Human

Africa is one of the most vulnerable parts in the universe to Global Warming. This exposure and the restrictions of hapless states to accommodate to Global Warming challenges were highlighted in Climate Change 2001, the Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change ( IPCC ) . The study established how human activity ( firing dodo fuels and alterations in land-use ) is modifying the planetary clime, with temperature rises projected for the following 100 old ages that could impact human public assistance and the environment.

The historical clime record for Africa shows heating of about 0.7A°C over most of the continent during the 20th century ; a lessening in rainfall over big parts of the Sahel and West Africa and an addition in rainfall in other parts of Africa.

Ghana is non exempted from the hazards of these recent alterations in Global Warming and alterations in conditions forms. Although the authorities is making good to decrease the consequence of Global Warming, Gganaians and most significantly local natives have been left behind in the consciousness and engagement in both determination and execution of clime alteration policies and patterns. The survey recommends the engagement of local people and an addition in climate alteration information airing to educate the public on steps to hold the consequence of Global Warming on human security, saving of H2O organic structures and the state ‘s flora screen.

Introduction

Background to the Problem

Many scientists, economic experts and policy shapers now agree that the universe is confronting a menace from clime heating. The grade of the impact and its distribution is still debated. Current grounds suggests that states in temperate and polar locations may profit from little economic advantages because extra heating will profit their agricultural sectors. Many states in tropical and sub-tropical parts are expected to be more vulnerable to warming because extra heating will impact their fringy H2O balance and harm their agricultural sectors. However, small research has been done on tropical states, so small is known about the extent of these amendss. The job is expected to be most terrible in Africa where current information is the poorest, technological alteration has been the slowest, and the domestic economic systems depend to a great extent on agribusiness. African husbandmans have adapted a certain sum of clime variableness, but climate alteration may good coerce big parts of fringy agribusiness out of production in Africa. The agribusiness sector is a major subscriber to the current economic system of most African states, averaging 21 % and runing from 10 % to 70 % of the GDP.

Even without clime alteration, there are serious concerns about agribusiness in Africa because of H2O supply variableness, dirt debasement, and repeating drought events. A figure of states face semi-arid conditions that make agribusiness challenging. Further, development attempts have been peculiarly hard to prolong. African agribusiness has the slowest record of productiveness addition in the universe. Experts are concerned that the agribusiness sector in Africa will be particularly sensitive to future clime alteration and any addition in climate variableness. The current clime is already fringy with regard to precipitation in many parts of Africa. Further warming in these semi- arid locations is likely to be lay waste toing to agriculture at that place. Even in the moist Torrid Zones, increased heat is expected to cut down harvest outputs. Agronomic surveies suggest that outputs could fall rather dramatically in the absence of dearly-won version steps. The current agriculture engineering is basic, and incomes low, proposing that husbandmans will hold few options to accommodate. Soon, public

substructure such as roads, long-run conditions prognosiss, and agricultural research and extension are unequal to procure appropriate version. Unfortunately, none of the empirical surveies of clime impacts in Africa have explored what versions would be efficient for either African husbandmans or African authoritiess. This is a serious lack in African impact research, given the importance of efficient version.

Although there are well-established concerns about clime alteration effects in Africa, there is small quantitative information refering how serious these effects will be. These theoretical accounts show that Africa is the most vulnerable continent in the universe to climate alteration.

Statement of the Problem

In recent times, clime alteration has become important in the lives of ordinary people in Ghana and has become a topic of concern for turn toing socio-economic issues in Ghana. It has become so of import that several seminars and workshops have been held in Ghana to educate and research into issues of clime alteration. Surveies have shown that the consequence of clime alteration will devolve at a increasingly faster rate if disciplinary steps are non put in topographic point. Research findings besides indicate that clime alteration could hold an impact on human and socio-economic security. It is besides of import to observe that Ghana would be one of the states to be hardest hit by the effects of clime alteration though it contributes really small to it. Surveies have besides shown that the clime alteration would hold impacts on GDPs of most agricultural based economic systems. Despite the significance of clime alteration to Ghana and its socio economic sciences small research has been done on the estimated impact on the ordinary Ghanaian and the macro economic sciences of the state.

We need to happen out the jobs at interest, of important concern are, the nature of clime alteration in Ghana, the impact of clime alteration on homo and socio economic security.

Aims of the Study

The chief aims of the survey is to analyze the nature of clime alteration in Ghana, the impact of clime alteration on homo and socio economic security. The research is aimed at specifically turn toing the followers:

Nature of clime alteration in Ghana.

The impact of clime alteration on Human security.

The impact of clime alteration on socio-economic security.

Solutions or extenuation of the impact of clime alteration.

Beginnings of Data and Methodology

This subdivision will foreground the process and methods used in the research work. These consist of research design, country of survey, population sample and trying techniques, instruments for informations aggregation, method of informations aggregation and analyses of informations.

Research Design

The research design adopted for this survey is descriptive. In this survey nevertheless a combination of instance survey and causal comparative designs were employed. This enabled the research to do usage of extended docudrama informations juxtaposed against the responses of administered questionnaires.

Area of Study

The research covered the Sakumono Area. Sakumono is located in the coastal portion of Greater Accra Region. The country of survey is along the Accra – Tema beach route. Its length is stretches 20km apart. The Sakumono country is populated by fishermen and vegetable husbandmans and until late a important figure of urban inhabitants.

Sample and Sampling Technique

A entire figure of 100 individuals dwelling of 20 fishermen, 20 fishwifes, 20 husbandmans, 20 market adult females, 10 craftsmen and 10 adult females with assorted trades participated in the survey. To guarantee the unity of relevant features like age, sex, matrimonial position and business, stratified random sampling technique was used for choice of the sample population. The population of traditional trades was grouped into fishermen and fishwifes, husbandmans and market Sellerss and other traditional trades. This technique ensured that all bomber groups ( fishermen, fishwifes, husbandmans, market Sellerss, and other traditional trades ) were adequately represented.

Instrument for Data Collection

A questionnaire was used for informations aggregation. The questionnaire was designed in two parts, the first portion contained information on biographic informations of the respondents. The biographical information consists of age, sex, matrimonial position and figure of kids. The 2nd portion consists of a 14 point questionnaire grouped into 5 classs with sub points in each class. The research inquiries were used to beg information from the respondents on the followers:

• General cognition of the jobs of clime alteration.
• Impact of clime alteration on wellness and wellbeing.
• Impact of clime alteration on work end product.
• Expected action by policy shapers and authoritiess to extenuate theimpact of clime alteration.

 Significance of Study

Climate alteration is a menace to humanity, and to Ghana as a developing state the impacts are far making. The survey would be good to locals, kids in Sakumono, the fishermen, market common people, the territory assembly, estate contractors, the authorities and Non-Governmental Organizations ( NGOs ) . Finally the survey will function as a base mention for farther academic surveies.

Scope and Limitation of the Study

Scope

This research was based on grownups with traditional trades within the Sakumono country. It besides focused on interviews with experts in the field of clime alteration.

Restriction

The research work was confronted with some challenges during the survey. The first job was that respondents were disbelieving as to the grounds for the research. Some people thought it was information assemblage for relocation. After the necessary account and confidence from the research worker the respondents began to collaborate but at a point started demanding for some pecuniary wages for replying the questionnaires. The research worker besides found it hard measuring needful paperss from the metrological section of Ghana since they were unavailable.

 Literature Review

In this subdivision a aggregation of constructs aimed to reexamine the critical points of current cognition in clime alteration has been analyzed based on the survey aims. These constructs are secondary beginnings, and as such, do non describe any new or original findings.

Nature of Climate Change

Climate alteration is fast turning to be one of the top issues that resonate in all corridors of treatment that affect human endurance and development. Human endurance is bit by bit been disturbed by the changing of the conditions which to many people is as a consequence of human activities. From worlds to livestock everyone is affected by the changing of the conditions. The conditions is going warmer and doing intolerable conditions to human endurance. Water organic structures, agribusiness and energy are earnestly been affected.

Climate alteration has hence become a planetary issue that requires a planetary response. The scientific discipline tells us that emanations have the same effects from wherever they arise. The deduction for the economic sciences is that this is clearly and unequivocally an international corporate action job with all the attendant troubles of bring forthing consistent action and of avoiding free equitation. It is a job necessitating international cooperation and leading.

On the African scene, many analysts have noticed that the continent has contributed small to planetary clime alteration. Harmonizing to Camilla Toulmin, Africa has contributed really small to Global Warming. The nature of Climate Change and the breakability of African states means that African states will be negatively affected by agribusiness, land and natural resources.

The Impact of Climate Change on Human Security

Climate alteration will impact the basic elements of life for people around the universe – entree to H2O, nutrient production, wellness, and the environment. Hundreds of 1000000s of people could endure hunger, H2O deficits and coastal implosion therapy as the universe warms, every bit good as high degrees of poorness and hapless administration has made Africa peculiarly vulnerable to the effects of clime alteration. Climate alteration will ensue in deficit of resources for human ingestion this may trip struggle between and within states, as resources and safe topographic points become scarcer, and catastrophes destroy supports, increasing the figure of migrators and refugees. For illustration, Edward, Shankar and Sergenti explicate how deficits in seasonal rains that result in drouth and economic hurt addition the likeliness of civil war by up to 50 % . Again At that meeting Margaret Beckett, UK ‘s Foreign Secretary, warned about migration on an unprecedented graduated table due to deluging, disease and dearth. She besides said that drouth and harvest failure could do intensified competition for nutrient, H2O and energy. “ It is about our corporate security in a fragile and progressively mutualist universe, ” she said. Climate alteration besides has major economic deductions. Harmonizing O’Brien with clime alteration, human security in one topographic point or for one group is progressively linked to the actions and results of others possible struggles happening between nutrient and fuel production in competition for land and other resources and in the publicity of bio-fuels and other extenuation steps.

Stern farther indicates that the investing that takes topographic point in the following 10 -20 old ages will hold a profound consequence on the clime in the 2nd half of this century and in the following. But if the degree of apathy shown by most states persist it would be obvious in the coming decennaries, could make hazards of major break to economic and societal activity, on a graduated table similar to those associated with the great wars and the economic depression of the first half of the twentieth century. And it will be hard or impossible to change by reversal these alterations.

The Impact of Climate Change on Socio-Economic Security

Socio-economic factors of any state is fundamentally of its indispensable services such H2O, nutrient, adjustment and energy. These are what most unluckily has become straight impacted by Global Warming. Harmonizing to Margaret Beckett, UK ‘s Foreign Secretary, warned about migration on an unprecedented graduated table due to deluging, disease and dearth. She besides said that drouth and harvest failure could do intensified competition for nutrient, H2O and energy. “ It is about our corporate security in a fragile and progressively mutualist universe, ” she said. Climate alteration besides has major economic deductions. Harmonizing to a 2006 study by Sir Nicholas Stern the costs of accommodating to climate alteration could be every bit much as 10 % of universe economic end product.

 Extenuation to the Impact of Global Warming

As noticed by Sachs ( 2008 ) the attempt in turn toing Global Warming needs prompt and strong action. Because clime alteration is a planetary job, the response to it must be international. It must be based on a shared vision of long-run ends and understanding on models that will speed up action over the following decennary, and it must construct on reciprocally reenforcing attacks at national, regional and international degree.

Furthermore, Stern ( 2009 ) estimates that if the universe does non move on holding the badness of Global Warming the overall costs and hazards of clime alteration will be tantamount to losing at least 5 % of planetary GDP each twelvemonth. If a wider scope of hazards and impacts is taken into history, the estimations of harm could lift to 20 % of GDP or more. This surely will be a intensifying suffering to already reeling and weak economic system position of most African states including Ghana

In contrast, planetary economic analysts have besides estimated that the costs of action for cut downing nursery gas emanations to avoid the worst impacts of clime alteration could be limited to around 1 % of planetary GDP each twelvemonth.

It has been suggested by Wangari ( 2004 ) that the usage of traditional cognition could be a great replacement in covering with Global Warming. Traditional cognition can be seen as that which emerges from the interaction amongst persons and between persons and their environment, ensuing in a merchandise, which has been formed and transformed by the society itself. The cognition, which is a societal concept, harmonizing to is culturally specific and has its distinguishable features, It is embedded in societal value, beliefs or norms, expressed in narratives, traditional music and other cultural activities.

Local cognition that addresses climate alteration can be made from three types of information: Accrued cultural cognition, Knowledge modified through contact with other civilizations, and progressive acquisition of the environment. Autochthonal Peoples have historically played an active function in the preservation of eco-systems important to the bar of clime change.. Traditional norms and regulations have it that some yearss are prohibited for the harvest home of fuel wood in these forest channels. These steps go a long manner to let the forest to retrieve and make the status for the forest to function as a C sink to attend Global Warming. Sacred grooves or countries are frequently associated with cultural rites, such as rainmaking. Members of the community are prohibited from executing certain activities in them, including hunting, assemblage, wood film editing, cultivating, graze, etc. Taboo yearss and the establishment of local Torahs on hunting and fishing have helped to conserve biodiversity.

Traveling to a Low-Carbon Global Economy

Another of import measure needed to undertake Global Warming is by following the cognition in traveling to a low-carbon planetary economic system. The first is carbon pricing, through revenue enhancement, emanations trading or ordinance, so that people are faced with the full societal costs of their actions. The purpose should be to construct a common planetary C monetary value across states and sectors.

Secondary, Simon ( 2007 ) contend that there is the demand to hold a comprehensive policy on engineering to drive the development and deployment at graduated table of a scope of low-carbon and high-efficiency merchandises. And the 3rd is action to take barriers to energy efficiency, and to inform, educate and carry persons about what they can make to react to climate alteration.

Additionally, Ogata & A ; Sen ( 2003 ) have observed that action on clime alteration will make important concern chances, as new markets are created in low-carbon energy engineerings and other low-carbon goods and services. These markets could turn to be deserving 100s of one million millions of dollars each twelvemonth, and employment in these sectors will spread out consequently. The concluding thought would be to undertake clime alteration is the pro-growth scheme for the longer term, and it can be done in a manner that does non crest the aspirations for growing of rich or hapless states.

Agreements of Chapters

Chapter one of the survey, comprise of the debut, which provides a brief background of the survey, the statement of the job every bit good as the significance of the survey. It besides outlines the general aims of the survey, the methodological analysis used for informations assemblage and analysis every bit good as a replete of literature refering the survey country.

