizens that it could be beneficial for all humans, but by many people it is conceived as immoral and unsafe. Human cloning should not be allowed because the health risks involved, its depraved background, and errors that could occur during the cloning process.

Cloning is potentially very dangerous to the clone being formed. For example, in mammalian cloning, at least 95% mammal experimental clones have had miscarriages, stillbirths, and life-threatening anomalies (Reproductive Cloning Arguments). No clones are perfectly healthy and will clearly have difficulty during pregnancies. Pregnancy problems will affect the clone and its child. Also, cloning can lead to birth defects to the clones themselves as well (Health Risks). Since clones are scientifically made, their organs are enlarged which is the most common reason for birth defects.

Clones are also likely to experience an early death due to their weaker immune system (Health Risks). Clones will experience death possible before normally developed human. Health problems and early death is what makes human cloning unsafe. Along with all the health risks, human cloning is also immoral to a great amount of the populace. Clones are formed because of a nuclear donor and as a result, a clone will never be able to be its own self (Reproductive Cloning Arguments). This will affect a clone’s social development. Making an exact copy of someone is not morally right.

Cloning could diminish the sense of uniqueness among human beings (Reproductive Cloning Arguments). People are supposed to have their own personality and physical features. Being an individual is ethical. As well as destroying a sense of individuality, cloning also would fosters a person’s idea of a human being by how it’s made to how it looks (Reproductive Cloning Arguments). There will be a specific look that all people will believe is perfection. This forms unrealistic images in young children’s minds and also takes away self appreciation.

Cloning is immortal and should not be used to create a human being. Cloning is now as an experiment and it is not always perfect. In cloning, many mistakes are made. The most common mistake is DNA imprinting (Health Risks). Improper imprinting on an embryo can lead to organ abnormalities. Because cloning can possibly have errors, a clone is never going to be what it is meant to be which is a copy of a person. Human cloning will never be just right. Human cloning is extremely hazardous, unethical, and can result in many errors. It posts many dangers and makes citizens lose sight of individuality.

Running head: HUMAN BEHAVIOUR AND SOCIAL NORMS Do social norms influence human behaviour? Human behaviour is the response to given stimuli, which are socially and environmentally affected. This response is something that can easily be influenced and shaped through many personal, situational, social, biological, mental factors. In this essay the case of social norms influencing human behaviour will be analyzed using previous studies. Social norms are part of a larger influential scale generally named as social influence.

Social influence is the exercise of power that an individual or a group can use on other individuals or society in order to alter their attitudes, behaviours and lead them to a desired direction. Social influence has as an outcome three different behavioural patterns, which are conformity, compliance and obedience. All of them will be discussed, but especially conformity and compliance, which mainly include the influence of social norms on behaviour (Franzoi, 2009; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).

Firstly, conformity in general is the action to adapt with the behaviour of the rest of the people due to perceived group pressure. Practically, this means that the way people dress, entertain themselves, protest, work, eat, go on vacations, disclose themselves and substantially anything an individual can occupy himself, is formed by group’s direction and tendencies because the majority of people, if not all of them, try to socialize and be accepted by their society in any possible way.

This phenomenon is called conformity and it is an ambiguous question if independence, which indeed is a reality, exists anyway. This happens because people voluntarily direct their independence towards society’s preferences and tendencies in order to feel that they belong somewhere and they have a particular social identity (Franzoi, 2009). The second factor of influence is the compliance and it is has to do with the public and clear acceptance of one’s person to act according to given social direction by the indicated social power. However, compliance can be divided into internal and external.

This means that a person can comply with a situation either because someone else indirectly forces him or either because he believes he should act like this. For example, if someone asks his friend to lie in order not to have problems with parents (e. g. cover a sneaking out) but he does it in the name of even if he does not really want it, this is a clear example of external force making you to comply. Internal compliance is the opposite state where personal beliefs and attitudes force you to do something without having any external pressure to do something.

This issue is very important because in the case of external compliance, social norms are in a great influential position in contrast to internal compliance where personal beliefs mainly take place on the decisional process (Franzoi, 2009). On the other hand obedience is the total performance of a given order by social power without any resistance against it or trial to sustain independence. Social power is the available social sources through social acceptance and social status that a person or a group of people can have in order to exercise persuasion and give motivation to make people change or fulfill their requests.

Consequently, these three parts of social influence represents the levels of personal accordance to social patterns, authoritarian or not. Specifically, it can be noticed that the level of individual’s independence sets if a situation is more about conformity (unconscious but voluntary acceptance of the norms), or compliance (internal or external acceptance) or obedience (total accordance to social power) (Cook et al. , as cited in Franzoi, 2009; Franzoi, 2009). Focusing more one the aspect of conformity and the influence of social norms, there are specific factors that affect conformity and levels of social norms’ influence on it.

