Institution

Abstract

The efficacy of the social policies of health care has become a topic of considerable debate. This essay examines the nations of France and the United States in order to develop better understanding of the similarities and differences to be found in each system. The evidence shows that both nations are attempting to address the same issue, through different methods, which in turn are based on social policy. This research will be of value to any person studying the convergence or dependency theories.

1. Introduction

As technology unfies the world, there is a continuous debate on the efficacy of individual social policies. This essay assesses and compares the Health Care policies found in the France and the United States in order to illustrate the strengths and weaknesses associated with the processesThe essay identifies convergence or path dependency theory in order to demonstrate how different nations approach the same issues. Suggestions for the future will be offered

2. Health Care Policy

2.1 Overview

Health care is an issue that every nation has to address in order to create a stable, profitable internal environment (Fischer and Collins, 2010). Health care policy can be defined as an effort to alleviate ill-health amongst the population. Although health care policy is increasing, some debate its efficacy (Fisher et al, 2010). This literature suggests that varying societal factors including perception and acceptance play a positive role in the establishment of any social or health care policy.

In order to explain the development of healthcare policy, two theories are commonly employed: convergence and path dependency (Dutton, 2007). Each of these methods speaks to the cultural need to assert a semblance of cultural impact on the development of national societal institutions such as health care policy. Cnvergence theory is commonly tied to the functionalist approach which speaks to the societal expectations of having to meet requirements in order to survive and continue to operate (Baldock et al, 2012). The essence of this view associates an increase in industrialization with the coinciding resemblance to other already industrialized nations. This suggests that these forms of nations learn from and adapt other countries policies in order to enhance their own development. Alternately, the path dependency theory denotes a ‘history matters’ approach, that states future social decision and influences are constrained and based on past practices (Baldock et al, 2012). Prior decisions have a limiting impact on future actions, this method of development often is relegated to the already present institutions that society embraces. This definition of alternative development models indicates a defined social impact to any form of policy institution, not the least of which becomes health care and general population well-being.

Both the United States and France will be assessed for their health care policy approach, seeking to Understand whether the convergence or dependency models is more influential.

2.1.1 Health Care Policy France

There has long been a public policy approach in France (Hantrais, 2010). There is a commonly held belief a nationally subsidized health care system provides a methodfd keeping the population healthy (Hantrais, 2010). With a consistent pattern of leadership in the industry, providing a consistent and strong health care France has illustrated a convergence/functionalist approach to the health care issue, often citing their system as a model for other nations (Marmot et al, 2012). In many ways this evidence speaks to the fact that a healthy population enables increased access and opportunity to social benefits by reducing health care costs and increasing spending in other areas.

France as a European nation is marked by a larger than average ratio of health spending yet remains much less than their counter parts in the West spend on health care(Marmot et al, 2012). Alongside this popular national support rests that the fact that the population is largely healthy with a average life p two years more than the rest of the word (Marmot et al, 2012). . The French is to manage cost by implementing a system of premium health care levels that are directly associated with a person’s income (Rodwin, 2003). This is a targeted policy that seeks to make insurance as affordable as possible in order to ensure that that each person has access. Further, this limits opportunities for the insurance industry to adjust rates unfairly or at a disadvantage to certain conditions or participants (Rodwin, 2003). This element of control takes away much of the ability for companies to overly profit from the insurance market.

With the French system taking on the burden of the majority of medical expenses through a system of reimbursement, the average citizen’s ability to sustain health insurance is higher (Rodwin, 2003). This protection is enhanced and extended to the people who need healthcare the most, making the issue of major illness much more manageable on the economic and social front. Due to the quality of universal healthcare in France, there are very low levels of private insurance, a further indication of the capacity for this system to not only manage cost but provide efficient and dependable care (Marmot et al, 2012). With a public system in place,the need for private insurance in significantly reduced, further ensuring less expense for the average citizen.