The 2nd chapter offers a comprehensive overview of the survey country, measuring the chief issues concerned which included international conventions protocols and pacts, challenges of clime alteration docket, the stairss taken to cut downing the impact of Global Warming and a situational instance of Global Warming in Ghana.

Chapter three elaborates on both primary and secondary informations collected which entails presentation of facts and analysis of research results. The last chapter ( chapter four ) outlines the drumhead, decision and recommendations of the survey.

Definitions

Global Warming

Global Warming is the regional or global-scale alterations in historical clime forms originating from natural and/or semisynthetic causes and ensuing in both intermittent but progressively frequent, utmost impacts ( e.g. big storms and heat moving ridges ) and slow on-set, permeant, cumulative effects ( e.g. extinction of life signifiers and sea degree rise ) ( Simon, 2007 ) ; climate alteration involves the interactions of many systems, such as the ambiance, hydrosphere, cryosphere, and biosphere, every bit good as the human systems. In this survey Global Warming will be used interchangeably with clime alteration.

Environmental security

Environmental security is the protection of people from short- and long-run depredations of nature, semisynthetic menaces to nature, and impairment of the natural environment.

Hazard

A jeopardy is a potentially detrimental physical event, phenomenon or human activity that may do loss of life or hurt, belongings harm, societal and economic break or environmental debasement ( UN/ISDR, 2004 ) .

Human security

Human security is the protection of “ the critical nucleus of all human lives in ways that enhance human freedoms and fulfilment ” ( Ogata & A ; Sen, 2003 ) ; the security of persons, their supports, and human rights including economic security, nutrient security, wellness security, environmental security, personal security, community security and political security.

International Conventions, Protocols and Treaties

The demand for international Conventions, Protocols and Treaties mostly is based on the fact that all states will be affected by alteration in clime. The most vulnerable, the poorest states and Populations will endure earliest and most, even though they have contributed least to the causes of clime alteration. The international convention puts a duty and committedness to every individual state to lend in little manner to cut downing the impact of the Global Warming.

Since the consciousness of Global Warming took centre phase in planetary treatment there has been hosts of conventions, protocols and pacts that country geared towards sustainable development and environmental understandings. The 1992 UN Conference on Environment and Development in Rio de Janeiro, offers a roadmap towards sustainable development. Chapter 24, entitled ” Global Action for Women towards Sustainable Development ” , calls upon authoritiess to extinguish all obstructions to adult females ‘s full engagement in sustainable development and public life

At the 2002 World Summit on Sustainable Development in Johannesburg, the importance of governmental committedness towards the decrease of activities that result in Global Warming was reaffirmed. The Convention to Combat Desertification ( UNCCD, 1994 ) most clearly recognizes the function of adult females in rural supports and encourages the full engagement of adult females and work forces in the execution of the convention. The UNCCD stresses the of import function played by adult females in parts affected by desertification and/or drouth, peculiarly in rural countries in developing states. Although the 1992 Convention on Biodiversity recognizes preservation and sustainable usage of biological diverseness

The following convention to be looked at is the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change ( UNFCCC ) , which recognized the full engagement of husbandmans and pastoral rural folks. Additionally, the Kyoto Protocol, that outlines decreases in nursery grass instituted inter-governmental dialogues under the UNFCCC are germinating around the cardinal countries: extenuation, version, engineering and finance. At the 2007 United Nations Climate Change Conference ( COP13 ) in Bali, dialogues began for the post-Kyoto government ( 2012 and beyond ) .

Stairs to Reduce the Impact of Global Warming

States confronting diverse fortunes will utilize different attacks to do their part to undertaking clime alteration. But action by single states is non plenty. Each state, nevertheless big, is merely a portion of the job. It is indispensable for states to hold a shared international vision of long-run ends. The undermentioned stairss as outlined provide a really utile suggestion to planetary policy shapers in their effort to outline a policy for universe to follow:

Expanding and associating the turning figure of emanations merchandising strategies around the universe is a powerful manner to advance cost-efficient decreases in emanations and to convey forward action in developing states: strong marks in rich states could drive flows amounting to 10s of one million millions of dollars each twelvemonth to back up the passage to low-carbon development waies.

Informal co-ordination every bit good as formal understandings can hike the effectivity of investings in invention around the universe. Globally, support for energy R & A ; D should at least dual, and support for the deployment of new low-carbon engineerings should increase up to five-fold. International co- operation on merchandise criterions is a powerful manner to hike energy efficiency.

The loss of natural woods around the universe contributes more to planetary emanations each twelvemonth than the conveyance sector. Controling deforestation is a extremely cost-efficient manner to cut down emanations ; big scale international pilot programmes to research the best ways to make this could acquire afoot really rapidly.

The poorest states are most vulnerable to climate alteration. It is indispensable that clime alteration be to the full integrated into development policy, and that rich states honour their pledges to increase support through abroad development aid.

Global Warming in Ghana

Ghana lies on the West seashore of Africa with a Population of about 25million. The entire land country of Ghana is 238,539km2. Agribusiness represents the most of import land usage type in footings of its spacial coverage. Agribusiness in the wood takes up more than 75 % of the land while in the northern savannas ; the coverage is between 50 and 60 % . About 11 % of the land country of Ghana is under preservation.

Whiles at that place has non been a important happening of natural catastrophes compared to other Asiatic and African states there are still pockets of instabilities as a consequence of the emerging issue of climate alteration. The most detrimental impacts to climate alteration for Ghana has been to H2O resources, agribusiness, and drouths. About 80 % of Ghana ‘s population depends on Agriculture for a life. Agribusiness in Ghana is extremely vulnerable to climate alteration variableness and long term clime Change which would ensue in a higher nutrient monetary values, lower domestic grosss and broadening of current history shortages due to lower export net incomes together with increased rising prices and increased external liability ( Zaragoza, 2005 Namikat, 2005 )

Ghana ‘s environment and cardinal natural resources have been progressively threatened by intensifying and unsustainable force per unit areas from fast turning population, spread outing agricultural and industrial activities and rapid urbanisation.

One other major issue associated with biodiversity in Ghana is the loss of home ground and the depletion of biological resources. Persistent development of the Savannah has resulted in widespread debasement. Forest flora and dirts hold about 40 % of all the C stored in tellurian ecosystems. Release of C as a consequence of deforestation contributes to planetary clime alteration. The grounds of Global Warming in Ghana is clear in the face of a reduced rainfall, increase temperature and vaporization in dry countries, Frequent drouth enchantments taking to terrible H2O deficit, Change in seting day of the months of one-year harvests, Increased fungous eruptions and insect infestations due to alterations in temperature and humidness, Decrease in forest country and country under cultivation and Increased potency of malaria transmittal and loads on the state ‘s wellness attention system.

A national Committee on Climate Change is hosted by the Ministry of Environment. This commission has the authorization of reexamining policies and plans to complement national precedences and contribute to decrease of nursery gas emanations and an addition in C sinks. The Ministry is the focal point for UNFCCC activities ( Agyeman-Bonsu, 2007a ) .

Ghana signed the UNFCCC in June 1992 in Rio de Janeiro. The Convention entered intoforce globally on 21 March 1994 and specifically for Ghana on December 5, 1995, three months after Ghana ratified the Convention. In 2002, Ghana ‘s Parliament passed a declaration to sign the Kyoto Protocol ( KP ) and the KP entered into force globally on 16 February 2005 ( Agyeman-Bonsu, 2007b )

Presentation of Datas

A sum of 100 respondents took portion in this survey, consisting of 20 ( 20 ) representatives from each of the followers: fishermen, fishwifes, husbandmans, market adult females. There were besides were ten ( 10 ) craftsmen and 10s ( 10 ) adult females with assorted trades participated in the survey. The chief thought for placing the respondents above, recognized the above mentioned professions are chiefly been engaged by the citizens and by gender, the survey intend to set up the degree of exposure between work forces and adult females. The causes of Global Warming, impacts and how each of the identified group of respondents react to Global Warming in footings of energy wellness, H2O and life conditions.

Biographic Information

For equal gender representation, an equal figure of 50 were drawn from both males and females for the survey.

Age distribution of respondents. The mean age among the male respondents is 40 with that of females being 49. Most of the work forces ( 60 % of male respondents ) were aged above 35 whilst for the female respondents ; about 70 per centum were aged above 35.

Marital position

Refering the matrimonial position of the respondents, 60 per centum of fishermen were married, 15 per centum had divorced, and 10 per centum were besides widowed. On a similar note, more husbandmans were said they were married ( 85 % ) , 10 per centum were widowed but 5 per centum were divorced. Among the craftsmen interviewed, more than half ( 60 % ) said they had married, none had experienced divorced but 40 per centum had ne’er married.

On the portion of the female respondents, 80 per centum of the fishwifes, 70 per centum of market adult females and 50 per centum of adult females in trades said they were married. Besides, 10 per centum of fishwifes, 20 per centum of market adult females and adult females in trades had experienced divorced. More adult females in trades ( 30 % ) have ne’er married and besides more of such adult females were widowed compared to the remainder of the respondents.

General cognition of the jobs of clime alteration

The survey enquired signifier respondents their cognition about clime alteration. It was revealed that more of males ( 46 % male respondents were cognizant of clime alteration ) were cognizant of the planetary consent to climate alter the attempts of change by reversaling the tendency than female respondents ( 30 % of females respondents were cognizant of clime alteration ) .

In all merely 38 per centum of the respondents indicated their consciousness to climate alteration run. Despite their ignorance about the run, most of the male respondents were cognizant of the jobs climate alteration is doing, mentioning among other things, hot conditions.

Impact of clime alteration on wellness and good being

60 per centum of female respondents complained of frequent wellness jobs but merely 46 % of male respondents said they have noticed alterations in wellness related jobs. More fishermen ( 65 % ) reported that the rate of trial to infirmary hold increased in recent times. This is followed by adult females in trades, where 50 % indicated of frequent wellness jobs. On the general wellbeing of the people interviewed, a pouncing proportion of females ( 90 % ) complained of economic adversity as a consequence of less gross revenues and lower incomes. Besides, about 55 % of males interviewed complained that there has been recent economic adversity as a consequence of decrease in end product of work.

Impact of clime alteration on work end product

From the survey, 60 % female respondents indicated that productiveness has enormously reduced. As one adult female commented “ bad conditions affects the fish we can catch ” . Less fish caught affect the gross revenues and gross of fishwifes, which finally reduces incomes for families. Craftsmans and adult females in unidentified trade both complained of deficit of gross revenues marks.

Expected action by policy shapers and authoritiess to extenuate the impact of clime alteration

The survey farther wanted to happen out the expected actions locals expect from authoritiess and policy shapers with respect to climate alteration. The consequence were that 55 % of entire respondents said their positions as locals and natives needed to be sought when outlining any national policy. Respondents who presumptively are at the closest to the creative activity and care of clime alteration are non included in policy and decision-making. About 20 % said they wanted authorities to demo more commitment to any policy drafted and shoot more financess towards climate direction.

The images in Appendix B seek to reenforce the points that Global Warming is impacting human and economic security in Ghana. The captioned exposure depicts assorted cases and conditions back uping this averment.

Drumhead

The activities of few fabrication and agricultural industries in Ghana consequences in high-carbon coevals that has negative effects on clime alteration. Alternate low-carbon emanations that would non cut down economic growing could be used where available.

It has been established that developed states account for 80 % of planetary emanations lending to the depletion of the ozone bed. The necessary force per unit area could be put on states most responsible for green house concentration in the ambiance to cut down their emanations significantly.

The research found out that ordinances on land usage was loose and those who degrade land travel unpunished. Methods could be devised to better land direction of ecological sites to conserve biodiversity, peculiarly in wetland countries.

There no local engagement in protection and direction of the Sakumono laguna and its environments. The Autochthonal people could be included in the preservation of eco-systems through the usage of local imposts to forestall clime alteration.

Thirty-eight per centum of the respondents were non cognizant of the impacts of Global Warming and could non entree and utilize day-to-day conditions prognosiss of the Meteorological Department. The usage of local idioms could be used to better conditions information distribution.

The research established that 67 % the respondents were non adequately accommodated and were at hazard of the conditions. Housing strategies on flexible footings could be provided to locals who can non afford equal lodging.

Waste disposal at the Sakumono Lagoon and its environ were disorderly and set in topographic points that threatened the endurance of the laguna with its vegetations and zoologies. Existing environmental ordinances on waste disposal could be enforced.

The respondents ‘ reported 89 % frequent contraction of respiratory diseases in the past 5 old ages. Health installations could be extended to the locals particularly those prone to these diseases ( the aged and kids ) .

The research established that there were no co-ops supplying fiscal and other signifiers of support for the hapless land-dwellers, fishermen and market adult females. Cooperatives could be formed to supply fiscal and other signifiers of support to the locals in the Sakumono general country.

Eighty-five per centum of respondents use wood coal or firewood for cookery intents. The debut of reasonably monetary value gas could cut down dependance on wood coal and firewood.

Decision

Ghana is vulnerable and delicate to climate alteration depends chiefly as a consequence of less governmental committedness and deficiency of information to the chief participants of the environment. This is coupled with institutional failings and this could take to serious impact on wellness, nutrient, H2O and endurance of its citizen in decennaries in front.

Recommendations

The authorities and municipal assemblies in Climate Change extenuation should concentrate on alternate low C development and usage, that does non cut down economic growing.

On international platforms and during international conventions the authorities should set the necessary force per unit area on states most responsible for green house concentration in the ambiance to cut down emanations significantly.

Industries in Ghana, both fabrication and agricultural should follow emanation decrease inventions where available.

The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources in concurrence with municipal assemblies should invent steps to better land direction of ecological sites to conserve biodiversity, peculiarly in our wetland countries.

There is the demand to name for multi sectorial attack to a sustainable development scheme of the environment which recognizes the engagement of Autochthonal people because of their historical engagement as active participants in the preservation of eco-systems important to the bar of clime alteration.

The Meteorological Department should set up improved conditions prediction and information distribution.

The authorities, municipal assemblies and non-governmental administrations should assist the autochthonal and hapless population at hazard to efficaciously get by with high temperature extremes and fickle rainfall forms. This can be done by supplying strategies to supply places with better insularity and aeration, against utmost heat and cold conditions every bit good as offer other building betterments.

The Environmental Protection Council should implement ordinances on waste disposal.

The Ghana Health Service should be active in the proviso of timely wellness support for susceptible people.