These factors can be situational, personal and cultural. Situational factors can be group size, group cohesiveness, and social support. Group size is important because as Asch (1955) found, the larger the group, the bigger the phenomenon of conformity due to social norms. Group cohesiveness makes the group to have greater bonds due to similarity and ability to easily show empathy to each other (Christensen et al. , 2004) and social support is noticed to groups with higher levels of cohesiveness and bonding. On the other hand, there are personal factors ffecting the type of conformity such as self-awareness (ability to understand own self), self-presentation (try to present ideal self in order to conform), personal control (desire to feel that one has control, as a human right, over particular situations) and gender (gender differences- women are more likely to conform) (Franzoi, 2009). Based on all the previously referred material, conformity is totally driven by social norms, norms that are not written but sometimes are more powerful than law; the way that a person conforms to society affects the level and type of his compliance to society’s requests.

For example, if a person has as personal characteristic not to like altering his self-image/ presentation based on society’s preferences due to his intense belief in independence, it is possible that this person will comply more difficult because of external motivation instead of internal. On the other hand, this means that if a person has an internal compliance only to smile to people who knows and not to anybody else due to his belief, this will affect the way that he conforms to the social norm of smiling to people in general in order to be kind.

This shows how social norms can affect conformity and consequently compliance and the other way around, respectively. Furthermore, people have a tendency to create and maintain meaningful relationships with other people because they need socializing as human beings, which is called as affiliation. Affiliation is a good example of internal compliance. This motivation makes the compliance to socializing and dedicating energy and time on building relationships, an internal acceptance for personal growth (Franzoi, 2009; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004).

Nevertheless, there is the issue of how and when external compliance to social norms such as stereotyping occurs. In particular, Bargh and Chartrand (1999) did a study on automaticity of behaviour and found that when people are unconsciously pre-occupied with e. g. stereotyping words, even if they believe that stereotyping is wrong, they are likely to stereotype because they unconsciously externally comply with the given stimuli. Stereotyping is a form of social norm. People may stereotype in order to protect themselves; for example, filthy aggressive people on the street may be perceived as thieves or criminals.

So there are two outcomes on this example. One person may believe that the appearance cannot indicate anything about personal characteristics but in the end he conforms to the social norm and try to avoid him as the other people around him do (external compliance). On the other hand, one may truly believe that these kinds of people are definitely criminals because he might have a bad experience in the past so he avoids him due to his belief (internal compliance to the social norm of avoiding this kind of people) (Franzoi, 2009; Cialdini & Goldstein, 2004; Bargh & Chartrand, 1999).

Rimal and Real (2005) did a study on how perceived norms affect human behaviour with college students in order to investigate intentions to alcohol consumption. They proposed the theory of normative social behaviour that includes three mechanisms: injunctive norms (such as social approval), outcome expectations (such as personal benefits) and group identity (such as similarity). Their hypothesis was that these three mechanisms are able to moderate the influence of social norms on the human behaviour. Indeed, their results showed that these normative mechanisms could predict the intention of alcohol consumption to college students.

Consequently, this study is a clear answer to the question whether social norms affect human behaviour. In addition, Rivis and Sheeran (2003) did a study on Theory of planned behaviour in order to find out whether added descriptive norms can be good predictors of human behaviour in the particular model. Their results showed that younger participants and health risk behaviours are greatly related to stronger correlation between intentions of behaviour and descriptive norms; confirming that behaviour is affected by norms.

As a conclusion, the general point of view in all these theories and facts is that social norms affect human behaviour through the state of conformity and compliance. Substantially, the intentions of behaviour can be affected either implicitly or explicitly. People conform to the society in order to be accepted and comply with various social norms that conformity requires through implicit/internal or explicit/external way. Even if personal and situational factors may influence the level of compliance and conformity, people constantly comply with various requests either due to personal beliefs or due to accepting other’s personal beliefs.

Word count: 1. 440 References Asch, S. E. (1955). Opinions and social pressure. Scientific American, 31-35. Bargh, J. A. , & Chartrand, T. L. (1999). The unbearable automaticity of being. American Psychologist, 54, 462-479. Christensen, P. N. , & Rothberger, H. , & Wood, W. , & Maltz, D. C. (2004). Social norms and identity relevance: A to normative behaviour. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 30, 1295-1309. Cialdini, R. B. , & Goldstein, N. J. (2004).

Social influence: Compliance and conformity. Annual Review of Psychology, 55, 591-621. Franzoi, S. L. (2009). Social psychology (5th ed. ). New York: McGraw-Hill. Rimal, R. N. , & Real, K. (2005). How behaviours are influenced by perceived norms: A test of the theory of normative social behaviour. Communication Research, 32, 389-414. Rivis, A. , & Sheeran, P. (2003). Descriptive norms as an additional predictor in the theory of planned behaviour: A meta-analysis. Current psychology, 22, 218-233.

INTRODUCTION The focus of this paper is to examine the role of human resource development and workers commitment in organization in particular and in Nigeria as a whole. For the purpose of this study, the concept of human resource development and manpower development will be used interchangeably. In any organization, it is the workforce who is considered important assets for the achievement of organizational goals. Every industry desires to maximize its human resources to see that the best output is achieved.