France possesses a well-developed system of independent and public hospitals (Rodwin, 2003). This wide ranging access to care has been credited with further enhancing the overall rate of health and effectiveness in the nation. Yet, the diverse manner of health care oversight has been cited as an issue (Marmot et al, 2012). With nearly fifty different regulatory agencies to contend with, each faculty has to negotiate an ever-changing environment, which provides a serious challenge to many institutions. A further problem is the rising influence of the pharmaceutical industry, intent on generating profit rather than being concerned with benefiting the people of France (Clarke and Bidgood, 2013). With prescription charges payable, there is anarea of concern Regarding affordability of medicine.

In summary
Universal health care in France is a nationally subsidized system that reimburses out of pocket patient expenses, based on that person’s rate of income. With a convergent form of policy that seeks to make the French system a global model, the high quality of care denotes a degree of success. However, the high rate of regulation serves to diminish many of the positive elements of the policy. The French system has offered other nations a model of healthcare promising to reduce sickness, thereby decreasing underlying societal cost. In France, there is evidence that health policy supports citizens during times of sickness or injury.

2.1.2 Health Care Policy United States

The healthcare system in the United States has long been an area of contention within the nation, commonly resulting in politically partisan fighting that diminishes the ability for any system to function (Hoffman, 2008). With the ascension of a liberal regime in the United States, the recent past has witnessed a shift away from the individual, less regulated, insurance market to a form of universal health care with far more federal regulation. The private market controls the health care insurance market, making the need for supplementary services high in order to meet every expectation (Hoffman, 2008). With the rising cost of health care and a general lack of productive policy, the shift away from the strictly private system has been a rough evolution for many in the United States. With a standing of 50th in the world foro effective health care policy as rated by the OECD there seems to be a suggestion thathe US system has begun to change to match other models, actively incorporating the convergent theory and seeking to emulate the positive health trends Found elsewhere. (Palmer, 2014),

There are multiple levels of regulatory oversight in the US system of health care (Gulliford and Morgan, 2010). This is a reflection of the national and state level authorities that commonly find themselves at odds with one another. With this abundance of regulation there is substantial paperwork (Hoffman, 2008). Evidence suggests that there is a potential for politics to play a role in the policy making efforts of healthcare. This opportunity for gain at the expense of the national system is often attributed to the wellbeing of the very people that need it most, the lower earners and single mothers. US federal oversight is conducted by the Department of Health and Human Services, which ensures that the appropriate compliance guidelines are followed by states (Gulliford et al, 2010). This section of governement oversees procedures from county/state level to the national level. In this manner the integration of State and Federal concerns can serve to aid in the implementation of health care policy throughout the nation. Yet, it also seems to be the case that there is a potential for conflict among policy makers, leading to a poorer service

Medical professionals in the US are licensed under the American Medical Association, with an aim of ensuring a high quality of care and adherence to ethical guidelines (Kominski, 2011). . It has been suggested that the US private system is commonly influenced by the presence of rich or well to do patients or donors (Palmer, 2014). This perception seems justified, as the best performing doctors are often unavailable to the average US citizen, thereby creating an unintentional division of care which is reflected in the life expectancy numbers. Yet, this is a demonstration of the convergent theory at work in the functionalist US society, as the recognition of expanded need becomes apparent; public policy was created to address the issue.

In summary
The health care policies found in the United States have been shown to be rated as moderate by the international community. Before the shift to the universal care subsidized by the nation, the gap between rich and poor in terms of healthcare had widened. Many people lacked health insurance. In order to address this, recent liberal policies found in the US were formulated but have been much debated. It can be suggested that new policies have succeeded in lowering the rate of people without healthcare insurance, thereby beginning the effort of increasing the health of the population in general. Yet, the regulatory environment found in the healthcare system in the US is often counter-productive. Further, this every area of contention has led to a gap of states that have accepted the new universal care and those that have not, decreasing the impact that they policies have on a considerable number of citizens.