Banks and NGOs should provide for and beef up concerted establishments to let hapless land-dwellers, fishermen and market adult females to portion the costs associated with market engagement.

The Ministry of Energy should hasten and regulate the proviso of domestic gas.

Human Relations Human relations can be defined as a study of group behavior for the purpose of improving interpersonal and social relationships in work environment. In order to improve work productivity, achieve successful teamwork and understand the importance of managing people, it is necessary for managers to develop appropriate ways how to do it. Human relations management has become a concern of many companies. To increase work productivity each company must create a way how to motivate their employees, see them as individuals and not machines, and provide them with good working conditions.

Since human being is the main key factor of the organization, managers should always be encouraged to seek for new opportunities for the company growth. Human relations movement approach was started and established by Elton Mayo – a Harvard professor who is most famous for the well-known Hawthorne studies experiment at the Hawthorne plant of Western Electric Company in Chicago,USA. Mayo conducted and analyzed the experiment for several years. The intention of the experiment was to investigate the relationship between work conditions and productivity by examining environmental influences at workplace.

After a while experiment moved on to the psychological aspects as well. During this research, new approaches to motivation, social relations and employee care were developed in order to increase work performance and productivity. Experiment gave an opportunity to understand human behavior in groups and their needs in work environment. The experiment had four stages- illumination studies, relay assembly test room, interviewing process and bank wiring observation room. For the first stage, there were selected workers from the Hawthorne plant. Workers were separated in groups and placed under the eye of supervisor in separate test rooms.

The idea was to research and determine relationship between illumination in workplace and employee work efficiency, by increasing or decreasing lighting in the test rooms. The final results were confusing and everyone thought that the experiment has failed, because despite of the increase or decrease of lighting-productivity has been increased or stayed the same at all times. Researchers tried to figure out different theories, why it has happened. The general conclusion was that illumination is not the most important factor of output. After this stage change in employee’s behavior was discovered, workers felt important and knew that the work erformance will be researched. Researchers decided to call this phenomenon as Hawthorne effect. This unusual effect is still noticeable in nowadays and it has a big role in human relations management. For example, clinical research organizations- when patients are randomized for the trial, organization is subordinating patients for the Hawthorne effect. Patient health is studied for a long period of time and special attention is received from many employees. Clinical trial organizations usually choose two randomization options for patients-giving the actual trial medicine or the placebo medicine, which is not a real treatment.

In most of the cases, clinical trial measures can result either in true or false improvement, which is caused by Hawthorne effect. In clinical research industry important factor is not only scientific, but also psychological effect, because without investigating human factors, finding necessary answers would be much harder, if the theory would be based only on scientific and medical impacts. The second stage of the experiment was relay assembly test room. Again there were selected people from the Hawthorn plant and divided in groups.

This stage was conducted to investigate importance of working hours, lunch breaks, rest periods, wages etc. There were numerous questions that needed to be answered in order to understand how to manage efficient working day. That is why researchers kept changing rest periods, work weeks, wages, supervisory practices etc. This stage had the same effect as the illumination stage- no matter what change researchers introduced; productivity either increased or stayed the same. After this stage the most important conclusion was that material gains are not as important as the social processes at the workplace.

Every company must pay attention to employee well being, in order to establish positive working conditions and improve employee motivation scheme. One of the most popular motivation programs in nowadays is the “Employee of the month” title. Organizations make effort to analyze employee’s accomplishments every month. That is a simple way how to say “thank you” for the effort that has been made and motivate for even more successful results by granting workers with the special title and, in some cases, even with material bonus. The third stage at the Hawthorne plant was interview process.

Over 21,000 of employees were interviewed by the time of three years to find out the reasons for the increased productivity in previous two stages. Questionnaires were about everything what affect employees working conditions. Workers were allowed to talk about anything, but not always the answers were truthful or useful for the experiment. During the interviews Mayo thought that he had spread his research too wide and too far, because many of the answers were too vague. At the end of the interviews, researchers were surprised by the unpredictable results again.

Investigators came to revelation that employees started to reveal more of personal facts, by the time of interviewing. Rather than giving direct answers, workers chose to speak about their personal life details and issues. After this stage became clear, that each person has their own individuality and important fact for the employers is to create certain trainings and interview processes-applicable for every employee. Also it is important to create surveys for employees and clients as well, to make sure that the company is moving forward, not backwards.

For example, worldwide hotel “Premier Inn” has created survey called “Your say” (Premier Inn, 2011), which is a short questionnaire for employees and guests. By asking questions about the guest satisfactory level, “Premier Inn” can summarize information and create a plan how to avoid from biggest mistakes and also consider guest recommendations. Survey is also for employees-to make sure every single employee is satisfied and after the survey there is possibility to organize meetings and discuss negative or positive outcomes of their responsibilities.

Most of the companies use these surveys in nowadays, to strengthen and improve their business. The last stage at the bank wiring room in Chicago was conducted to study behavior of the workers in informal groups, and research the social structure and its importance at the workplace. Overall conclusion for this stage: when humans interact with each other for a long period of time, various social structures are being created. Work productivity is affected by social processes at workplace, which is why important factor in every organization is communication.

Many companies use informal meetings to strengthen employees, by creating different team building programs, so employees doesn’t feel like that is a compulsory task to attend. Overall, the main characteristics of the Hawthorne experiment theory are still noticeable in nowadays. Motivation, social relations, employee care/needs in work environment and behavior of groups are the basics of the human relations movement. Elton Mayo’s experiment was a major historical event and even though Hawthorne studies received a lot of criticism, it was a huge step in human relations management.

While Scientific Management looked at technology and processes, Mayo found that the real key to high productivity lies within the people and “work units,” or groups, in the organization (Odportal 2011). Human satisfaction will always lead to productivity, which is why communication at workplace is important factor to achieve positive results. Also motivated workers are always more committed to their job-this was one of the most important characteristics in Hawthorne experiment. Without human relations theory, working conditions would be slightly different nowadays.

Every person has their own individuality and needs, why it is important for organizations to take care of employees, make their own researches and seek for different options how to keep employees interested and motivated at all times. References 1. A Fast Learner’s Guide to Leadership. The Human Relations Movement. http://www. odportal. com/leadership/fastlearner/humanrelations. html -accessed 01/11/2011 [i. p. 1] 2. Guest Recommend Survey http://www. premierinn. com/en/why/contact_us/guest-recommend-survey. html – accessed 01/11/2011 [i. p. 1]

Captivity of Marine Mammals The concern that is being presented is that of whether we should allow marine parks to stay open has been extensively debated in our community of late. It is a significant issue due to the fact that it concerns deep-seated moral and economic questions about the utilization of our native wildlife. There have been an extensive range of different arguments being pushed to the forefront about this issue. In this essay, the arguments will be considered of that for having marine parks and point to some of the problems with these views.

Afterward, reasons will be put forward for the introduction of regulations which disallow these uncalled for and malicious institutions to be in existence. It has been argued that dolphin parks provide the only prospect for much of the public to see marine mammals. It is argued that most Australians live in cities and by no means get to see these animals. The claim is that marine parks give the Australians the opportunity to truly appreciate our wildlife.

However, dolphins, whales and seals can be viewed in the wild at numeral places on the coast of Australia. In fact, there are a lot more places where they can be seen in the wild compared to those in which they can be seen in captivity. Furthermore, most Australians would have to endure less travel to get to these locations than they would to get to the marine parks on the Gold Coast. Also, places where wild marine mammals are located do not charge an inflated entry fee; these places are free to the public.

It is debated that we need marine parks for scientific research and the knowledge which is obtained, can be useful for planning for the conservation of marine mammal species. However, park research is only useful for understanding imprisoned animals and is not constructive for education about animals in their natural habitat. The biology of dolphins and whales varies under marine park conditions. This has an effect on their diet, life ps and they are also more prone to disease in this environment.

Also, marine mammals in dolphin parks are trained and have their behavior modified, which means that their patterns of social behavior are changed. Therefore the research that is conducted at marine parks is commonly not dependable. It is the contention that marine parks attract a lot of foreign tourists, which goes on to emphasize that these tourists squander a lot of money, escalating our foreign exchange income and supplementing our national balance of payments. However, foreign tourists would still be attracted to visit Australia whether these facilities were open or not.

It is shown in numerous surveys conducted of overseas tourists show that they come here for a variety of other reasons and not to visit places like SeaWorld. Tourists come here to see our native wildlife in its natural habitat and not to see it imprisoned in cages and cement pools. They have the ability to see those types of things without leaving their own country. Furthermore; we should be more concerned with the promotion of our beautiful natural environment to tourists and not the ugly concrete marine park venues.

The widespread uses of marine mammal parks are downright cruel. The situation in which dolphins and whales are kept in these parks are very small, cramped ponds, when in the wild they are used to roving elongated distances across the seas. Furthermore, the concrete walls of the pools create an interference with the animals’ sonar systems of communication. In addition, holding them captive in pools is a dreadful constraint of the freedom of fellow creatures that may have very elevated levels of intelligence and sophisticated language aptitude.

Also, there are many acknowledged instances of marine mammals assisting humans who are in jeopardy at sea or helping fisherman with their work. The conclusion comes to the fact that these parks should be shut down, or at the very least, no new species should be captured for marine parks in the future. Our society is no longer prepared to put up with uncalled for brutality to animals for the sake of science and entertainment. If we carry on with our past crimes against these creatures we will forever be remembered as cruel and inhuman by the generations of the future.

1.“The way shown how we come by any knowledge, sufficient to prove it not innate” – The natural faculties that humans have since birth are the ones they use to attain knowledge, but do not have impressions that are innate to them. The development of this knowledge and principle is not innate in character because they evolve over time.

2.” General assent the great argument” – principles that accepted by men came from process of speculative arguments. Thus the end of this is the consent given by men towards the affirmation of a certain principle is not innate.

3. “Universal consent proves nothing innate” – given the fact that people have established the meaning of a consent, thus rendering the knowledge itself as not innate.

4.“What is, is;” and, “It is impossible for the same thing to be, and not to be,” not universally assented to.” – the argument used on the debate on universal consent to prove innate principle, is likewise the same as disproving the notion of innate principle.

5.“Not on the mind naturally, imprinted, because not known to children, idiots, etc” – there things that are not known or born naturally to children, thus those have to be introduced to them, making the knowledge not naturally endowed and innate to them.

6.“If reason discovered them, that would not prove them innate.” – though by claim of use of own personal reason, humans have discovered these reasoning by universal assent, rendering the principle or the knowledge as not naturally imprinted by the human mind.

7.“It is false that reason discovers them” – it is not possible to come up with innate knowledge, because through use of own reasons, these forms of reasoning are only deductions from established theories and knowledge, thus making it not anymore original.

Reference

1690 AN ESSAY CONCERNING HUMAN UNDERSTANDING by John Locke. Retrieved October 24, 2007 from http://oregonstate.edu/instruct/phl302/texts/locke/locke1/Book1a.html#Chapter%20I

The law is not effective in dealing with the problem of human trafficking. Discuss (using relevant International and Domestic law). According to the Trafficking in Persons Protocol, Human Trafficking is the recruitment, transportation, transfer, harbouring or receipt of persons, by threatening or using force, or any other form of coercion, abduction, fraud, deception, abuse of power or of a position of vulnerability; or giving or receiving payments or benefits to relieve the consent of a person having control over another person, for the purpose of exploitation.

Human Trafficking is characterized by 1. The Act (What is done) 2. The Means (How it is done) 3. The Purpose (Why it is done) People may fall victim to Human Trafficking for many purposes. One common purpose is for prostitution. Sexual labour is identified as coerced labour. Other common purposes are for child labour and the sex trade. The Vatican has described Human Trafficking as being worse than slavery and has been described as the “Silent Crime of the Caribbean”.

Regional organizations such as the Association of Caribbean States, CARICOM and the Organization of American States have all expressed their displeasure at the rapid increase of human trafficking cases in the Caribbean. This growing practice impacts many nations across the world and the Caribbean has recently been drawn into what is being called a “global panic. ” In the Caribbean the group causing the most concern in regards to Human Trafficking is Irregular Migrants – this includes the females transported to other locations (countries or regions) as commercial sex workers.

The nature of the purpose can, without scholarly or legislative support, indicate that this is a violation of basic human rights. Caribbean governments are being asked to present an annual report to the US government outlining the steps they have taken and will take to challenge unregulated migration and forced labour, which are indicators of human trafficking. The countries are ranked according to their compliance with US’ wishes and a country that does not rank well or refuses to present a report are threatened with economic sanctions.

Jamaica is among some of the countries that have been negatively ranked. However, the US government believes that Jamaica has the will and potential to improve their third tier status. Most victims of human trafficking may find themselves in situations where they fall prey to both physical and emotional abuse. Oftentimes Caribbean women are lured to the US with false promises of employment and are then sold by trafficking gangs, to the highest bidders all over the US and Europe. Caribbean states are eager to remain in good moral standing on an international platform.

Hence, concerns about human trafficking in the Caribbean have increased mainly due to the idea of female prostitution and the urgency to rescue and protect a woman’s sexual purity. Makes you think, doesn’t it? Do they actually care about these issues or do they care by extension of their international image? Human trafficking is generally practised in the Caribbean in an effort to supply a demand for cheap, unskilled labour (irregular immigrants) and for sex workers in the tourist industry (irregular migrants).

Human trafficking is common in many regions which are overpopulated and have high unemployment and poverty rates. According to the IOM* Legal Review concerning trafficking in the Caribbean statue laws have been put in place for the prosecution of traffickers, the protection of trafficking victims and the prevention of trafficking activities. Outside of the US and Europe, many other countries do not have the resources to put in place extensive legislation to fight human trafficking. However, there are some laws that can offer help to curb trafficking activities.

The Caribbean’s inability to compare favourably with the level of the US and Europe’s fight against human trafficking is due to many economic, social, and legal factors. Some such factors are * “Law enforcement including prosecution and sentencing which may also be as a result of often using outdated criminal codes with inadequate penalties, many of which have not been reformed since the countries gained their independence. ” (IOM 2005) Most Caribbean nations do have the desire to eradicate human trafficking but the state of their economies paired with their pre-independence law enforcement techniques serve as a deterrent.