Therefore, human resource development policies are closely associated to that aspect of human resource management that is concerned with investing in people and developing the organization’s human capital. Keep (1989) in his view say: one of the primary objectives of human resource management is the creation of condition whereby the latent potential of employees will be realized and their commitment to the causes of the organization secured.

This latent potential is taken to include, not only the capacity to acquire and utilize new skills and knowledge but also a hitherto untapped wealth of ideas about how the organization’s operations might be better ordered. The issue for employers goes beyond the need to upgrade the skills of the current workforce. It is also necessary to equip future entrants to the workforce with the requisite education which make them ‘trainable’ for emerging and constantly changing skills requirement.

It is generally believed that if overall human conditions are to improve, there must be increasing emphasis on human resources development. Appropriately, such development provides for increase in productivity, enhance competitiveness and support economic growth. The importance of human resources development is obvious when one considered that in any economic activity, it is the human element that commands, direct, organizes, controls and maximizes. CONCEPTUAL CLARIFICATION Training and development remains a major component of human resource development.

By definition, human resource (HR) is the manpower, employee or worker required by an organization; be it public or private to enable it achieves its predetermined objectives. That is, the purpose for which it is set up. It could mean the entire human resource (skilled, semi-skilled and unskilled) available within the country. Human resource development or otherwise manpower development is a continuous process of impacting new information, skills, attitude and ideas to employees dictated by the requirement of job change. It is a means of overcoming employee obsolescence through education and training.

In other words, HR-development is a means by which employees are kept current on their official duties, this means in effect that it is the process of preparing the total quantitative and qualitative human asset in a nation or organization so that they can move with the nation or organizations as they develop, change and grow. Human resources development is a combination of training and education that ensure the continual improvement and growth of both the individual and the organization. Adam Smith stated that, “the capacities of individuals depended on their access to education”.

In economic term, it could be describe as the accumulation of human capital and its effective investment in the development of a nation’s economy. In political term, manpower or HR development prepares people for adult participation in political process particularly as a citizen in democratic country. On the whole, HRD is the process of planning and controlling the way in which a person’s performance and potentials are developed by training and educational development programmes. WORKERS COMMITMENT A wide variety of definitions and measure of workers commitment exist.

Beckeri, Randal, and Riegel (1995) defined the term in a three dimensions: 1. a strong desire to remain a member of a particular organization; 2. a willingness to exert high levels of efforts on behalf of the organization; 3. a define belief in and acceptability of the values and goals of the organization. To Northcraft and Neale (1996), commitment is an attitude reflecting an employee’s loyalty to the organization, and an ongoing process through which organization members express their concern for the organization and its continued success and well being.

Organizational commitment is determined by a number of factors, including personal factors (e. g. , age, tenure in the organization, disposition, internal or external control attributions); organizational factors (job design and the leadership style of one’s supervisor); non-organizational factors (availability of alternatives). All these things affect subsequent commitment (Nortcraft and Neale, 1996). Mowday, Porter, and Steer (1982) see commitment as attachment and loyalty. These authors describe three components of commitment: ? an identification with the goals and values of the organization ?

A desire to belong to the organization. ?A willingness to display effort on behalf of the organization. A similar definition of commitment emphasizes the importance of behaviour in creating it. Salancik (1977) conceives commitment as a state of being in which an individual becomes bound by his actions and it is these actions that sustain his activities and involvement. From this definition, it can be inferred that three features of behavior are important in binding individuals to act: visibility of acts, the extent to which the outcomes are irrevocable; and the degree to which the person undertakes the action voluntarily.

To Salancik therefore, commitment can be increased and harnessed to obtain support for the organizational ends and interests through such things as participation in decision-making. THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT AND WORKERS COMMITMENT IN NIGERIA The most important strategy for productivity improvement is based on the fact that human productivity, both high and low is determined by the attitudes of all those who work in the enterprise. Thus, to improve labour commitment, it is necessary to change attitude towards positive drive.

These changes develop positive attitudes and an organizational culture which will be favourable towards productivity improvement as well as technological changes. To improve productivity, it is therefore necessary to manage change; this means motivating, inducing and generating change. Ashton and Felstead (1995) regard the investment by an organisation in the skills of employees as a ‘litmus test’ for a change in the way they are manages. First, the replacement of the words ‘training cost’ with investment responses to the outcomes of HRD where the continuation of viewing training s a short-term cost has persistently acted as a powerful break of many training strategies. Having defined human resource development as the study and practice of increasing the learning capacity of individuals, groups, collectives, and organizations through the development and application of learning-based interventions for the purpose of optimizing human and organizational growth and effectiveness, it is indicated that formal training enhances employees’ organizational commitment. Sharma 1989 had also found a correlation between training and organizational commitment.

Organizations that offer employees a relative high degree of development opportunities and internal career possibilities were also found to have opportunities has also been reported to have a positive effect on perceived rationalism of the employment relation, which is also said to have accounted for higher levels of commitment and job satisfaction. In organizations that offer training opportunities, employee commitment and citizenship behaviour are found to be higher than in organizations that do not offer the same.