2.3 Comparison

The health care policies found in France in the United States share many similarities as well as considerable differences. For example, the French tradition of seeking social remedies to health issues is sharply differed from the American approach of ‘goes it alone’ fundamentalism (Flynn, 2010). In many cases the expectation that everyone must take care of themselves has led the US health care system to sharply different levels of care in regions, largely based on the underlying income factors of the residents. Conversely, France has long sought to provide a balanced method that seeks to present a useable model to the rest of the world (Fisher et al, 2010). This is best illustrated by the life expectancy rates found in the US of 78.4 and 81.3 in France (Fisher et al, 2010). With numbers supporting the success factors in France over the prior efforts in the US, the American shift to the more universal system is considered a convergence with modern examples such as France leading the way.

A factor that both systems share is the high quality of physicians and practitioners that are involved in health care (Palmer, 2014). While the French system is primarily publicly owned and supported, the US policy dictated that many of their institutions are privately owned and operated, presenting further considerations during the transition to universal health care in this nation. This same issue presents itself as a difference between the social policies as the French doctors are paid substantially less than their American counterparts (Palmer, 2014). Yet, the French approach to this issue was to make subsequent education and associated services free to those in the medical profession, thereby reducing the need for the extravagant wages that many experience in the West (Guilliford et al, 2010). This same measure of policy support is yet absent in the American system, which makes a considerable difference as to where and how a student can learn and practice. This literature suggests that there is a need to make expenses of the medical learning process reduced in order to present a method of paying fair wage thereby allowing the entirety of the population to receive the same quality of care, regardless of financial position or social standing.

The spending levels for medical needs in the United States far outweigh those experienced in French system, demonstrating effective policy (Palmer, 2014). In part due to the rapidly rising cost of health care, the American system was forced to shift to a universal policy in order to slow the impact that this substantial cost on the overall economic outlook for the nation. With both nations providing a social policy of immediate emergency care, there was a widespread perception in the US that this would alleviate much of the lower class medical issues, yet, conversely, this phenomena of utilizing emergency care for routine care served to drastically increase the need for funding from the national level, thereby prompting new policy modelled on systems including the UK and Canada (Palmer, 2014). This is in contrast to the French model, which involves more spending per citizen, but has shown positive performance in response to spending levels.

The United States policy of health care has a compulsory insurance mandate this is designed to ensure that each citizen has insurance (Palmer, 2014). Conversely, the French system utilizes a series of reimbursements based on wages in order to supply the same medical services. In some ways, the perception of the US system has been cited as a form of increased taxation on the healthy, with these views stating that they are supporting the poor of the nation. Despite the strength of health care available in the United States, until recently there was a marked increase in the value, with many of the citizens putting off routine care in favour of waiting for emergency, which in turn inflated health costs of every level (Palmer, 2014). However, France overcame this issue by establishing oversight panels that ensure that fair access is assured and that the population has access to the same general level of care.

A common component of both nations health care policy is the multiple layers of bureaucrats and agencies that dictate policy (Flynn, 2010). Both nations cite the need to reduce the layers of oversight in order to streamline the process, which would in theory reduce administration costs and aid the both nation and industry. In a very real manner, this evidence suggests that the long term capacity to develop a working system will be found by taking the best of the existing structures and using these as a foundation for growth.

3. Conclusion

This essay has examined the social policies of France and the United States in the field of health care in order to evaluate and compare their offerings. The evidence presented illustrates a position of French strength through communal action. With proven records supporting the reduction in health issues, rise in life expectancy and overall positive implementation there is a model for progress. Alternately, the private system once favored in the United States has evolved to a more UK or Canadian style system that requires consumer participation. This recognition and development on the part of the American nation is deemed an example of the convergence/functionalist theory with the country seeking to alleviate many of the social health issues by implementing a system similar to other nations. An area of weakness demonstrated in both societies that have the potential to raise issues in the future is the presence of an over regulated system. With so many different agencies responsible for the oversight and regulation of the same industry, there is a need to coordinate and simplify the process in order to aid both the consumer and the provider. Further, this area is prone to political partisanship or bias, which in turn has a direct impact on the quality of care and policy that develops.