Of all the countries that have made an effort to combat human trafficking, Guyana has been the most successful by drafting a bill to Parliament which includes life penalties for trafficking persons, and stiff penalties for other trafficking related activities. This bill covers every eventuality concerning human trafficking. Jamaica has also introduced the Child Care and Protection Act which stipulates a penalty of ten years for trafficking children and provides protection to child victims. The provision that covers trafficking states that: 10. (1) No person shall sell or participate in the trafficking of any child”24 This leaves the rest of us at the will of traffickers, don’t you think. Unless the victim is a child, there is simply no law to cover such an eventuality. There is no legislation that criminalizes trafficking in women and children; however elements of the crime are upheld in the criminal code. But considering that some instances of human trafficking is likely to be for sexual purposes, sexual offences law can help to prosecute criminals involved.

Most Caribbean countries include in their constitutions a guaranteed freedom from forced labour and slavery. This guarantor dictates a fundamental right but does not include how it is to be implemented. This right is only enforceable against the state and not private individuals or entities, which means there is no provision for redress against actual traffickers. There are clearly inadequate provisions for victims of human trafficking, largely due to the limited resources that are available to implement these services.

The “patchwork” criminal approach can continue to be used as a substitute for a better legislative system until concrete provisions are instituted to cover the eventualities of human trafficking. And even then it is recommended that the weak and inconsistent criminal laws are reformed. INTERNATIONAL LAWS AGAINST HUMAN TRAFFICKING 1. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime 2. United Nations Protocol to Prevent, Suppress, and Punish Trafficking in Persons, Especially Women and Children 3.

United Nations Protocol against the Smuggling of Migrants by Land, Sea, and Air 4. United Nations Global Initiative to Fight Human Trafficking (UN. GIFT) 5. Universal Declaration of Human Rights (1948) 6. Coordinated Mekong Ministerial Initiative against Trafficking (COMMIT) * Coordinated by China, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, Myanmar, and Vietnam 7. Caribbean Counter-Trafficking Model Legislation 8. Belize – Trafficking in Persons (Prohibition) Act, 2003 9. Guyana – Combatting of Trafficking in Persons Act 2005

Chapter 5 Human Factors in Aviation Security Contents Page INTRODUCTION . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79 Background on Human Error . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA Policy and Plans for Human Factors and Aviation Security . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 80 FAA Requirements for Aviation Security: Human-Factors Implications . . . . . . . . . . . . . 82 Other Issues for Human Factors and Profiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86 Policy Options . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 88 Box Box Page 5-A. UAL Hi-Tech Screening . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84 Chapter 5 Human Factors in Aviation Security factors in these cases can greatly improve the utilization of technology for airline security. Dramatic accidents caused by human errors in the nuclear power, chemical, and transportation industries have increased public attention to human performance issues during the past decade. Additional training requirements, revised operating procedures, warning devices, and expanded government oversight are typical recommendations following accident investigations.

However, these stopgap measures address only the surface of problems that are rooted in the complex interactions of people and equipment within the larger system and the institutional and organizational structures and procedures that drive the planning, design, and management of these systems. Following the ground collision of two jetliners in Detroit in December 1990, Dr. John Lauber, a member of the National Transportation Board, said that “basically the [aviation] system, the way we’re operating it, almost demands nearly error-free [human] performance. Similar concerns can be echoed for the aviation security system—a number of successful airline terrorist events have been traced to a human failure. 2 “The challenge is to design a system. . which is tolerant of those errors when they do occur and which detects and traps them before we have [a catastrophe]. ”3 Multilayered defenses are employed at many commercial airports and airline terminals, and security managers and government authorities are turning to new technologies to buttress these systems. Heretofore, Federal requirements and industry use of security technologies have usually been with specific functions in mind.

As long as the technical goals could be met effectively, the equipment was considered satisfactory and human performance problems related to the technology were resolved through revised training and procedures. Technology use in counterterrorism will likely increase dramatically over the next decade, but if early and INTRODUCTION Human resources are critical to aviation security. Security personnel—passenger and baggage screeners, guards and law enforcement officers, and airport and airline employees in general-are important elements of a system that prevents and deters hostile acts against air carriers.

Technology can enhance, but cannot replace, the capabilities of these people and the many services they provide. Moreover, management practices based on behavioral research findings can further improve human performance. This chapter considers the function of screeners in weapons and explosives detection, and the role of guards, officers, and other aviation employees in discovering (and deterring) suspicious individuals or situations. Within the past 20 years, technology has greatly increased the capability and productivity of these security people.

Metal detectors and x-ray devices are faster, more accurate, and more socially acceptable tools for screening passengers and baggage than manual searches. Remote television and other monitoring devices, computer-controlled access to restricted areas, and communication and data systems allow comprehensive surveillance and threat assessment. While these technologies raise the capabilities of a security system to new levels, their ultimate success and actual performance depend on the people who design, operate, and maintain them.

Many security assignments require repetitive tasks and close monitoring for rare events— functions that humans perform poorly. Selecting well-suited individuals, training them properly, designing their work environment and rotation schedule to elicit the best possible performance, and providing motivating incentives are fundamental requirements for successful operations, regardless of the type of technology in place. These functions involve human performance; application of human p. A17. IJohn Lauber quoted by John H. Cushmau Jr. , “Test for Aviation: Coping with Human Shortcomings,”The New York Times, Dec. 0, 1990, ~ne example was the destruction of a Korean Air Lines flight over the Andaman Sea by a bomb planted by North Korean agents. The device, in a carry-on bag, was ahnost detected at a security checkpoint in Baghdad at an earlier stop. When a security guard wished to remove the batteries from a radio, one terrorist turned the radio on, proving it operated, and then raised a hue and cry, yelling and complaining. Instead of using this as a reason to stop the two suspect individuals and to examine their belongings minutely, the security forces decided to avoid trouble by allowing them to proceed. Lau~r, op. cit. , footnote 1. –79– 80 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security methodic attention is not given to human performance issues, we may expect that system efficiency and effectiveness will be substantially impaired. Background on Human Error The human role in a security system is complex; thus the nature of human errors, from mental to physical, varies widely. Mental or cognitive errors can include improper judgment or decisionmaking, while physical errors may stem from motor skill deficiencies or faulty equipment design.

A combination of physical and mental processes may influence other kinds of errors, such as those involving communication, perception, or alertness. Human factors, a discipline combining behavioral sciences and engineering, focuses on improving the performance of complex systems of people and machines. Designing and operating a system so that it does not induce human error (in fact, designing it so that human error may be minimized) is one critical component of human factors and limiting the impact of a human error once it occurs is another aspect.

Many types of human error are systematic, following certain predictable patterns; once these patterns are identified, countermeasures can be developed. For example, poor location of switches or dials can induce manual or perceptual errors. For those types of human error that do not follow predictable patterns, mitigation techniques are difficult to develop. Some examples of mitigation techniques include automatic monitoring and warning devices. These subsystems, when properly designed and implemented, can be invaluable tools for negating human error.

Employee selection—allowing into the system only those people least likely to make mistakes— and continued quality control maintained through training and monitoring are basic steps for minimizing human errors. Potential errors can be forestalled by the use of standard procedures and checklists for routine and emergency tasks, planning work shifts and assignments so as not to induce inattention and 4EM1 L. hlC. , fatigue, and properly designing the work environment. “If human factors engineering is done properly at the conceptual and design stage, the cost is high, but paid only once.

If tranin g must compensate for poor design, the price is paid every day. ” 4 According to one expert, there does not appear to be a strong need for new basic research in human factors related spectifically to security-behavioral science findings in general and experience with human performance problems in other industries are probably sufficient to enhance current security operations. 5 For example, such knowledge is being used to upgrade security screener selection by airlines, and to improve training standards.

However, the mechanisms to identify early on and to address effectively the human performance issues stemming from new security technologies, such as explosives detection systems, are not yet in place in industry or the Federal Government. Shifting boring and repetitive tasks that people perform poorly to machines is an approach that can reduce errors. However, automated devices (or any new technology) may create new sources of human error. 6 Excessive false alarms unnecessarily distract operators and may lead to the device being ignored or disabled.

During unusual or emergency circumstances, the lack of flexibility in many automated systems can be a serious limitation and the human backup may not be mentally or physically prepared (or possibly even capable) to take over. Consequently, a full system approach is required for reducing total human errors. FAA AND HUMAN FACTORS FAA Policy and Plans for Human Factors and Aviation Security In a report released in July 1988, OTA concluded that FAA attention to the spectrum of human performance problems in commercial aviation fell far short of the level warranted, since human error is the leading cause of aviation accidents. Later that same year, Congress passed the Aviation Safety Nagel wiener, $~cw~it Automation’ Hu~n ~ac~or~ in Aviation, Eu1 L. wiener and David c. (eds. ) (Sm Diego, CA: Academic PESS, 1988) p. 454. SH. c~fion FoUShee, c~ef scien~lc and Tec~~ Advi,qor for Human FaCto~, FAA p~so~ wmmunimtio~ 1991. 6see wiener, op. cit. , f~~ote 4, Ch. 13 for a discussion of new and subtle types of human error that have resulted from the introduction of automation into aircraft cockpits. W. S. Congress, OffIce of Technology Assessment Safe Skies for Tomorrow: Aviation Safefy in a Competitive Environnzent, O’E4-SET-381 (Washington, DC: U.

S. Government Printing Offke, July 1988). Chapter 5-Hurnun Factors in Aviation Security q 81 Research Act, which directed the FAA to expand its research efforts on human performance in aviation and authorized funds specifically for that purpose. 8 The FAA responded by creating the position of Chief Scientific and Technical Advisor for Human Factors, responsible for coordinating for the FAA various human-factors research efforts within the FAA NASA, and the DOD and for opening lines of communication within the FAA and industry.

Communication among Federal agencies is critical, since decisions made by the aviation industry and the operational and regulatory sections of the FAA often drive the need for new human-factors research and could benefit from an understanding of humanfactors research findings and products. The FAA has made progress in addressing the earlier criticism of its human-factors programs and understanding in aircraft and air traffic control (ATC) equipment and operations.

However, the key shortcomings in FAA human-factors efforts that OTA cited in its 1988 study-insufficient agency expertise, uncoordinated research efforts, and regulations and certification standards that do not reflect human-factors principles-still exist within FAA civil aviation security programs. During the course of its study, OTA examined closely many of the technology development programs and regulatory efforts underway in the security sections of FAA and found a general lack of awareness and understanding of the human-factors issues involved with possible new security technologies.

An exception to this situation, however, and a hopeful indicator of a new trend, has been the hiring of a human-factors expert at the FAA Technical Center to oversee human-factors research as it relates to airline security. However, at present, it appears that the FAA is ill-prepared to identify and address possible human-factors concerns with the increasingly complex and diverse security technologies now under development. The dearth of trained humanfactors specialists in areas of the FAA responsible for civil aviation security is a serious deficiency.

Until recently, the Aviation Security R&D Service of the Technical Center would have merited similar concerns, but this shortcoming is being redressed, at least in part. Some of the expertise that the FAA is developing on human factors for other uses could also be applied to security issues. One potential vehicle for bringing human-factors knowledge into aviation security efforts is the National Plan for Aviation Human Factors (HF Plan), the first major product of the heightened FAA attention to human performance issues following the enactment of the Aviation Safety Research Act.

The HF Plan identifies significant human performance issues and lays out a 10-year blueprint for establishing and coordinating research programs and conveying the results across Federal agencies and industry. The HF Plan’s development depended strongly on advisory committees composed of a cross-section of research, operational, and regulatory representatives from government and industry and approximately 50 of the nation’s leading human-factors researchers. The good news for aviation security is that the Plan appears to provide a strong foundation for multi- and cross-disciplinary efforts and understanding in human factors and has begun to institutionalize and focus consideration of human-factors issues in FAA decisionmaking. The bad news is that nowhere in the Plan is security mentioned—the Plan addresses the following five aviation environments only: aircraft flight deck, air traffic control, aircraft maintenance, airway facilities maintenance, and flight deck/ATC integration.

This should not be construed as criticism of the general thrust of the HF Plan—the human-factors categories considered have historically been more critical to aviation safety and are considerably more complex than human performance issues in security-and it is beyond the scope of this study to analyze in detail the specifics of the HF Plan. However, some objectives and products of the HF Plan maybe directly transferable to aviation security, provided that lines of communication are established and security experts are included in committee structures.

The Plan has eight objectives, all of which can apply to aviation security, but the following two are especially pertinent, given the present attention to technologies for countering terrorism: . to encourage the development of principles of ‘human-centered’ automation and the design of SAviation Stieu Research A@ I%blic bW 100-591. %J. S. Department of Transportation Fedeml Aviation Administratio~ “The National Plan For Aviation Human Factors,” vol. I, draf~ November 1990. 82 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security dvanced technology that will capitalize on the relative strengths of humans and machines; . to develop human factors-oriented validation and certification standards for aviation system hardware and personnel that will enhance both safety and efficiency . 10 The HF Plan is designed to be reexamined and revised periodically and aviation security could be added explicitly as a focus area if need and resources warrant. Crucial to the development and future success of the HF pian is the Human Factors Coordinating Committee (HFCC), formed by the FAA administra11 tor in September 1989.

HFCC has representatives from each major division of FAA and serves as ‘‘an advisory body for senior management of FAA in all matters involving human performance and [is] intended to assure that human factors issues are represented in all FAA activities. ’ ’12 Until very recently, the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security was not represented on this committee. However, this omission has since been recti13 critical-flight safety is at risk only when security performance fails at the same time that a threat occurs.

Moreover, FAA staff and the agency “cul- ture” are predominantly interested in aviation technology and operations and protecting facilities and countering terrorism are not an inherent part of aviation, l4 However, the increasing Complexity of screening technologies and the continuing (possibly increasing) terrorist threat make the performance of aviation security systems more critical to flight safety. fied. Aviation terrorist events in the 1980s made apparent the shortcomings of the minimum Federal security requirements.

The FAA and the airlines both focused attention on screener selection and training, detection and screening technologies, and airline management of security programs and systems. The FAA has increased requirements and oversight of security personnel (selection, training, and management) and equipment (weapons and explosives detectors), but has not yet addressed how security personnel and equipment perform as components of a system. Screener Selection and Training For years, the people who screened airline passengers and baggage for domestic flights generally received little training, low wages, and few benefits.

Consequently, alarmin g numbers of domestic 15 FAA Requirements for Aviation Security: Human-Factors Implications Aviation security personnel and equipment have received (and have not needed) the same level of regulatory and certification attention that the FAA places on flightcrew, air-traffic controllers, and ground support personnel and their respective aviation equipment. The FAA has focused its regulatory efforts on elements of the aviation system essential to flight safety. For example, the performance of pilots and aircraft systems are continuously critical for maintaining safety-a failure could cause an accident.