Studies has also shown that violation of perceived training obligations result in reduced organizational commitment and increased intentions to leave the organization. Tannenbaum et al. (1991) found that naval recruits who participated in an 8-week training held higher levels of affective commitment than before the training. EQUITY THEORY The theory was propounded by Adam Staley John in 1963 and this theory calls for a fair balance to be struck between an employee’s input (hard work, skill level, tolerance, enthusiasm etc. ) and employee’s output (salary, benefits, recognition etc).

According to the theory, finding this fair balance serves to ensure a strong and productive relationship achieved with the employee, with the overall result being contended, motivated employees. Adam’s Equity Theory acknowledges that subtle and variable factors affect an employee assessment and perception of their relationship with their work and their employer. The theory is built on the belief that employees become de-motivated, both in relation to their job and their employer if they feel as though their inputs are greater than the output.

This theory also compares the input and output between different workers at different levels. Bringing this theory to the level of work commitment in Nigeria, it will be noted that workers are highly de-motivated because of the inequality between their various input and their output. For instance, comparing the input of a University Professor with that of a Senator and relating it to their output, this will highly de-motivate professor to work. And these are some of the problem affecting workers commitment in Nigeria.

HUMAN CAPITAL THEORY Human Capital theory was proposed by Schultz (1961) and developed extensively by Becker (1964). According to the theory, it suggests that education or training raises the productivity of workers by imparting useful knowledge and skills, hence raising workers’ future income by increasing their lifetime earnings (Becker, 1994). It postulates that expenditure on training and education is costly, and should be considered an investment since it is undertaken with a view to increasing personal incomes.

The human capital approach is often used to explain occupational wage differentials. Human capital can be viewed in general terms, such as the ability to read and write, or in specific terms, such as the acquisition of a particular skill with a limited industrial application. In his view, human capital is similar to “physical means of production”, e. g. , factories and machines: one can invest in human capital (via education, training, medical treatment) and one’s outputs depend partly on the rate of return on the human capital one owns.

Thus, human capital is a means of production, into which additional investment yields additional output. Human capital is substitutable, but not transferable like land, labor, or fixed capital. This suggest that for human resource development to be effective and for workers to be more committed to the organization, the organizations concerned need to be more involved in the training and re-training of its workforce. THE HUMAN CAPITAL MODEL

The human capital model suggests that an individual’s decision to invest in training is based upon an examination of the net present value of the costs and benefits of such an investment. Individuals are assumed to invest in training during an initial period and receive returns to the investment in subsequent periods. Workers pay for training by receiving a wage which is lower than what could be received elsewhere while being trained. Since training is thought to make workers more productive, workers collect the returns from their investment in later periods through higher marginal roducts and higher wages. Human capital models usually decompose training into specific training, which increases productivity in only one firm, and general training, which increases productivity in more than one firm. Purely general training is financed by workers, and the workers receive all of the returns to this training. In contrast, employees and employers will share in the costs and returns of specific training. Despite these differences between general and specific training, the model predicts that both forms of training lower the starting wage and increase wage growth.

THE NIGERIAN CONTEXT Human resource development in Nigeria has come a long way, but the process of actual resource development has been very gradual. Nigerian attempt at human resources development in particular cannot be separated from the country’s post-colonial attempt at accelerated education and industrialization. In a broader sense, every post colonial government’s investment in education has been for the purpose of providing the manpower which the nation needs in it private and public sectors.

This led to the establishment of three (3) Universities by the three regional governments of West, East, and the North (University of Ibadan which is the first) and the establishment of University of Lagos by the federal government all within the first decade of post independence Nigeria. As a result of the country’s quest for technological development, polytechnics and universities of technology as stream in the 1970s, 80s, and 90s. Provision of universities and polytechnics education were meant to provide the national economy with the manpower it needs to develop and expand.

The emphasis on formal and higher education as a basis of national human resource development was quite apparent in all the national development plans of post independence Nigeria. Gradually, the nation’s economic planners shifted attention to intervention in the areas of training and manpower development. In fairness to our earlier economic planners, Onasanya (2005) believes that “without education, there can be no training and without the two, there can be no development”.

Government’s attempt at strengthening training and development in the national economy led to the establishment of the Industrial Training Fund (ITF) in 1971; Administrative and Staff Training College of Nigeria (ASCON) in 1973; and Centre for Management Development (CMD) in 1976. The idea behind the three establishments is the provision of consultancy on training needs all enterprise, training higher level manpower staff, and conducting research into problems of manpower and administration in public and private sectors.

Onasanya (2005) also believe government’s intervention as stated above must be appreciated in the Nigeria context because, “until recently, and probably until the intervention of the government (training was one of the ill-managed and haphazardly handled areas of modern enterprises. Training and development was seen as a waste of a workers labour hours (to his employer) and a way of denying the employer the service of the employee. The above analysis is not to take away the concerted effort in the public and private sectors towards training and human resource development.

Public sector workers have many structured training programmes and many government have a ministry of establishment and training, as well as designated training centres. In the private sector, some notable sectors such as banking, telecommunications, and manufacturing industries are more proficient in training today than in the past. The efficiency of manpower training and new technology has helped these sectors in terms of better service delivery. But, are workers really committed in Nigeria?