In the end, the social policy of health care has been deemed of critical import for both France and the United States. Yet, just as the nations are culturally unique yet share traits, so too will the health care issue, with both nations seeking to address the same issue though slightly differing means. Only time will judge which has been the better approach.

4. References

Baldock, J., 2013. Social policy. 1st ed. Cambridge, UK: Polity.

Dutton, P., 2007. Differential diagnoses. 1st ed. Ithaca: ILR Press/Cornell University Press.

Feldstein, P., 2012. Health care economics. 1st ed. New York: Wiley.

Fisher, K. and Collins, J., 2010. Homelessness, health care, and welfare provision. 1st ed. London: Routledge.

Flynn, N., 2010 Social Policy, fiscal problems & economic performance in France, United Kingdom & Germany. London, 1(1). pp. 65-100.

Gulliford, M. and Morgan, M., 2010. Expanding access to health care. 1st ed. Armonk, N.Y.: M.E. Sharpe.

Hantrais, L., 2010. French social policy in the European context. Modern & Contemporary France, 3(4), pp.381–390.

Hoffman, B., 2008. Health care reform and social movements in the United States. American journal of public health, 98.

Kominski, G., 2011. Changing the U.S. health care system. 1st ed. San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Marmot, M., Allen, J., Bell, R. and Goldblatt, P., 2012. Building of the global movement for health equity: from Santiago to Rio and beyond. The Lancet, 379(9811), pp.181–188. others, 2012. Health, United States, 2011: with special feature on socioeconomic status and health. National Center for Health Statistics (US).

Palmer, K., 2014. A Brief History: Universal Health Care Efforts in the US | Physicians for a National Health

Program. [online] Pnhp.org. Available at: [Accessed 19 Apr. 2014].

Rodwin, V., 2003. The health care system under French national health insurance: lessons for health reform in the United States. American Journal of Public Health, 93(1), pp.31–37.
Sauret, J., 1997. Information systems in healthcare Situation in France. Health Cards’ 97, 49, p.27.

According to the Microsoft office dictionary, education is the system of formal teaching and learning as conducted in schools and other institutions. According to Microsoft Student with the Encarta Premium 2009 a society is a structured community of people bound together by similar traditions, institutions or nationality.

Culture, also defined by Encarta, is the patterns of behavior and thinking that people in social groups, learn, create and share.It includes their beliefs, rules of behavior, language, rituals, art, technology, styles of dress, way of producing and cooking food, religion, and political and economic system. An institution, as stated by the Microsoft office dictionary, is an important organization, that is, a large organization that is influential in the community, e. g. a college, hospital or bank. The word social as used in this case maybe defined as, the way in which people relate to and interact with each other.Therefore, if education is to be seen as a form of social institution , it means then that education as a social institution would an important and influential organization in a community in which people are also able to interact with each other.

Then, if it is influential it then means that it would impact to ones society and culture to a greater extent. Thus I think Education, as a social institution impacts on the Caribbean society in both a positive and a negative way.This will be discuss in the proceeding paragraphs, in which the positive impacts of education as a social institution on the Caribbean culture and society will be discussed first followed by the negatives. From about the age of three, children start to attend pre-school, where they learn to count, say their national anthem and pledge. They also learn the common courtesies such as, please, thank you, excuse, I am sorry, yes sir, yes miss etc. , and what this (education) does is to instill in them from an earlier age to respect not only authority but their peers.Also from this tender age they already are interacting and relating to each other.

Thus, in term of Caribbean society it impacts on it in a positive light. As it, from an early age teaches them to relate to each other fairly. Education also impacts on the society in another positive way, where say, every year you have students graduating from pre-school to basic school, from basic school to primary school, from primary school to high school, from high school to tertiary institutions, and finally from tertiary institutions into the world of work.So what this is doing is annually ensuring that persons have a chance in the ‘long run’ to ‘climb the social ladder’. Another example where education as a social institution impacts positively on the Caribbean society is where from an early age such as in primary, secondary and tertiary institutions students are able to develop leadership qualities where they are able to become monitors, prefects, presidents, vice presidents, PRO etc. , of clubs and society. So it not only develops them academically but as an end-product the society gets someone that is ‘well rounded.