On the other hand, the performance of the security system (other than as a deterrent) is rarely not screeners failed unannounced FAA tests (22 percent failure rate in 1988). 16 Since there has not been a severe domestic terrorist threat against aviation in the United States, these shortcomings have not resulted in life or property losses. 17 In light of public pressure following the Lockerbie disaster and costly fines stermming from FAA inspections, the Air Transport Association (ATA) developed an extensive set of screener selection, training, and compensation standards.

ATA pro- 1%id. , p. 3. lllbid. , p. 28. l%id. , p. 28. lsundm tie FAA ~rga~tio~ s~c~e fi plaW in 1988 ~ou@ 1990, tie Office of Aviation Security wu represented @ the Executive Director for Regulatory Standards and Compliance, to whom it reported. 14fiowl~ge of aviation tw~olow ~d Operatiom i5 impo~t to fic~t ad @ofi s~ty. For e~ple, spec~ characteristics of aviatio~ Such as large volumes of people and luggage that must be screened quickly, drive the security system design and functions.

IsHowever, ~~es ~ustom~y ~ve ~gher s~n~ds for security personuel working h ktWtEitiOlld OpelZitiOllS. 16Lpe Osmus, office of Aviation Security, FW, personal COllMIluIlktitiOIL Feb. 22, 1991. ITDepend@ on tie deffitio~ he des~ction of a PSA ftight in 1987, caused by a disgruntled ex-emPIOYW Who Shot tie flying Crew in f@h4 @@t aircraft be considered a terroris4 as well as criminal, act. In this case, theex-employee had an identifkation card with which he gained access to the so screener training was not an issue. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security 83 posed that airlines (or their security contractors) 18 consider education and health criteria, the ability to speak English, and aptitude test results before hiring screeners, and that they offer competitive wages, benefits, and incentives and follow a comprehensive training curriculum. In March 1990, the ATA asked the FAA to adopt its proposal as requirements for all airlines. Based on this cooperative industry effort, the FAA has required some of these suggested upgrades in training measures for screeners. (Most U. S. irlines have adopted at least some of the ATA recommendations; the failure rate on random checks has since dropped significantly. )19 The FAA decided not to include selection and wage standards because such a change would require public comment (i. e. , through the Federal Register), thereby calling attention to perceived or actual security weaknesses. rewards to those who detect test weapons and explosives (and even higher rewards to those who find the real thing); and increasing wages to at least the “local prevailing rate. For comparison, in Israel, screeners are paid at a level considered a “good” salary, far higher than minimum wage. In Switzerland, they are paid at the rate of about $lOper hour. In the United States, rates are often near minimum wage. Management Practices and Human Performance The FAA mandates certain positions in an airline’s organizational structure, such as a security director for the airline and security coordinators at each airport, but airline management practices and philosophy usually fall outside the scope of FAA 20 regulatory authority.

In Safe Skies for Tomorrow, OTA found that the effect of airline operating or management practices on airline safety, and changes in those practices, were rarely addressed in FAA safety analyses. 21 The FAA’s Human Factors plan cites the influence of management “culture” on human performance as one area where basic research is needed. 22 If the organizational “climate” (i. e. , working conditions, wages, management, organizational culture, etc. ) does not allow an individual to perform at his or her peak, it may not matter how well he or she is trained or how well designed the technology is. 3 The ATA proposal for upgrading screener standards suggests giving screeners employee benefits common in many industries (vacation, holiday, medical) that contractors often don’t receive); offering to contractors the advantages of airline employment (e. g. , low-cost travel) and career opportunities to top performers; providing monetary The United Airlines’ approach to improving screener performance on all flights from selected airports delineates one set of management techniques (box 5-A). Another approach has been undertaken by American Airlines, lthough only for its international flights. 24 American treats its international screeners as part of the American team. They are hired as full-fledged airline employees, not employees of a contracted security agency, and enjoy the same salary levels and benefits that ticketing agents do. The educational level of entrants appears relatively high, with a few individuals having advanced degrees. There appears also to be a real opportunity for advancement within American Airlines, and not just in the security division.

Before starting work, the entrants are brought to Dallas (from across the world; many screeners are hired from the countries in which they will be working) for 2 weeks of training at American’s headquarters. The training includes emphasis on the screening questions as well as on what to look for on the x-ray screens. The screeners ask the standard questions as to who packed the baggage and whether anyone could have placed contraband in it. But they also ask general questions regarding destination and travel plans, somewhat akin to the lines of questioning performed by El Al.

Indeed, American has used Israeli security consultants in designing their security system. The screeners look for a number of specific characteristics, which remain proprietary to the company. If too many of the characteristics match a passenger, the individual’s baggage will receive much closer inspection. Screeners are ro- 18Most scree~g for domestic flights in the United States is conducted by security Contractors, nOtairhe employC%S. l~we Osmus, op. cit. , footnote 16. ~u. s. Conwss, OffIce of Technology Assessment, op. it. ,fOOtiOte 7. 211bid. , p. 88. 22U. S. Department of Transportatio~ Federal Aviation Administration op. Cit. , fOOtnOte 9, p. 15. ‘Ibid. 24s0~~: Site visit t. D* A@o% December 1$)90, and Homer Bo@oq Chief of Sedty, American Airlines, perSOIlal COmm~CatiO~ December 1990. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security tated between looking at x-ray screens and interviewing passengers. Periodically, security systems are tested by contractors, who choose an American employee to play a terrorist.

A specific scenario is given to this impostor, and the reaction of the security personnel is noted. If they do not perform their functions, they may be subject to severe discipline, including termination. The result of the overall approach, using incentives and threat of discipline for negligence, appears to be a well-motivated and alert force. Box 5-A—UAL Hi-Tech Screening United Airlines is focusing on management practices in its program, called Hi-Tech Screening, to improve the quality of pre-departure screening and the public perception of this highly visible function.

Begun in 1987 at Chicago O’Hare and San Francisco Airports, the program incorporated many of the selection and incentive steps later recommended in the ATA proposal, and also attempted to integrate technology and people by reconfiguring the screening environment to make it more pleasant for screeners and passengers as well as to improve operations. Although wages are still low, successful workers have the opportunity to join the UAL organization, instead of working as contract security personnel.

Improvements include direct communication links to supervisors for oversight and advice to screeners, layout designed to minimize passenger delays, and multiple cues to passengers that security measures are being taken in a professional reamer (security supervisor in an elevated booth, passengers see themselves on video monitors as they go through metal detectors, signs describing procedures are clear and concise). United believes that the program has been successful to date in increasing public awareness and employee morale and competence.

At Chicago, the employee attrition rate dropped by half and weapon detections and FAA test scores increased significantly (79 percent detection rate on FAA weapons tests prior to Hi-Tech and 92 percent subsequently). United has also installed Hi-Tech Screening systems in Denver, LOS Angeles, Seattle, and Washington Dunes, with plans for additional implementation in the future. SOURCE: Site visit to O’Hare, April 1990, and Richard Davis, Operational Security, United Airlines, Jan. 3,1991.

Security Equipment Currently, the FAA requires airlines to employ relatively few types of security equipment— primarily x-ray devices and metal detectors. The FAA established minimum performance standards for detecting weapons and explosives, and since these technologies are radiation-based, the FAA also requires that they meet Federal health and safety standards . 25 There are no standards governing operator interaction with the equipment, such as the layout of controls and display symbology options. At the time the FAA established x-ray and metal detector requirements (early 1970s), it had little expertise in human factors.

Moreover, these technologies were relatively simple compared with aircraft cockpit and ATC consoles that the FAA had to certify without objective human-factors criteria, making humanfactors standards for security a relatively low priority. However, many behavioral experts argue that properly developed human-factors standards could improve system performance for aviation security as well as safety. In recent years, the FAA has issued regulations for security technologies-computer-controlled access at airports and explosive detection systems—that are considerably more complex and have wider system implications than x rays and metal detectors.

As has is evidenced in the explosive detection system (EDS) regulations published in September 1989 26 and the subsequent performance of TNA, the only device to date that could meet the FAA standards. Beyond setting detection criteria, which are critical to the security system performance, the FAA also included requirements for throughput of the device (which is primarily an economics issue—see ch. 4) and a requirement for 100-percent automated detection decisionmaking. Several lines of reasoning could lead to a design goal of total automation, including lower operating costs over the long run een commonly the case whenever new technology is used to solve a problem, attention is focused on the positive aspects of the technology—how effective it is—without giving full consideration to possible new human-factors problems caused by the technology. The lack of attention to man/ machine human-factors and system operating issues ~F~r ~xmple, ~. ray ~y~tms ~~~ P-Y for cW. on baggage must meet tie s~n~ds set by the Food and Drug Administration. x54 Federal Register 36938 (Sept. 5, 1989). Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 85 nd possibly removing human error from the operating loop. However, it maybe useful, and sometimes vital, to keep the human in the operating/decisionmaking loop, especially if he or she must respond during emergency or unusual conditions. As has been shown so far in TNA tests, the false alarm rate is well above earlier goals and human intervention is required quite often. While automation, in the context of an EDS, is a useful tool, and total automation may be an understandable goal, requiring 100 percent automated functions in an EDS is not justified at this time.

The E D S regulations provide an example of where input from a group such as the FAA’s Human Factors Coordinating Committee could help flag potentially troublesome human-factors aspects of security regulations. Airline passenger profiling, in most cases, must be fast (and consequently cursory) enough so as not to impose excessive delays. In other security contexts, such as screening for the “insider threat” profile within an organization where time is not so critical, much more detailed background data and questioning is possible.

A different, although overlapping, form of profiling is used by law enforcement and investigatory agencies. Given pertinent data and evidence from a crime scene or threat, experts compile a profile of likely social, psychological, and physical characteristics of the criminal. However, much of the work and methodology could be transferred from one of the broad profiling regimes to the other. FAA Requirements for Profiling-Under Federal regulations, U. S. airlines must apply a relatively simple form of passenger profiling for international flights (e. g. questions regarding electronic devices), although airlines are not prohibited by FAA/DOT from conducting any form of profiling at any time. Whether or not a passenger is selected for closer scrutiny, such as a manual baggage search, depends on where his passport was issued (a factor that varies based on threat intelligence) and on responses to a series of questions aimed at identifying potential terrorist “dupes. ” Additionally, airlines must conduct random baggage inspections on a small percentage of otherwise unselected passengers for each flight.

These requirements do not apply to domestic flights or to foreign airlines, which results in an obvious gap in protection for Americans. The fact Passenger Profiling In-depth questioning of all airline passengers and detailed examin ation of each of their personal belongings and baggage is impossible in a modern transportation system. Since most of the millions of passengers that fly on U. S. airlines each year pose no security risk, targeting security resources on the small number of passengers who exhibit some elements of the threat “profile” is one way to increase security without clogging transportation flows. rofiling can be a valuable component of a transportation security system, providing an independent complement to hardware-based (and often more expensive) explosives and weapons detection technologies. Successful profiling depends on a large support system including comprehensive intelligence networks and threat analyses, information system technology to process large databases, behavioral research and analysis, and trained and motivated screening personnel.

There are two general approaches to operational profiling. One compares passenger demographic and other background data (age, sex, nationality, travel itinerary, etc. ) to historic or recent intelligencederived “threat profiles. ” The other is based on the examiner’s psychological assessment of the passenger, taking into account nervousness, hostility, or other suspicious characteristics. Most profiling systems currently use elements of both approaches to varying degrees. that foreign airlines that compete with U.

S. airlines on international routes do not have to satisfy these requirements imposes an economic penalty on domestic carriers and weakens their ability to compete successfully with foreign carriers, which, in addition, are usually statesubsidized. Domestic airlines complain, with justification, that a “level playing field” should be established to avoid this unfair disadvantage. An option would be to compensate U. S. airlines for the additional costs, either from Federal subsidies or from the Airport Trust Fund. 7 Alternatively, foreign carriers could be required to apply similar security measures on flights landing in the United States to those demanded of U. S. carriers. The United States has forced better security practices in foreign 2% l$)7(j, Congress estiblishedaprecedent for compensating U. S. air carriers forsecuritymeasures incurred in international operatiombyautioritig nearly $10 million for fiscal years 1976-78 (Public Law 94-353, sec. 24). In 1982, Congress extended the authorized limit to $15 million (Public Law 97-248, sec. 24(d). Nearly this much was actually disbursed to four U. S. carriers. 84 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security revocation of landing rights of carriers from those countries in the absence of improvements. airports by threatening coordinating security management decisions and for providing a conduit for a detailed database. 30 The FAA is considering making CPSP mandatory, but a number of carriers oppose it, citing security officer vigilance problems caused by distraction by computer keyboard and display.

Knowledgeable FAA and airline personnel claim that airline opposition stems mainly from the increased oversight capabilities that such a system would give the FAA CPSP would provide a detailed record of all airline profiling actions (and errors or failures) that could be used for civil penalty proceedings. Presently, the FAA oversees airline profiling procedures through random or scheduled field visits. The FAA counters that if a would-be malefactor sneaks through, CPSP also can provide documented proof that the airline followed FAA-required procedures, shifting some liability for a profiling failure to the FAA. 1 Additionally, there is substantial U. S. airlines operating on European routes have been permitted to substitute their own profiling programs for FAA requirements. 28 Most U. S. airlines and many foreign carriers conduct more extensive profile screening than minimum FAA requirements at foreign airports and some U. S. international gateways. Some airlines train their international employees in profiling techniques while others hire contractors to handle security for their international flights.

Proprietary profiling procedures used by these airlines are modeled generally on the Israeli El Al method of profiling which is more comprehensive (and intrusive) than FAA requirements and reportedly includes psychological, social, and political factors. Complaints by certain groups, such as Arab-Americans, claiming harassment, stem from carrier-initiated profiling, not Federal requirements. 29 During the past 5 years, the FAA has developed and tested a computer-based profiling tool aimed at potential terrorist hijackers and saboteurs.

The Comprehensive Passenger Screening Profile (CPSP) is both a checklist and decision aid for field officers and a data collection system to support profiling enhancements. It encompasses the current FAA required profiling procedures plus additional factors based on a data profile of terrorists, using historical and intelligence sources. The decision process for selecting a passenger for further examination is automated through a series of mathematically weighted yes/no questions (some of which do not require passenger interviews), that the security officer responds to via a keyboard.