Workers’ commitment or otherwise in Nigeria is more than whether there human capacity is developed because there are many factors affecting workers motivation and commitment in Nigeria. The global economic meltdown has meant less security for workers in Nigeria and throughout the world. Even good workers do lose their jobs at these times, hence morale is generally low. Other factors such as culture, god-fatherism, ICT and other modern technologies have impacted negatively on workers morale and productivity in Nigeria. The gradual decimation of the power of labour unions have also not helped matter.

TOOLS/METHOD FOR MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN ORGANIZATIONS The tools and methods for manpower development in organizations differs, and it is largely determined by the objectives of organizations, the idiosyncrasy of management staff or the chief executive, the organizational policy, as well as the organizational environment to mention a few. Thus, it is a common feature to see methods for manpower development varying from one organization to the other, just as a given organization can be tailored at adopting different methods at different times or a combination of techniques t the same time. However, some methods for manpower development are stated below: 1. Orientation: This method of manpower development could be said to be an integral part of the recruitment exercise in that once an employee has been found appointable, it is expected that such an employee need to be positively oriented in line with the vision and aspiration of the organization for effective discharge of function. And since employee function in an organization is basically affected by his perception of the organization vis-a-vis the rules and principles that exist in the organization.

It therefore follow that an employee undergoes formal and informal orientation in a place of work. While the formal orientation focuses on job specification and occupational demands placed on the employee, the informal orientation involve the social interaction that take place in the place of work which could either boost productivity or be detrimental to it (Koontz et al. 1980). Orientation therefore, as a method of manpower development is quite indispensable because it helps in boosting the productivity of workers which is needed for competing in the global market of the 21st century. . On the Job Method of Manpower Development: This method is basically different from the orientation method in that while orientation is at the point of entry into the organization or a new assignment; on the job method is a process through which knowledge and experience are acquired over a period of time either formally or informally. This process involve the following: (a)Coaching: This is a method of on the job training and development in which a young employee is attached to a senior employee with the purpose of acquiring knowledge and experience needed for the performance of tasks. Yalokwu, 2000). (b) Job Rotation: This method either involve the movement of an employee from one official assignment or department to the other, in order for the employee to be acquainted with the different aspects of the work process or through job enlargement – that is, given additional responsibility to an employee who has been uplifted as a result of the acquisition of additional skill or knowledge (Yalokwu, 2000; Lawal, 2006). (c) in House Training: This involve a formal method of on the job training n which skills and knowledge are acquired by employees through internally organized seminars and workshops geared toward updating the workers with new techniques or skills associated with the performance of their jobs. (Lawal, 2006). (d) In Service Training: These methods involve training outside the organization or workplace in higher institution of learning or vocational centres under the sponsorship of the organization or on terms that may be agreed upon between the organization and the worker (Lawal, 2006). 3.

Committee/Work Group Method: This method entails manpower development through the involvement of employees in meetings, committees and work group discussion geared towards injecting inputs in form of decision making as regard solving organizational problem. This method is quite indispensable, especially in the aspect of training employees for managerial functions or heading organizational units. 4. Vestibule Training Method: This is a method of manpower development through the acquisition of skills in a related working environment (Nongo, 2005).

Under this method the trainee practices his skill with identical equipment that he uses or he is expected to use in his actual place of work. This method is most suitable for sensitive operations where maximal perfection is expected. The purpose is therefore to enable perfection at work place. 5. Apprenticeship Method: This method of manpower development involve the acquisition of skill through extensive practice for over a period of time by the trainee. This type of manpower development device could either be formal or informal.

In the informal environments the trainee is attached to the trainer, and he/she is expected to pay for an agreed period of apprenticeship (Nongo, 2005). In the formal environment on the other hand, an employee of an organization could be placed under apprenticeship in the organization with pay. THE RELEVANCE OF MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 1. Economic Development: The relevance of manpower development in Nigeria could be situated vis-a-vis economic development. This is because manpower development captures the actual meaning of development in that it is people centered (World Bank 1991; Grawboski and Shields 1996).

In addition, it involves the building of capacity and harnessing the State’s human resource which constitute a sine-qua-non for development. The above advantage was vividly conceptualized by Harbison (1973) when he stated that: Human resources constitute the ultimate basis for wealth of nations, capital and natural resources are passive factors of production; human beings are the active agents who accumulate capital, exploit natural resources, build social, economic and political organizations, and carry forward national development.

Clearly a country which is unable to develop the skills and knowledge of its people and to utilize them effectively in the national economy will be unable to develop anything else. 2. Political Stability: There is no doubt that a country which fails to adequately develop her manpower would be doing so at the expense of her socio-economic and political stability.

In the aspect of political stability, Omodia (2004) stressed the dysfunctional use of the nation’s human resource among the youths in propelling political instability when he stated that: …there has been situations in which the Nigerian youth especially, those of poor family background were used as tools for disrupting the political democratic system through rigging, thuggery and ethnic conflicts. These factors of rigging, thuggery in addition to economic mismanagement, personal ambition or selfishness among others, were the factors that terminated the First and Second Republic.