In everything, there are advantages and there are also disadvantages. One of the disadvantages of the education as a social institution is that due to the fact that the different social institutions are linked together in some way, a breakdown in one would have a toll on the other. So, where we now have a breakdown in the family which is also seen as a social institution this will be carried over into schools which are the primary and most important vehicle for education being a social institution. This breakdown is carried over into the schools by the same students who happen to be apart of that breakdown in the family.This breakdown is like a virus which will eventually be acquired by some students which will lead right back into the society and hence its breakdown. Another negative to education being a social institution is that adequate space, if any, is not made for persons who are termed to be slow learners and so they are left behind because they cannot keep up with the ‘bright minds’ hence they can’t pass the exams which determine there future, thus they cannot climb the social ladder, which leads to them coming out to nothing good, probably robbers and gunmen if they have the opportunity.In terms of culture there are also positive and negative impacts caused by education as a social institutions.

Some of the positives are that from an early age we start learning about our culture. Where from basic school we are taught our heroes and heroine. By the time we got to primary school we learned about slavery and the hardship that our ancestors had to endure. But due to their resilience came freedom. We were also told stories and folk songs of our and ancestors and other things that were apart of the culture.Also, for example in Jamaica, we have what is called Jamaica Day and this entails reenactments of the past and the preparation of cultural dishes which seems to be slipping away. So what this (education as a social institution) is basically preserving our culture by placing it in the school curriculum.

One of the negatives of education as a social institution is that once a person get ‘too educated’ they sort of abandon some of their cultural aspects such as their language ( Creole) and sort of adapt to a ‘better language’ or the language of the ‘upper class’.Also they are taught in school that if you speak Patois you talk badly, or you are stigmatized, the belong to the lower class. So persons are taught from an early age that they should not speak Creole because if you do it shows that you belong to a certain class. So these are some of the ways in which education as a social institution affects the Caribbean culture negatively. In concluding, it can be stated that education as a social institution has a more positive impact on the Caribbean society and culture rather than a more negative one. As it is clearly seen that the positives out number the negatives.

It’s the theory developed by Oscar Lewis (an anthropologist) in 1959. Lewis developed his theory from his experience of Mexico. The culture of poverty is a specific syndrome that grows up in some situations. It requires an economic setting of cash economy, a high rate of unemployment and under employment, low wages and people with low skills. In the absence of voluntary or state support and stable family, the low-income population tends to develop the culture of poverty against the dominant ideology of accumulation of the middle class.The poor realize that they have a marginal position within a highly stratified and individualistic capitalistic society, which does not offer them any prospect for upward mobility.

In order to survive the poor have to develop their own institutions and agencies because the larger society tends to ignore and bypass them. Thus the poor come to embody a common set of values, norms and pattern of behaviour, which is different from the general culture as such. In short the poor have a way of life – a specific subculture. Lewis found 70 traits that underlay this subculture.He classified these traits into four types: 1) Relationships between the subculture and the larger society: People either disengage or maintain distance from the larger society. They do not belong to labour unions or political parties, go to banks or hospitals or enjoy leisure facilities of the city. They have a high mistrust of the dominant institutions of society.

2) Nature of the slum community: The slum community is characterized by poor housing and overcrowding and a minimum of organizational structure beyond the space of family.These institutions grow up mainly to meet their minimum needs. The slum economy is inward looking. It is embedded in pawning of personal goods, informal credit and use of second hand goods. 3) Nature of the family: bilateral kinship system, unstable marriage, matrifocal family. 4) Attitudes, values and personality of the individual: The individual has ‘a strong feeling of fatalism, helplessness, dependence and inferiority’; a weak ego tuned to the gratification in the present and a strong preoccupation with masculinity.Once the subculture is formed it tends to be perpetuated.