CPSP is designed for easy modication if intelligence or data analysis indicates a need. In early 1990, the FAA offered CPSP as an option for airlines to meet profiling requirements. Continental Airlines and United Airlines have tested versions of CPSP at a few locations, and have been generally pleased with its performance, especially as a tool for centrally ~ho Boiv@ FAA htelligence, personal communication Oct. 1*, 1990%llid. analytic value to the large data set that would come from CPSP.

As discovered during TNA testing, little is known about the baseline average passenger and baggage; therefore, general background data, regardless of how well CPSP works operationally, would be valuable for security planning. No names of passengers are (or legally can be) included in such a data set maintained by the Federal Government. 32 However, as private entities, airlines can and do maintain such lists. Other Issues for Human Factors and Profiling Research and Development Due to security and proprietary concerns, profiling systems in place today are shrouded in secrecy.

The technical aspects of their development and quantitative measures of their performance are difficult to obtain, although the widespread use at airports across the world attest to airline confidence in profiling Given industry acceptance of profiling technology, the unregulated environment in which profiling systems were developed, and the potential enhanced capabilities and future needs, there is a ~JO~Be~~l~q Director, Comorate s~~~, COntinenM fi~es, ~rson~ commtication, od. 15, 1990 and Glen W- Director, @XtitiOI. Ud Security, United Airlines, personal communication, Oct. 6, 1990. 31c)P. cit. , footnote 27. qzfiid. Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 87 role for a concerted Federal (DOT) effort in profiling R. The primary research fields of interest are in the behavioral sciences and in large database collection and analysis. A useful but neglected approach would be to investigate the role of cultural differences in establishing profiles. Since patterns of behavior considered anomalous in one culture are normal in others, understanding cultural effects better could lead to more effective and, possibly, less discriminatory use of profiles. 3 Relevant behavioral research with applications for profiling is being conducted by a number of Federal agencies, although they generally do not coordinate these research efforts. There is a need to coordinate research and experience in developing terrorist profiles among concerned agencies. Also, some work is going on to establish databases of past incidents and known terrorists in order to help develop profiles. The FAA conducts a modest profiling research effort that produced the CPSP and is analyzing profiling field tests.

However, this effort is housed in the in aviation security. It has worked with in-house experts, with other agencies, and with behavioral scientists under contract. There should be steps taken to guarantee that this institutional knowledge is not lost, due to needed secrecy or personnel turnover. There should also be an effort to bring together knowledge on profiling from the Intelligence Community, from the Federal Bureau of Investigation, from the Immigration and Naturalization Service, and from the FAA, so that all agencies may profitably pool their knowledge.

One way of helping assure such interagency communication would be the institution of annual interagency conferences on the topic (see ch. 3). Profiling techniques and related technologies are being added to current security R plans at the FAA Technical Center. The operational aspects of using automated profiling systems, such as data entry and human/computer interaction, are similar to those of many other technologies, and could benefit from further research and development. intelligence section under the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security with no direct link to FAA’s R division.

Historically, the FAA pioneered the use of profiles in aviation in the late 1960s and early 1970s during the upsurge of hijackings to Cuba. A team of experts under the leadership of the FAA Office of Aviation Medicine was involved in the development of the initial profiles. Limited use of profiles was made during the early 1970s and again in 1980, when immigrants from the Mariel Boatlift began hijacking aircraft to Cuba. [Profiles were employed on a limited basis to help stem the wave of hijackings to Cuba by some “Marielitos”. In the 1970s, the FAA also developed a profile for domestic use to identify persons who might be carrying explosives or incendiary devices in checked baggage. This “checked bag” profile included several objective elements and was intended for use by airline personnel at ticket counters. This profile was never applied rigorously, although some of its elements were automated by at least one U. S. air carrier. Thus, the FAA has had substantial experience with developing and implementing profiles for use

A near-term research need is how best to combine profiling systems with the new security technologies now in the pipeline. In fact, arguments have been made that the TNA device can only function effectively when combined with profilebased selection of baggage to inspect, since false alarm rates are high. This is, in fact, being done at the Gatwick tests. Presently, the profiling process results in binary decisions—let the passenger pass into the normal security process (more than 95 percent of passengers) or conduct a manual search of the passenger and his baggage. One possibility would e to expand and refine the decision outcome from profiling to provide multiple screening paths for passengers depending on the level of threat and the availability of advanced detection equipment (see ch. 4). A longer term research option is to investigate new technologies to enhance profiling. Rapid access in the field to Federal, international, and, possibly, private databases (i. e. , hotel, credit card) could greatly enhance capabilities. Remote sensing of respiration and heart rates and other biological parameters, combined with large population databases, automated facial-recognition systems, and

SsCustom offici& in the Northern ~ Islands, a U. S. -flag territory, incorporate cultural characteristics in looking for anomalies for profding. “a 88 q Technology Against Terrorism: Structuring Security biometric passports, all offer new possibilities for on-the-spot psychological and physiological assessments. From past experience, cultural factors particular to the country where the event is taking place frequently influence decisionmaking by local authorities. Some observers report that U. S. fficials who were involved would, on occasion, have benefited by a more detailed knowledge of the dynamics of local social systems. For example, in some cases, although crisis management officials were supposed to be in charge of handling an incident, local cultural or political factors have resulted in the crisis being directed instead by senior office holders, who are untrained for the purpose and unable to provide the rapid decisionmaking that is often required. Some research into systematizing knowledge of relevant aspects of different social systems would be useful.

In this area, as in profiling, the construction of appropriate databases would be of use to U. S. officials who may be called on to participate in resolving a crisis. At present, there appears to be little coordination among agencies in understanding behavioral aspects of incident management. This lack provides another argument for strengthening interagency coordination in counterterrorism (see ch. 3). Civil Liberties Security systems in general, and profiling methods in particular, trade certain freedoms (e. g. privacy) for safety. profiling methods, based on specific individual characteristics, may be derived from historical experience (e. g. , the large number of Cuban refugees who hijacked aircraft to Cuba in the early 1970s or the examples of hijacking engaged in by members of various Middle Eastern terrorist groups). These characteristics sometimes include physical and cultural features, since these traits are the easiest indicators to verify. Often such subjects belong to readily distinguishable minority groups.

Therefore, people who possess the characteristics in question but who have no ill intentions (obviously, the great majority) could be subjected to scrutiny that could be considered to encroach on individual freedoms. This study describes measures to meet compelling public safety interests. It is, however, beyond the scope of this study to discuss the many legal and societal civil liberties issues involved (e. g. , how much intrusiveness on privacy is countenanced by a compelling interest of the state? ).

It is certain that the technical ability to investigate and record personal histories and characteristics and the demand for the use of such ability will greatly expand, thereby increasing the potential for crossing the fine line protecting constitutionally guaranteed individual liberties. Legislative attention will have to address the tradeoff between public safety and welfare and civil liberties. Policy Options The following policy options address human factors and aviation security. 1. Enhance FAA attention to human factors in security: 34 q

Explicitly address aviation security in agencywide human-factors planning. The FAA has taken measures to move in this direction. Bolster human-factors expertise under the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security and the Aviation Security Research and Development Service at the FAA Technical Center by adding professionals to their respective staffs, especially in light of plans to increase staff levels of both sections significantly during the next few years. One such professional has already been added. Incident Management Human factors also play a role in managing incidents abroad.

When U. S. citizens are held hostage in a foreign country, the United States often plays a role in resolving the incident. Some foreign security officials are trained in the United States under assistance programs. But the United States also may participate actively, as it did in responding to a number of airline hijackings in the 1980s. q ~~e follo~ r=omenhtiom included in earlier drafts of this repofi has already been implemented by tie FAA q Add a designee of the Assistant Administrator for Civil Aviation Security to the FAA’s Human Factors Coordinating Committee.

Chapter 5-Human Factors in Aviation Security q 89 2. Consider conducting R on combining passenger profiling techniques with other security technologies. 3. Give consideration to methods for “leveling the playing field” when imposing requirements on U. S. carriers but not on competing foreign ones. 4. Give consideration to civil liberties issues 5. stemming from Federal aviation security requirements. Coordinate behavioral research into profiling and incident management being conducted in the Federal Government. Arrange periodic interagency conferences on related topics.

INCEST Incest is sexual intercourse between family members and close relatives. [1][2] The term may apply to sexual activities between individuals of close”blood relationship”, members of the same household, step relatives related by adoption or marriage, or members of the same clan or lineage. [3] Theincest taboo is and has been one of the most common of all cultural taboos, both in current nations and many past societies. [4] Most modern societies have laws regarding incest or social restrictions on closely consanguineous marriages. 5] In countries where it is illegal, consensual adult incest is seen by some as a victimless crime. [6][7] In some societies, such as those of Ancient Egypt and others, brother–sister, father–daughter, and mother–son, cousin-cousin, aunt-nephew, uncle-niece, and other permutations of relations were practiced among royalty as a means of perpetuating the royal lineage. [8][9] In addition, theBalinese[10] and some Inuit tribes[11] have altogether different beliefs about what constitutes illegal and immoral incest. However, parent-child and sibling-sibling unions are almost universally forbidden. 12] Children born of close incestous unions have greatly increased risk of congenital disorders, death and disability at least in part due to genetic diseases caused by the inbreeding. [13] ————————————————- Terminology The English word incest is derived from the Latin incestus, which has a general meaning of “impure, unchaste”. It was introduced into Middle English, both in the generic Latin sense (preserved throughout the Middle English period[14]) and in the narrow modern sense.

The derived adjective incestuous appears in the 16th century. [15] Prior to the introduction of the Latin term, incest was known in Old English as sibbleger (from sibb ‘kinship’ + leger ‘to lie’) or m? gh? med (from m? g ‘kin, parent’ + h? med ‘sexual intercourse’) but in time, both words fell out of use. ————————————————- History Table of prohibited marriages from The Trial of Bastardie byWilliam Clerke. London, 1594 ————————————————- Prevalence and statistics

Incest between an adult and a person under the age of consent is considered a form of child sexual abuse[36][37] that has been shown to be one of the most extreme forms of childhood abuse, often resulting in serious and long-term psychological trauma, especially in the case of parental incest. [38] Prevalence is difficult to generalize, but research has estimated 10–15% of the general population as having at least one such sexual contact, with less than 2% involving intercourse or attempted intercourse. 39] Among women, research has yielded estimates as high as 20%. [38] Father-daughter incest was for many years the most commonly reported and studied form of incest. [40][41] More recently, studies have suggested that sibling incest, particularly older brothers having sexual relations with younger siblings, is the most common form of incest,[42][43][44][45][46][47][48][49][50] with some studies finding sibling incest occurring more frequently than other forms of incest. 51] Some studies suggest that adolescent perpetrators of sibling abuse choose younger victims, abuse victims over a lengthier period, use violence more frequently and severely than adult perpetrators, and that sibling abuse has a higher rate of penetrative acts than father or stepfather incest, with father and older brother incest resulting in greater reported distress than stepfather incest. [52][53][54] ————————————————- Types Between adults and children

Main article: Child sexual abuse Incest between an adult and a child is usually considered a form of child sexual abuse[55] and for many years has been the most reported form of incest. Father–daughter and stepfather–stepdaughter incest is the most commonly reported form of adult-child incest, with most of the remaining involving a mother or stepmother. [56] Father–son incest is reported less often, but it is not known how close the frequency is to heterosexual incest because it is likely more under-reported. 57][58] Prevalence of incest between parents and their children is difficult to assess due to secrecy and privacy; some estimate that 20 million Americans were, as children, subjected to incest. [56][clarification needed (needs a better source)] In a 1999 news story, BBC reported, “Close-knit family life in India masks an alarming amount of sexual abuse of children and teenage girls by family members, a new report suggests. Delhi organisation RAHI said 76% of respondents to its survey had been abused when they were children – 40% of those by a family member. [59] According to the National Center for Victims of Crime a large proportion of rape committed in the United States is perpetrated by a family member: Research indicates that 46% of children who are raped are victims of family members (Langan and Harlow, 1994). The majority of American rape victims (61%) are raped before the age of 18; furthermore, 29% of all rapes occurred when the victim was less than 11 years old. 11% of rape victims are raped by their fathers or step-fathers, and another 16% are raped by other relatives. 60] A study of victims of father–daughter incest in the 1970s showed that there were “common features” within families before the occurrence of incest: estrangement between the mother and the daughter, extreme paternal dominance, and reassignment of some of the mother’s traditional major family responsibility to the daughter. Oldest and only daughters were more likely to be the victims of incest. It was also stated that the incest experience was psychologically harmful to the woman in later life, frequently leading to feelings of low self-esteem, unhealthy sexual activity, contempt for other women, and other emotional problems. 61][clarification needed (needs a better source)] Adults who as children were incestuously victimized by adults often suffer from low self-esteem, difficulties in interpersonal relationships, and sexual dysfunction, and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, including depression, anxiety, phobic avoidance reactions, somatoform disorder, substance abuse, borderline personality disorder, and complex post-traumatic stress disorder. 38][62][63] Research by Leslie Margolin indicates that mother-son incest does not trigger some innate biological response, but that the effects are more directly related to the symbolic meanings attributed to this act by the participants. [64] The Goler clan is a specific instance in which child sexual abuse in the form of forced adult/child and sibling/sibling incest took place over at least three generations. [65] A number of Goler children were victims of sexual abuse at the hands of fathers, mothers, uncles, aunts, sisters, brothers, cousins, and each other.

During interrogation by police, several of the adults openly admitted to engaging in many forms of sexual activity, up to and including full intercourse, multiple times with the children. Sixteen adults (both men and women) were charged with hundreds of allegations of incest and sexual abuse of children as young as five. [65] In Japan there is a popular misconception that mother-son incestuous contact in common, due to the manner in which it is depicted in the press and popular media.

According to Hideo Tokuoka, “When Americans think of incest, they think of fathers and daughters; in Japan one thinks of mothers and sons” due to the extensive media coverage of mother-son incest there. [66] Some western researchers even assumed this was established fact. However, research into victimization statistics from police and health care systems discredits this, as it shows the vast majority of sexual abuse, including incest, is perpetrated by men against young girls. 67] The Mainichi Daily News column WaiWai, by Australian journalist Ryann Connell, featured often-sensationalist stories, principally translated from and based on articles appearing in Japanese tabloids. [68] On June 28, 2008, Mainichi announced punitive measures. [69][70][71] Mainichi said, “We continued to post articles that contained incorrect information and indecent sexual content. These articles, many of which were not checked and properly investigated should not have been dispatched.