Thus, manpower development could help the youths in the development of self and in improving the quality of their political participation. 3. Poverty Alleviation: It has been argued that effective poverty alleviation scheme must involve the development and utilization of local resource including human for solving local problems (Robb, 2000; Omodia, 2005). Thus, manpower development is central to solving the present problem of poverty in Nigeria. CHALLENGES FACING MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 1.

Colonial Experience: There have been several arguments regarding the distortions in manpower development of national growth in Nigeria as a result of colonialism which was fashioned towards economic exploitation (Ekpo, 1989; Ake, 2001; Dauda, 2003). It could be recalled that the advent of colonialism led to the integration of the Nigerian economy into the World Capitalist System thereby placing minimum premium on labour when compared to other factors of production. This poor performance of indigenous labour by the colonial government no doubt has persisted in the post-colonial Nigerian State.

As a result, this problem account for the lack of adequate attention given to labour as a critical part of the production process in Nigeria. 2. Poor Political Leadership: Closely related to the problem of colonial experience as a problem of manpower development in Nigeria is poor political leadership which is further deepening the problem of manpower development in Nigeria. This factor has manifested itself in poor funding of education over the years (Baikie, 2002), disparity or class in manpower development between children of the rich and the poor (Omodia, 2006). 3.

Poor Manpower Planning: This problem is associated with the poor data base that is needed for manpower planning in Nigeria both in the rural and urban centers. This problem no doubt constitutes a major hindrance on effective manpower development in Nigeria (Baikie, 2002; Oku 2003). 4. Poor Funding: Nigeria’s democracy has enhanced the practice of human resource development, determining the quota of expatriates it permits. Nigeria’s economy allows the importation of new technology to enhance human resource development, but training is still a bit slow, thus employment of expatriates to handle such is still encouraged.

In Nigeria there is application of new management techniques and skills used in the running of organizations. All aimed at running cost effective system. 5. The socio-cultural diversity of Nigeria has influenced the human resource management practices in Nigeria. Nigeria is characterized by over reliance on culture, language, religion, gender and educational qualifications as a basis for determining who get employed and who need to be trained and re-trained. What this means is that, the opportunity for an average Nigeria to get employed is a factor of the aforementioned cases. CONCLUSION

This paper have been able to situate or relate what could be referred to as manpower underdevelopment to socio-economic and political problems in Nigeria by looking at such factors as poverty, political instability and economic underdevelopment. From this background, it is therefore important to conclude that human resource development as a concept and method should be able to take its rightful place as a tool for development in Nigeria through the recognition of the fact that it is the most active and indispensable in the process of production even in the global age of the 21st century.

RECOMMENDATION FOR EFFECTIVE MANPOWER DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA The options recommended for effective manpower development in Nigeria could be viewed from two basic perspectives: 1. The option of an enhanced regulatory capability on the part of government for effective reinforcement of manpower policies. This is quite indispensable based on the need to ensure quality manpower development irrespective of sex, class, ethnic affiliation to mention a few.

This point could best be appreciated considering the liberal nature of most government policies which tend to snowball into elitist benefit in terms of policy outcome. 2. The need for government to be persuasive in making organizations embraces well designed policies at improving the development of manpower in Nigeria. This could be done both internally and externally. Internally, organizations should be made to see reasons why a careful manpower development plan should form part of their plans and objectives for the financial year.

As a matter of fact, the success of organizations should not only be measured in terms of the magnitude of profit through the adoption of outdated personnel administration technique, but, basically on the contribution of the organization in enlarging the confidence of its workers through manpower development. The external factor involves the contribution of organization to the development of manpower through financial support meant to boost adult education, vocational education, and specialized research institutes to mention a few. REFERENCES Ake, C. (2001): Democracy and Development in Africa. Ibadan: Spectrum Books

Limited. Baikie, A. (2002): Recurrent Issues in Nigeria Education. Zaria: Tamaza Publishing Company. Becker, G. S. (1964): Human capital. New York: Columbia University Press. Dauda, S. (2003): The Crisis of Development in Africa: The Democratic Imperatives. J Dev Soc, Ekpo, A. H. (1989): Manpower Development in Nigeria. In: SC Ogbuagu (Ed. ): Strategy For National Development In Nigeria. Calabar: University of Calabar Press. FGN (1998): National Policy on Education. Lagos: Federal Government Press. Grabowski, R. , Shields, M. (1996): Development Economics. USA: Blackwell Publishers Incorporation.

Harbison, F. (1973): Human Resources as the Wealth of Nations. New York: Oxford University Press. Koontz, H; O’Donnel. C; Weihrich, H. (1980): Management. Japan: McGraw Hill Publishing Company. Lawal, M. M. (2006): Manpower Management: A Hand Book for Personnel Managers and Students of Administration. Abuja: Roots Books and Journals Nigeria Limited. Nongo, S. (2005): Fundamental of Management, Makurdi: Aboki Publishing Company. Oku, O. (2003): The Universal Basic Education (UBE) Programme: Issues and Problems of Policy Implementation. J Nig Langs Cul, Omeje,J. O. (2006): Developmental Psychology.