It is transmitted from one generation to another through socialization. The theory of culture of poverty has been greatly misunderstood and misused. Lewis saw it as an extreme form of adaptation that the poor are forced to make under certain circumstances and in certain places. The poor rejects the dominant culture and its institutions because they do not serve them. Their own subculture grows out of despair and protest. The theory has been found particularly influential in the study of the underclass.In 1962 Gunnar Myrdal (1962) coined the term underclass to identify the Americans who were at the bottom of labour market-unemployed or underemployed and were thus excluded from the mainstream of social life.

In recent years the underclass has become an increasingly important island of humanity in the West living off welfare or crime. Charles Murray (1984), a New Right theorist has argued that welfare dependency has led to the breakdown of the nuclear family and formation of a counter culture that encourages dependency and criminality.

Abstract

The aim of this assignment is to carry out a study into the support that managers at College X receive to enable them to feel a sense of satisfaction and value in their contribution to the college and its performance.

The assignment reviews academic literature, on formal and informal mechanisms of support including induction, probation, performance management reviews, appraisal, and staff development together with informal methods such as peer support. The reviews, together with the use of primary research, seek to identify if the support offered to staff in college X enables them to feel as valued as the students, the education and training of whom is the core business of the institution.

Analysis of the primary research has revealed that the College Executive together with the Governing Body is committed to ensuring effective support is available to managers in an integrated and meaningful way. In so doing ensuring that the performance of the individual and the college continually develop and improve.

The main recommendations are that the performance management reviews and staff development support are firmly embedded into the college culture. This will ensure that strategic and operational level managers possess the skills required to effectively respond to the internal and, more importantly, external changes demanded of them whilst enabling them to develop a sense of achievement and job satisfaction.

1. Introduction

1.1 Rationale

Further Education Institutions (FEI) have been charged by Welsh Assembly Government (WAG) through DCELLS and Estyn to ensure and make as their main priority that effective learner support mechanisms are in place to enable the learner to learn and succeed in a nurturing, safe and supportive environment.

The research for this module will focus on the parity College X bestows on its managers, in respect of its responsibility to nurture and support them to achieve satisfaction in a similar way to its learners. In particular the use of formal and informal support mechanisms: their availability, deployment and level of effectiveness. The term ‘mechanisms’ is used to encompass the College policies and procedures that guide the manager and their teams to work effectively, the processes such as feedback on the performance of managers and the development and recognition required to create a sense of a job well done. According to Locke and Lathen (1976 cited in Tella, Ayeni & Popoola) ‘job satisfaction is a pleasurable or positive emotional state resulting from appraisal of one’s job or job experience’.

Estyn suggest that ‘Effective college leadership also requires that staff at all levels with leadership and management roles make an important contribution and understand, and are committed to their job roles’ ( Estyn 2010 p 33) in order for this to happen the use of support, training and feedback are required. Support and feedback are ‘essential to the working and survival of all regulatory mechanisms found throughout living and non-living nature, and in man-made systems such as education system and economy’ (Business Dictionary seen 23.3.2011) so should be key to the continual improvement in the institution.

1.2 Research Aims

To identify the effectiveness of the support mechanisms available in College X and how these impact on the performance of both strategic and operational level managers to positively increase their work effectiveness and sense of job satisfaction.
To analyse the informal and formal methods of feedback, recognition and reward available to all managers to meet the needs of the institution, their personal needs and that ‘support and challenge them to do their best’ (ESTYN 2010 p 35).
To examine the use of staff development as a tool for supporting continual improvements in the performance of strategic and operational managers and ultimately the performance of College X.

1.3 Research questions

What types of mechanisms are available in the college and to what extent managers are aware of and use these to give and receive support
To what extent does the senior management team create and maintain an environment that encourages individuals to feel valued by the institution
How does the use of feedback and recognition impact on the improvement of personal performance and accomplishment
How effective are staff development opportunities to support the strategic, operational and personal effectiveness of managers

1.4 Research Objectives

To identify the types of support available to all strategic and operational managers and their effectiveness in creating job satisfaction.
To analyse the effectiveness of the performance feedback managers receive from their superiors.
To assess the level of understanding managers have about their individual performance and its contribution to the college performance.
To evaluate the effectiveness in the provision of support offered through the use of learning and development opportunities.
To identify the processes by which outstanding performance is recognised.