We apologize deeply for causing many people trouble and for betraying the public’s trust in the Mainichi Shimbun. ” [72] Between childhood siblings Childhood sibling–sibling incest is considered to be widespread but rarely reported. [56] It is believed to be the most common form of intrafamilial abuse. [73] Sibling-sibling incest becomes child-on-child sexual abuse when it occurs without consent, without equality, or as a result of coercion. The most commonly reported form of abusive sibling incest is abuse of a younger sibling by an older sibling. 56] A 2006 study showed a large portion of adults who experienced sibling incest abuse have distorted or disturbed beliefs (such as that the act was “normal”) both about their own experience and the subject of sexual abuse in general. [74] Sibling abusive incest is most prevalent in families where one or both parents are often absent or emotionally unavailable, with the abusive siblings using incest as a way to assert their power over a weaker sibling. [75] Absence of the father in particular has been found to be a significant element of most cases of sexual abuse of female children by a brother. 76] The damaging effects on both childhood development and adult symptoms resulting from brother–sister sexual abuse are similar to the effects of father–daughter, including substance abuse, depression, suicidality, and eating disorders. [76][77] Between consenting adults Sexual activity between adult close relatives may arise from genetic sexual attraction. [78] This form of incest has not been widely reported in the past, but recent evidence has indicated that this behavior does take place, possibly more often than many people realize. 78] Internet chatrooms and topical websites exist that provide support for incestuous couples. [78] Proponents of incest between consenting adults draw clear boundaries between the behavior of consenting adults and rape, child molestation, and abusive incest. [78] According to one incest participant who was interviewed for an article in The Guardian: “You can’t help who you fall in love with, it just happens. I fell in love with my sister and I’m not ashamed … I only feel sorry for my mom and dad, I wish they could be happy for us. We love each other.

It’s nothing like some old man who tries to fuck his three-year-old, that’s evil and disgusting … Of course we’re consenting, that’s the most important thing. We’re not fucking perverts. What we have is the most beautiful thing in the world. “[78] In Slate Magazine, William Saletan drew a legal connection between gay sex and incest between consenting adults. [79] As he described in his article, in 2003, U. S. Senator Rick Santorumcommented on a pending U. S. Supreme Court case involving sodomy laws (primarily as a matter of Constitutional rights to Privacy and Equal Protection under the Law).

He stated: “If the Supreme Court says that you have the right to consensual sex within your home, then you have the right to bigamy, you have the right to polygamy, you have the right to incest, you have the right to adultery. “[79] However, David Smith of the Human Rights Campaign professed outrage that Santorum placed being gay on the same moral and legal level as someone engaging in incest. Saletan argued that, legally and morally, there is essentially no difference between the two, and went on to support incest between consenting adults being covered by a legal right to privacy. 79]UCLA law professor Eugene Volokh has made similar arguments. [80] In a more recent article, Saletan said that incest is wrong because it introduces the possibility of irreparably damaging family units by introducing “a notoriously incendiary dynamic—sexual tension—into the mix”. [81] Aunts, uncles, nieces or nephews In Florida, consensual adult sexual intercourse with someone you know to be your aunt, uncle, niece or nephew constitutes a felony of the third degree. [82] Other states also commonly prohibit marriages between such kins. [83] The legality of sex with a half-aunt or half-uncle varies state by state. 84] Between adult siblings The most public case of consensual adult sibling incest in recent years is the case of a brother-sister couple from Germany, Patrick Stubing and Susan Karolewski. Because of violent behavior on the part of the father, the brother was taken in at the age of 3 by foster parents, who adopted him later. At the age of 23 he learned about his biological parents, contacted his mother, and met her and his then 16 year old sister for the first time. The now-adult brother moved in with his birth family shortly thereafter.

After their mother died suddenly six months later, the couple became intimately close, and had their first child together in 2001. By 2004, they had four children together: Eric, Sarah, Nancy, and Sofia. The public nature of their relationship, and the repeatedprosecutions and even jail time they have served as a result, has caused some in Germany to question whether incest between consenting adults should be punished at all. An article about them in Der Spiegel states that the couple are happy together. According to court records, the first three children have mental and physical disabilities, and have been placed in foster care. 6] In April 2012, at the European Court of Human Rights, Patrick Stuebing lost his case that the conviction violated his right to a private and family life. [85][86] Cousin relationships See also: Cousin marriage and List of coupled cousins Marriages and sexual relationships between first cousins are stigmatized as incest in some western cultures, but tolerated in most of the world. Currently, 24 states US states, prohibit marriages between first cousins and another seven permit them only under special circumstances. 87] Cousin marriages are rare, accounting for less than 1% of marriages in Western Europe, North America and Oceania, while reaching 9% in South America, East Asia and South Europe and up to 25% in regions of the Middle East, North Africa and South Asia. [88] Communities such as the Dhond and the Bhittani of Pakistan clearly prefer marriages between cousins as believe they ensure purity of the descent line, provide intimate knowledge of the spouses, and ensure thatpatrimony will not pass into the hands of “outsiders”. 89] Apart from the partial prohibition in the United States, there are some cultures in Asia which stigmatize cousin marriage, in some instances even marriages between second cousins or more remotely related people. This concerns notably the culture of Korea, and some Hindu communities in India. In South Korea, before 1997, anyone with the same last name and clan were prohibited from marriage. In light of this law being held unconstitutional, South Korea now only prohibits up to third cousins (see Article 809 of the Korean Civil Code).

Hmong culture prohibits the marriage of anyone with the same last name – to do so would result in being shunned by the entire community, and they are usually stripped of their last name. In Western Australia over 500 marriages are between cousins. In a review of 48 studies on the children parented by cousins, most of the babies born to cousins were healthy contrary to the popular perception, with birth defects being 4% of births for consanguineous couples as opposed to 2% for the general population. [90] Inbreeding over many generations does increase risks however. citation needed] Incest defined through marriage Some cultures include relatives by marriage in incest prohibitions; these relationships are called affinity rather than consanguinity. For example, the question of the legality and morality of a widower who wished to marry his deceased wife’s sister was the subject of long and fierce debate in the United Kingdom in the 19th century, involving, among others, Matthew Boulton. [91][92] In medieval Europe, standing as a godparent to a child also created a bond of affinity. citation needed] But in other societies, a deceased spouse’s sibling was considered the ideal person to marry. The Hebrew Bible forbids a man from marrying his brother’s widow with the exception that, if his brother died childless, the man is instead required to marry his brother’s widow so as to “raise up seed to him” (taken from Deuteronomy 25:5–6). According to Islamic ideology, marriage among close blood relations like parents, siblings, the children of siblings, aunts and uncles is prohibited. First or second cousins may marry.

Marrying the widow of a brother, or the sister of deceased or divorced wife is allowed in Islam. ————————————————- Inbreeding Main article: Inbreeding Incest that results in offspring is a form of close inbreeding (reproduction between two individuals with a common ancestor). Inbreeding leads to a higher probability of congenital birth defectsbecause it increases that proportion of zygotes that are homozygous, in particular for deleterious recessive alleles that produce such disorders[93] (and see Inbreeding depression#Inbreeding depression and natural selection).

Because most such alleles are rare in populations, it is unlikely that two unrelated marriage partners will both be heterozygous carriers. However, because close relatives share a large fraction of their alleles, the probability that any such rare deleterious allele present in the common ancestor will be inherited from both related parents is increased dramatically with respect to non-inbred couples. Contrary to common belief, inbreeding does not in itself alter allele frequencies, but rather increases the relative proportion of homozygotes to heterozygotes.

However, because the increased proportion of deleterious homozygotes exposes the allele to natural selection, in the long run its frequency decreases more rapidly in inbred population. In the short term, incestuous reproduction is expected to produce increases in spontaneous abortions of zygotes, perinatal deaths, and postnatal offspring with birth defects. [94] There may also be other deleterious effects besides those caused by recessive diseases. Thus, similar immune systems may be more vulnerable to infectious diseases (see Major histocompatibility complex and sexual selection). 95] A 1994 study found a mean excess mortality with inbreeding among first cousins of 4. 4%. [96] Children of parent-child or sibling-sibling unions are at increased risk compared to cousin-cousin unions. Studies suggest that 20-36% of these children will die or have major disability due to the inbreeding. [13] A study of 29 offspring resulting from brother-sister or father-daughter incest found that 20 had congenital abnormalities, including four directly attributable to autosomal recessive alleles. 97] ————————————————- Animals Main article: Animal sexual behavior Many mammal species including humanity’s closest primate relatives tend to avoid close inbreeding, especially if there are alternative partners available. [98] However some chimpanzees have been recorded attempting to mate with their mothers. [99] Male rats have been recorded engaging in mating with their sisters, but they tend to prefer non-related females over their sisters. 100] Livestock breeders often practice controlled breeding to eliminate undesirable characteristics within a population, which is also coupled with culling of what is considered unfit offspring, especially when trying to establish a new and desirable trait in the stock. ————————————————- In popular culture Main article: Incest in popular culture Incest is a somewhat popular topic in English erotic fiction; there are entire collections and websites devoted solely to this genre, with an entire genre of pornographic pulp fiction known as “incest novels”. ———————————————— Laws Main article: Laws regarding incest Incest is illegal in many jurisdictions. The exact legal definition of “incest,” including the nature of the relationship between persons, and the types sexual activity, varies by country, and by even individual states or provinces within a country. These laws can also extend to marriage between subject individuals. In most places, incest is illegal, regardless of the ages of the two partners. In other places, incestuous relationships between two consenting adults (with the age varying by location) are permitted.

Such countries where it is permissible and legal, includes for example the Netherlands, France, and Spain. In Sweden the only type of incestuous relationship allowed by law is that between half-siblings and they must seek government counseling before marriage. [101] A jurisdiction’s definition of an incestuous relationship will also limit who a person is permitted to marry. Some jurisdictions forbid first-cousins to marry, while others limit the prohibition to brothers, sisters, mothers, fathers, aunts and uncles. ————————————————- [edit]Religious views edit]Jewish Main articles: Incest in the Bible and Jewish views on incest In three places in the Torah, there are lists of family members between whom it is prohibited to have sexual relations; each of these lists is progressively shorter. The biblical lists are not symmetrical – the implied rules for women and men are not the same. Relationships compare as follows:   Forbidden for men Forbidden for women Forbidden for both men and women | Holiness Code| Deuteronomic Code| | Leviticus 18| Leviticus 20| | Grandparent’s spouse (including other grandparent)| | | | Parent’s spouse| Parent| | | | Stepparent| | | | Parent-in-law| | | | Uncle/aunt| Parent’s sibling| | | | | Uncle’s/aunt’s spouse| Father’s sibling’s spouse| | | | | | Mother’s sibling’s spouse| | Parent’s child| Half-Sibling (mother’s side)| | | | | Father’s child| Sibling| | | | | | Half-sibling (father’s side)| | | | Step sibling| | Sibling-in-law (if the spouse was still alive)| | | | Nephew/niece| Sibling’s child| | | | | Nephew/niece-in-law| Spouse’s brother’s child| | | | | | Spouse’s sister’s child| | Spouse’s child| Child| | | | | Stepchild| | | | Child-in-law| | | |

Spouse’s grandchild (including grandchild)| | | | Apart from the questionable case of the daughter, the first incest list in the Holiness code roughly produces the same rules as were followed in early (pre-Islamic) Arabic culture;[102] in Islam, these pre-existing rules were made statutory. [103] In the 4th century BCE, the Soferim (scribes) declared that there were relationships within which marriage constituted incest, in addition to those mentioned by the Torah. These additional relationships were termed seconds (Hebrew: sheniyyot), and included the wives of a man’s grandfather and grandson. 104] The classical rabbis prohibited marriage between a man and any of these seconds of his, on the basis that doing so would act as a safeguard against infringing the biblical incest rules,[105] although there was inconclusive debate about exactly what the limits should be for the definition of seconds. [102] Marriages forbidden in the Torah were regarded by the rabbis of the Middle Ages as invalid – as if they had never occurred;[106] any children born to such a couple were regarded as Jewish bastards,[106] and the relatives of the spouse were not regarded as forbidden relations for a further marriage. 107] On the other hand, those relationships which were prohibited due to qualifying asseconds, and so forth, were regarded as wicked, but still valid;[106] while they might have pressured such a couple to divorce, any children of the union were still seen as legitimate. [106] Christian In the Roman Catholic Church, marriage is generally not permitted if the potential spouses are related in the collateral line up to and including the second degree, although a dispensation may be granted permitting marriages etween first cousins or even uncle/niece unions as in the marriage of Leopold I, Holy Roman Emperor to his niece, and first cousin, Margarita Teresa of Spain in 1666. [citation needed] The Church does not generally permit the marriage if a doubt exists on whether the potential spouses are related by consanguinity in any degree of the direct line or in the second degree of the collateral line. [108] In the Eastern Orthodox Church, marriages are banned between second cousins or closer and between second uncles / aunts and second nieces / nephews (between first cousins once removed) or closer.

Also, marriages that produce children that are closer genetic relatives than legal are also not permitted (unless the genetic relationship does allow marriage between those children). For example, two siblings may not marry two other siblings because legally their children will be cousins, but genetically they’ll be half-siblings. On the other hand, two siblings may marry two cousins. [citation needed] The Anglican Communion allows marriages up to and including first cousins. But in all of the three preceding Christian churches, marriages to uncles, aunts, relatives in the direct line, or their respective spouses are not allowed. citation needed] Islamic Main article: Mahram The Quran gives specific rules regarding incest, which prohibit a man from marrying or having sexual relationships with: * his father’s wife[109] (his mother,[110] or stepmother[110]), his mother-in-law, a woman from whom he has nursed, even the children of this woman[110] * either parent’s sister (aunt),[110] * his sister, his half sister, a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he, his sister-in-law (wife’s sister) while still married. Half relations are as sacred as are the full relations. 110] * his niece (child of sibling),[110] * his daughter, his stepdaughter (if the marriage to her mother had been consummated), his daughter-in-law. [110]| The main differences (apart from relationships between a man and his daughter) are: * a woman from whom he has nursed * a woman who has nursed from the same woman as he * a niece| A Hadith also prohibits marriage to a woman and her parent’s sister at the same time. [111] The same applies for a woman with the male counterparts to the aforementioned. [edit]Hindu

Hinduism speaks of incest in abhorrent terms. Hindus are fearful of the bad effects of incest and thus practice strict rules of both endogamy and exogamy within castes (Varna) but not in the same family tree (gotra) or bloodline (Pravara). Marriages within the gotra (“swagotra” marriages) are banned under the rule of exogamy in the traditional matrimonial system. [112] People within the gotra are regarded as kin and marrying such a person would be thought of as incest. i. e. Marriage with paternal cousins is strictly prohibited. 113] In fact marriage between two people whose parents are related paternally up to seven generations is expressly prohibited. Gotra is transferred down the male lineage while the Gotra of a female changes upon marriage. i. e. , upon marriage a woman belongs to her husband’s Gotra and no longer belongs to her father’s Gotra. Hence marriage with a person having same Gotra as of the original Gotras of grandparents is prohibited[citation needed]. Nevertheless, in Tamil Nadu of Southern India, Marriage with maternal cousins and marriages between Maternal Uncle and Niece were widely in practice a few decades back.