Nnike Publishing Press, Enugu. Omodia, S. (2004): The Family as a Vehicle for Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria. J Fam Dev. Omodia, S. (2005): Poverty Alleviation in a Deregulated Economy. Challenges and Prospects For Sustainable Democracy in Nigeria. J Adm. Omodia, S. (2006): The Liberal and Elitist Perception of Public Policies in Nigeria: A Focus on the National Policy on Women and Education in the Nigerian Fourth Republic. Acad For Onasanya, S. A. B. (2005):Effective Personnel Management and Industrial Relation. Centre for Management Development, Lagos. Robb, C. M. (2002): Can the Poor Influence Policy?

USA: World Bank. Sharma, B. R. (1989): A Study of the Relationship of Organizational Climate with Organisational; Commitment and Psychological Well being, PhD Thesis, Himachal Pradesh University, Shimla. Tannenbaum, S. L; Mathieu, J. E; Salas, E. & Cannon-Bowers, J. A. (1991): Meeting Trainees’ Expectations: The Influence of Training Fulfillment on the Development of Commitment, Self-eficacy, and Motivation. The Journal of Applied Psychology. World Bank (1991): World Development Report. New York: Oxford University Press. Yalokwu, P. O. (2000): Management: Concept and Techniques . Lagos: Peak Publishers.

Darwin destroyed the concept of human specialness I would say I disagree quite strongly with the assertion that Darwin destroyed the specialness of humanity. For this relatively brief paper I am going to attempt to refute this claim and try to highlight some of the things that highlight how we have kept the same level of ‘specialness’ that we have always had. There are many people who would say that we humans are the only beings with full consciousness, in the words of a great many this would translate to having a soul.

Humans surely have a soul-like property, a mind, something that separates us from the multitudes of lower species from the smorgasbord of earthly life. It isn’t my purpose for this paper to discuss whether or not we have a soul but I do intend to talk about what constitutes our mind, our selves. The fact that we as humans possess a high degree of consciousness to me spells a very special kind of existence.

Can even our nearest intelligent creatures on the tree of life appreciate the magnificence of life? Can a chimpanzee sit back and admire the beauty of the sprawling life in the jungle? Does he marvel at his own bodies ability to repair itself after he has been in a bloody brawl with a rival? Can a dolphin be awestruck by the morning sun glistening on the surface of the water? Does he wonder what life would be like for him if he were one of those surface beings he often sees on boats in the ocean?

Humans are extraordinary because, being the most advanced form of life on the planet, we possess brains larger than all other forms of life(save for some large mammals but even then ours are much bigger proportionally) With this we have evolved two magnificent features which can only set us worlds apart from and ahead of all other life forms. We have this amazing sense of self, sense of awareness- in a word -consciousness. This grants us the capability of knowing who and what we are (to a large extent anyway), and where we came from (Darwin is owed some credit in this field).

It is the ability to see beauty in a sunset on a savannah, to hear the splendour in Tchaikovskys The Nutcracker, to read great works of literature and be able to travel the universe with our imaginations. The other great feature we have as a follow on from having large brains is the wonderful power of language. This splendid trait has gone hand in hand with consciousness to create the incredibly unique life form that homo sapiens has become. Our ability to understand the universe and our position in it is one of the glories of the human species.

Our ability to link mind to mind by language, and especially to transmit our thoughts across the centuries is another (Dawkins 2008 p3) Our advanced cultures have truly become magnificent phenomena. We have complex, yet highly virtuous systems of ethics and values. Largely stemming from our aforementioned large brains and the use of language we have self evolved to create ways of living that set us apart from all the rest of earthly creatures, both those alive today and all the previous inhabitants of the earth including ones from bygone eras.

Humanity is replete with themes of co-operation, love, compassion, altruism, sympathy for our fellow beings as well as for all other life forms. We have been capable of many such virtues for a long time, since we became human one could say. As John Eccles (1980 p204) reminds us, there are snippets of evidence that as far back as eighty thousand years ago Neanderthal man held ceremonial burials- a truly altruistic act. Or, as he also noted- the bones of two men dated from sixty thousand years ago which show they were incapacitated for up to two years yet they had been kept alive by caring tribes folk.

There is other evidence from as far back as this of the compassionate behaviour between members of humanity and we all know only too well of absolutely countless examples of it in recent history and of course in present day. For all modern mans shortcomings and problems in our societies, we have always been gifted with a great sense of right and wrong, of cruelty and kindness. With this majestic property that is consciousness comes the boundless faculty of thought. We are capable to reason, plan, remember to a limitless degree.

Technology today has become something we could never have imagined even one hundred years ago. We have invented the most ingenious and sophisticated equipment to be able to look inside our brains. Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI)scans and the more recent positron-emission topography(PET) scans are machines with wonderful capabilities for seeing goings on in the brain. We can monitor which parts of the brain are being used when we experience certain thoughts. We cannot however, as Ward highlights(2008 p147), even begin to monitor in advance what people are thinking.