1.5 Delimitations

This research is practice based and has used College X as the only institutional focus. Should other researchers wish to use the information or primary evidence questions, anonymity and confidentiality must be assured.

1.6 Ethical Issues/Permission

Permission was sought and granted by the Deputy Principal who has overall strategic responsibility for all staff development, performance management and quality. Full consent was given by participants in respect of collecting evidence through primary sources. Anonymity and confidentiality was assured by the author and the use of an electronic survey ensured only information on the responses was collected and not that of the respondent. No ethical policies or institutional regulations have been breached during the research of this assignment.

2. Literature Review

Whilst there are many management and psychological theories relating to job satisfaction and the concept of the positive effect of supportive relationships, the size of the body of literature available limits the author to use only some of the major theories as a starting point.

The identification of what support is and how it effects job satisfaction is key to the content of this investigation, Soonhee suggests ‘…that participative management that incorporates effective supervisory communications can enhance employees job satisfaction’ (Soonhee p1 seen 24.3.2011).

The use of management texts, theories, reports and web based materials together with College X’s policies has resulted in a greater understanding in the assumption that ‘…management support is seen as a key variable in the psychological well-being of employees.’ (Weinberg & Cooper 2007 p160) and therefore need effective mechanisms by which they can support and be supported. Support can be given formally through policies and, as suggested by Everard and Wilson, ‘Recruitment, appraisal and training are three activities which should not be seen in isolation from each other but as part of a comprehensive approach to developing a proficient, well motivated and effective staff…’ (Everard & Wilson 2004 p 93). Informal and emotional support and feedback ‘may increase individuals confidence in their ability to deal with the challenges that confront them’ (Wainwright & Calnan 2002 p 64) and ‘a well done or an objective signed off as completed can enhance the motivation to perform well in the future’ (Torrington & Hall 1995 p318).

‘More and more companies are realising that while they cannot offer a cradle to grave security blanket, they have a responsibility to create an environment that nurtures the individual’s ability to grow and thrive’ (Couillart & Kelly 1995 p 255).

Maslow’s ‘hierarchy of needs’ addresses an individual’s base needs such as safety and security. In a work environment these can be clean work areas, positive personal relationships and sufficient work time. The use of effective supervisory support can increase ‘self esteem’ needs through recognition, attention and confidence building. And the creation of ‘self actualisation’ can to some extent be achieved through the encouragement of individuals to be creative, demonstrate and utilise their innovativeness.

Oldham and Cummings in 1996 (cited in Soonhee p 1 seen 24.3.2011) ‘…found that employees produce the most creative outcomes when they work on complex, challenging jobs and are supervised in a supportive, non-controlling way’. To some extent Maslow’s classifications are similar, to the hygiene and motivation factors of Fredrick Herzberg’s two factor theory. As with Maslow, certain basic needs or Hygiene factors such as salary, status, working conditions, policies and psychological support have a direct effect on how a person functions within an institution. Herzberg’s motivational factors are therefore ‘… those aspects of the job that make people want to perform and provide people with satisfaction e.g. achievement at work, recognition and promotion opportunities’ (Kaur & Kainth p 7 seen 25.3.2011).

Recognition and reward should also be stimuli of job satisfaction, Steers and Porter in 1991 ‘…identified the distinction between Intrinsic and Extrinsic rewards – extrinsic arising from an individual’s own sense of satisfaction and from financial benefits (pay, health support) and intrinsic – between the individual and system wide rewards such as pride in the organisation’ (Steers and Porter cited in Gess 1994 p 87). However within the current financial Further Education (FE) environment, extrinsic factors may be limited by college accountability for the use of publicly funded finances. Couillart and Kelly state that ‘whether held implicitly or explicitly, consciously or subconsciously each person has adopted a unique mental system of rewards. And whether informally consistent or not, that reward system is what motivates one on a day to day basis’ (Couillart and Kelly 1995 p 241). This suggests that employees can develop extrinsic and intrinsic rewards though their own and their institutions Mission, Values and Vision.