However the tradition of getting married to maternal uncle has declined considerably now and may soon become a relic of the past. In matrilinial societies of Kerala marriage between first cousins were common. It is said to have helped in preserving family wealth. Buddhist Buddhist societies take a strong ethical stand in human affairs and sexual behavior in particular. Most variations of Buddhism decide locally about the details of incest as a wrongdoing, according to local cultural standards. [114] Sexual misconduct is mentioned but the definition of what constitutes misconduct sex is an individual issue. 115] The most common formulation of Buddhist ethics are the Five Precepts and the Noble Eightfold Path: one should neither be attached to nor crave sensual pleasure. These precepts take the form of voluntary, personal undertakings, not divine mandate or instruction. The third of the Five Precepts is “To refrain from committing sexual misconduct”. ‘Sexual misconduct’ means any sexual conduct involving violence, manipulation or deceit – conduct that therefore leads to suffering and trouble. [116] Buddhist monks and nuns strictly forbid any type of sexual misconduct but incest is not specifically efined as sexual misconduct, and therefore depends on the culture of the area, not on mandate from Buddhism itself. However, there are no enforced rules for laypeople in Buddhism, only guidance. Incest Incest is sexual contact between persons who are so closely related that their marriage is illegal (e. g. , parents and children, uncles/aunts and nieces/nephews, etc. ). This usually takes the form of an older family member sexually abusing a child or adolescent. Laws vary from place to place regarding what constitutes incest, child sexual abuse, sexual assault, and rape. How common is Incest?

There are very few reliable statistics about how often incest occurs. It’s difficult to know how many people are affected by incest because many incest situations never get reported. There are many reasons that the victim might not report the abuse. * The victim has been told that what is happening is normal or happens in every family, and doesn’t realize that it is a form of abuse * The victim may not know that help is available or who they can talk to * The victim may be afraid of what will happen if they tell someone * The abuser may have threatened the victim The victim may care about the abuser and be afraid of what will happen to the abuser if they tell * The victim may be afraid of what will happen to them if they tell * The victim may also be concerned about how many people will react when they hear about the abuse * They may be afraid that no one will believe them or that the person they confide in will tell the abuser * The victim may be afraid that people will accuse them of having done something wrong What makes Incest different than child sexual abuse?

All forms of child sexual abuse can have negative long-term effects for the victim. You can read about some of those effects here. Incest is especially damaging because it disrupts the child’s primary support system, the family. * When a child is abused by someone outside the family, the child’s family is often able to offer support and a sense of safety. * When the abuser is someone in the family, the family may not be able to provide support or a sense of safety.

Since the children (especially younger children) often have limited resources outside the family, it can be very hard for them to recover from incest * Incest can damage a child’s ability to trust, since the people who were supposed to protect and care for them have abused them. * Survivors of incest sometimes have difficulty developing trusting relationships * It can also be very damaging for a child if a non-abusing parent is aware of the abuse and chooses—for whatever reason—not to take action to stop it. * There are many reasons that a non-abusing parent might not stop the abuse. The non-abusing parent may feel that they are dependent on the abuser for shelter or income. * If the non-abusing parent was the victim of incest as a child, they may think that this is normal for families. * The non-abusing parent may feel that allowing the incest to continue is the only way to keep their partner. * The non-abusing parent may feel that their child was “asking for it” by behaving in ways that the parent perceives as provocative or seductive. * Unfortunately, many non-abusing parents are aware of the incest and choose not to get their child out of the situation, or worse, to blame their child for what has happened.

This makes the long-term effects of incest worse. INCEST Liberalisation and the development of society have led to many forms of sexuality to be accepted. Something which was considered as scandalous is now more or less normal. If you search the term “incest” online, you will get the impression that this is yet another variation of normal human sexuality. Still, scientists claim that incest is sexual perversion which often signalises the family`s dysfunctional trait. Incest usually occurs in socially isolated families and points to pathologic relations within the family. What is it and what are its consequences?

Incest is defined as sexual intercourse or any form of sexual activity between closely related persons, especially within the immediate family. Incest between an adult and a child is known asinterfamilial child sexual abuse. – Even one third of child abusers are the parent or their spouse which is not the child`s birth parent. Relatives or close family friends are the abuser in 85 percent of child sexual abuse cases – doctor Gordana Buljan Flander told us. Children who suffered such sexual abuse have serious and long-term psychological damage, especially if parental incest is in question.

Adults who experienced incest in their childhood tend to suffer from low self-esteem, they have difficulties in interpersonal relationships, sexual dysfunction and are at an extremely high risk of many mental disorders, experts claim. Variations to the theme There are several types of incest: Parent-child is one of most common types of incest and statistics show it is usually father-daughter or stepfather-daughter incest. Other reports include mother-son incest or stepmother-son incest, while father-son incest is rarely reported. Sibling incest is considered to be widespread, although experts believe it is rarely reported.

Research conducted by scientist Floyd Martinson at an American university yielded interesting results. 10-15 percent of students admitted to having sexual experience with a brother or sister. Of those, 30% reported negative reactions and 30% reported positive reactions. A similar study conducted in 1993 in the USA showed that 16 percent out of 930 adults were sexually abused by their brother or sister before turning 18. This form of incest is often reported in families where the parents are often absent or are emotionally unavailable.

Apart from these forms, there is incest that occurs between cousins. Some countries believe marriage or sexual relationship of a widow/widower and a brother or sister of the deceased spouse is somewhat incestuous. – Psychiatry puts incest next to paraphilia, i. e. pathologic sexual activities which is a group name for every sexual activity that is considered unnatural in psychology and sexology. Apart from incest, paraphilia also includes paedophilia, sadism, masochism, sexual fetishism, exhibitionism, voyeurism, necrophilia, nymphomania… Some are legally regulated, others are not.

Also, there is a thin line for some: if unusual sexual activity is in question which the majority of people do not practice, a sexual disorder or behaviour which is morally condemned by the society – said doctor Domagoj Stimac, psychiatrist of Zagreb`s Policlinic for the protection of children. Why does incest happen? Science has not yet determined what makes people attracted to one person and repelled by others. – Sexual attraction is largely credited to something we all know as `brain chemistry`, i. e. the central nervous system.

Also, upbringing and earliest childhood experience affects who we will be attracted to. Still, scientists have yet to determine the exact `cause` why we are attracted to some people – doctor Stimac told us. Not fantasy, but reality There is a new case of incest in the media every now and then, reminding us of the fact that it is an actual occurrence and not something that happens somewhere else. At the beginning of last year, a German court sentenced a 38-year-old man to 2 years and 3 months in prison for forcing his wife to have sexual intercourse with their teenage son.

The first time she slept with him, he was only 15. After several times she was forced to have sexual intercourse, the wife reported the case to the police. What if love is in question? Recently, a story was published in Germany about a brother and sister, Susan (22) and Patrick (29), who are living together and have 4 children. Despite the fact Patrick has spent more than 2 years in prison and the environment cannot accept them, they are fighting to legalise their relationship and think banning incest means “denying sexual freedom”. They love each other and want to live together in a real marital union.

Although aware their love is unusual to say the least, they do not want to give it up. Another case is a sexual-love affair between 61-year Australian and his 39-year-old daughter, who made their relationship public during a TV show when their daughter was born. – Incest is actually much more common than we would think, i. e. hope. It is more common in primitive societies, but it is still present in developed ones. This can be concluded from so called xxx websites, which offer us stories, photos and films with incestuous sexual relations.

Still, incest is still a taboo, few people dare to openly speak about it – doctor Domagoj Stimac believes. INCEST Incest is one of the most interesting taboos of our time. The definition of incest is a highly controversial topic. Yet, the definition of incest is one of the most important definitions for the people involved, though the legal and psychological meanings are not much the same. Incest needs to be similarly defined for the incestuous parties, both by the law and by psychologists. The definition of incest should be determined by the cases of incest.

The people who commit incest and the types of incest should be considered when making this definition for the law. Why incest occurs has a great deal to do with the people and the types of incest. With the definition dissimilar between the law and psychologists, it is very difficult for the involved to do anything about it. The definition is both stated as wrong by law and by most religious morals. According to psychologists, incest is defined as: A) any intimate physical contact that is sexually arousing between non-married members of a family. Justice, pg 25) What this is interpreted as is that sexual intercourse does not need to occur for a situation to be considered incestuous. Stroking, fondling, or even intimately kissing can be considered incest. This is not all true for the legal definition. In Georgia, incest is defined as any sexual intercourse between known relatives, by blood or by marriage, (meaning a step-parent and step-child. ) Incest laws basically exist to prohibit marriage or inbreeding between family members, and the sentences are almost never carried out. Kosof, pg 53) So incest is stated as wrong, but not enforced. The Bible states that incest is wrong, just as the law does. A Cursed be he who has relations with his father’s wife… Cursed be he who has relations with his sister or half-sister! (Deu 27:20,22. ) Therefore, the definition can be altered to fit the needs of the definer. The different forms of incest are as follows: father-daughter, mother-son, brother-sister, and father-son. Conditions of incest don’t always involve intercourse, but still hurt the included. So, the conditions should help to define the firm meaning. But surely at fourteen, I should have been capable of escaping…” (Armstrong, pg 7)Father-daughter is the most common form of incest. Three-fourths of all reported cases usually involve dad and his oldest daughter. It is usually non-violent, and the daughters usually feel unattached to their mothers. (Kempe, pgs 48-51) Sometimes the daughter may act in a seductive manner toward her father, or the father might act as a big brother forcing his little sister to misbehave. (Armstrong, pg 235) If the daughter is seductive, then she might gain power over her father.

This is not always true for mother-son incest. Mother-son incest is usually brought on as a way to highly express love, “sex education”, or the mother is promiscuous. If the mother feels like she is expressing her love to her son, then she uses sex as a means of closeness. (Justice, pg 102) There is either no husband or a passive husband. The mother can be very seductive and encourage the son to have sex with her and limits the son’s social life. She acts on a “don’t leave me” attitude to keep her son tied down. Sometimes the son gets aroused my his mother and then becomes the aggressor. Justice, pg 103) If he isn’t attracted to mom, why not be attracted to his sister? This is the case in brother-sister, or sibling incest. It is less traumatic and the male participant may be proud about it. The brothers can become violent and force their sister to join in, although usually the sister is willing to participate. (Justice, pg 105) When both of the children are shy, the girl sees him as the only boyfriend she will ever have and becomes flirtatious. The two could also have mutual admiration, and then become sexually attracted to each other.

This leads into the most rarely reported incest of the four. Father-son incest is rarely reported because it violates two taboos, homosexuality and incest. (Justice, 196) Males want to protect their masculinity, so they will not tell anyone. They pretend to like girls, and they date them, but tend to be attracted to boys. When they move out of the house, they sometimes choose to be a male prostitute. The fathers can be alcoholic and very abusive. The fathers of any incestuous relationship can have psychopathic or symbiotic personalities.

Him who has a psychopathic personality seeks stimulation, and has a “get even” aggressiveness. No feelings of guilt and a powerful need for aggression seem to happen often in most cases. “I literally could not walk out of the house without my father wanting to know where I was going, with whom, and when I would be back. ”(Kosof, pg 17) He may be promiscuous or pansexual, (meaning that all he can think about is sex. Everything is a sex object to him. ) (Justice, pgs 83-85) The father with a symbiotic personality hungers for intimacy. The only way of expression he knows is through sex.

There are four types of symbiotic personalities. The introvert, the rationalizer, the tyrant, and the alcoholic. The introvert is very protective toward his family and fells Aunder attack. “He cannot trust people and is easily disappointed. ” The wife usually denies him sex. The rationalizer shows what “love” is, or teaches “sex education” to his daughter. The tyrant is the authoritarian; he uses threats and physical force to get what he wants. He pretends to have everything under control and hides the problem at home. His daughter “owes” him sex.

He is very jealous and paranoid. The alcoholic is a dependant, although he tries to hide it. 10-15% of incest committers are alcoholics. Mothers share most of the characteristics of the father. The mothers may be promiscuous and long to be taken care of. Incest might begin as innocent sleeping with her son and then drifts into more physical things. She is not likely to have intercourse with her son, but she implies that someday she will give herself fully to the son, which can lead to the son being a violator, which is rare because the children of incest are mostly victims. Justice, pg 145)”Sex is not sex for the incest survivor. ” (Blume, pg 207) Different children of incest act in different ways. It mainly depends on how the incest was brought about. Some may act untouched by the experience and seldom are able to defend themselves. When they reach adulthood, the might start experiencing flashbacks or amnesia. They live in denial and have an emotional shutdown. (Blume, pg 322) Sometimes they result in schizophrenia or multiple personality disorders. They also seem to have sexual shutdowns and are uncomfortable with it. But why does this occur?

Incest usually occurs when sex stops between mother and father. Mom either denies dad sex, there is a major life crisis, or opportunity knocks. The opportunity for incest occurs when mother is gone all the time and so the daughter assumes . When this happens, there is a need for treatment. This is when the definition of incest is most important. The children are very scared and need confidence. If he/she tells a psychologist or teacher, that person is required by law to tell the authorities. (Kosof, pg 53) When the authorities are contacted, the definition comes into play.

The child wants to feel safe, and if their definition of incest doesn’t live up to the law’s, then the charges could be dropped and the child gets into more problems with incest. Therefore, the background of the incest is very important to the law’s definition. By the people involved, the form, and why it occurs are critical to helping the child out when defining the term. The definition of incest by the law should be closer to the definition of psychologists in order to help out the family. “It is evident that we still know very little about how to treat the sexual offender and the abused child effectively. ” (Kempe, pg 109)