Our thoughts are far and away more complex and profound than any other animals (or machine) can hope to have and, importantly, remain ours and ours only. If we try to look at the bigger picture, the macroscopic view of things, are we still special? When we gaze up into the night sky and contemplate our place in the universe it is very easy to become overawed by the sheer scale of the cosmos and our relative minuteness in it. How can there be anything special about us when we are almost nothing in relation to the vast universe.

I believe it is not that we are in the universe but that we are the universe. “Far from exposing human beings as incidental products of blind physical forces, science suggests that the existence of conscious organisms is a fundamental feature of the universe”(Davies 1992 p21). As Davies alludes to here humanity is actually an intrinsic part of the universe and, whether or not there are other advanced conscious beings far out in space, we are or are part of the pinnacle of life, of nature, and of the cosmos.

If the universe is one giant living organism, a vast clockwork mechanism, a massive computer then we are its brain, its central cog, its CPU. I try to imagine the perspective of a person who would make a statement like the title for this essay. I can understand the point whereby humanity is seen as simply the result of a very long line of life adapting and developing or, to use the term elucidated and made famous by Darwin- evolution. Life is just mechanical, they might say they have learned from Darwin, it only instinctively drives to keep living.

What’s so special about what is simply the as yet highest point of this unconscious , robotic like endeavour in nature. Are we more special than the animals below us on the food chain, or before us in eras like the dinosaurs. Was even the earliest amoeba not as special as us given its importance in the chain of events? This viewpoint, while largely correct in its facts and assumptions, doesn’t give any credence to what homo sapiens has become since he has evolved from the ape.

Hopefully this paper has made some of a case as to why the two legged big brained organisms that we are have a deep specialness to them. Bibliography Davies, Paul. 1992. THE MIND OF GOD. London: Penguin Books Dawkins, Richard. 2008. MODERN SCIENCE WRITING. Oxford: Oxford University Press Eccles, John C.. 1980. THE HUMAN PSYCHE. Berlin: Routledge Ward, Keith. 2008. The Big Questions in Science and Religion. Pennsylvania: Templeton Foundation Press

Reaction Paper: Mankind: Story of all of us – History Channel The documentary that was assigned for us to watch is all about the beginning of mankind. Not exactly about the evolution of men (ape to human), but how men developed through times and what were the first inventions made by the human beings. It is said that it has been documented for 3 years, and it is such a privilege to be able to watch the episode. For me it was easy to understand. The story is illustrated well by the actors and you could also feel like going back in time together with the people who have been documenting these stories.

I think it is educational and must be required in high school to watch the episodes in their world history class. The stories that’d been shown in the first episode are mostly discussed in my world history class during my high school years. With the illustration, it is easier for the students to understand what really happened at that time and it will surely remain in our mind just like a favorite movie that we once watched. The documentary started from when we were cavemen. We wandered around, looked for place to live and basic needs to survive. We can see from just that scene that men were created intelligent.

Associated article:

And from the discovery of fire, our developments as being a human have started. I actually started watching from the part where a woman discovers farming. If she didn’t discover the ways of farming, we wouldn’t be able to develop even greater inventions like we have in the present. The documentary explained that this was one of the biggest factor in the history; not only positively but negatively, It has also became the cause of crimes and wars. In the documentary, we could conclude that people are natural warriors. To be able to survive from what we think is a threat; we would fight with the other group of men or tribe.

We will protect what we think is ours and to conquer others when we think they got more than what we have. Through the years, the development of the weapons has become the greatest part in our history. How the people discovered the material and made it into a sharp object. How they learned to exchange things and to market. In these times they discovered exporting and importing system. From the usage of stones for weapons, it became tin, and then another mineral, then learned to use iron. Which in modern days, iron is very important for building bridges and buildings. Chinese were really clever ever since.

They have invented new kinds of weapons which are more accurate and more powerful. They are also the one who started the mass production in weapons. I think it somehow shows in the current economy of the China. What I really liked in the history that they’ve shown in the documentary are the building of the pyramid and the Great Wall of China. It is amazing how people managed to build such a gigantic architect during those times and without any help of our modern technology. Everything was calculated precisely. And writing was the biggest factor that has helped them in building those.

I still wonder how and where they got the 2 million blocks for building the pyramid. And to think many people have sacrificed in making both of the architectural structure for 20 years for Pyramid and 118 years for the Great Wall of China (if I remembered correctly), it is really amazing. I don’t know if it’s still possible for modern men to build anything that is as amazing without the help of any machinery. Because of the high technological inventions, people have become more dependent and lazy. Even if there’re going to be an amazing new architect, I wouldn’t be as amazed as I do for those old architectural structure.

But it doesn’t mean that the development and advancement in technology is bad. I think it is also important to appreciate the hard work that had been exerted by the men who have sacrificed their life in building it. The documentary has become a great reminder and a lesson to me. I would recommend other people to watch these episodes for it might change us in the way we see life in a positive ways. I hope there will be more great invention and not all those useless inventions made by idle scientists. People really should get a good example from the men in golden times. Not with the invention of weapons but inventions towards peace.