Torrington and Hall suggest that ‘planning the training, development and resources necessary for employees to achieve their objectives is imperative. Without this support it is unlikely that even the most determined employee will achieve the performance required’ (Torrington & Hall 1995 p 317). Managers, like students need the opportunity to learn and become proficient in the acquisition of new skills. Therefore, a key function of management is to ‘… develop an ability to help individuals recognise their needs for development and facilitate the professional and personal development needed’ (Murgatroyd & Morgan 1992 p 146). The use of formal support mechanisms such as Performance Management Reviews (PMR) enable line managers to guide their subordinates to undertake development however ‘… a systematic and structured approach to identifying individual needs implies that there should be an equally structured approach to responding to those needs’ (O’Connell 2005 p 175).

Policies are another form of support available to the manager. Mullins suggests that they ‘…clarify the roles and responsibilities of managers and other members of staff and provide guidelines for managerial behaviour’ (Mullins 1985 p 301). Thus they enable a manager to be supported by institutional procedures and respond quickly without having to consult superiors as to the actions they take. This is a form of empowerment and implies a level of trust which has ‘been identified as one of the keys to successful management and indeed positive relationships at work’ (Weinberg & Cooper 2007 p 162).

The use of informal methods of support can be equally successful in developing job satisfaction, ‘supportive peer relationships at work are potentially more available to the individual and offer a number of benefits’ (Torrington & Hall 1995 p 429) including ‘… accessibility, empathy, organisational experience and proven task skills’ (Cromer 1989 cited in Torrington and Hall 1995 p 429). Peer and team meetings also allow managers ‘… to have their say in an impartially led session, thus permitting emotion to be expressed’ (Weinberg & Cooper 2007 p 170)

Summary

The use of formal and informal support enables the manager to work effectively as an individual, as part of a team and organisation. The need for College X to continue to develop responsive support mechanisms that parallel those given to learners is imperative. Senior managements need to ensure that whist the support mechanisms such as appraisal and staff development are in place, the basic physical and psychological needs of security, safety and satisfaction are addressed.

3. Research Methodology

3.1 Research design

The use of a case study based on the real working application in College X is the most effective method of undertaking this small scale research. It presents an opportunity to focus on relevant aspects of the formal and informal mechanisms used to support managers at both strategic and operational levels ‘… with a view to providing an in-depth account of events, relationships, experiences or processes’ (Denscombe 1998 p 32). The research methodology centres on the involvement of managers and the mechanisms by which they are supported and how these affect levels of effective performance and job satisfaction.

The primary sources of evidence come from a focus group, semi-structured interviews and the use of an electronic survey. The use of the qualitative responses from the focus group and semi-structured interviews contribute to the main bulk of the findings. Each group or individual was interviewed in privacy without the line-manager present to allow for a free and frank discussion, was shown a diagram illustrating the interaction of support systems (Appendix 1). All responses are anonymous and no information from the research sources was distributed or discussed with other participants.

Focus Group

The use of a focus group with six middle/operational level managers enabled the views of both academic and functional areas across the college to be identified. The managers were specifically selected, as they all have very different job roles and specifications within the college, and were therefore able to reflect on the different types of support they needed and received in respect of ‘clarity of performance goals and standards, appropriate resources, guidance and support from the individual’s manager…’(Torrington & Hall 1995 p 316). Each manager selected contributes to different facets of the strategic plan and where possible each has a different line manager so a possible correlation could be identified in respect of how management techniques and personality affect the support given – no formal measurement tools were used to identify this quantifiably. The participant’s views were given freely and no prompts were given by the interviewer, this allowed for a free discussion to take place. The results of the discussion are noted in bullet point form in the appendices.

Semi–structured interviews

Semi-structured interviews were held with the Human Resources (HR) officer; one of the two Vice Principals (VP); two of the four Faculty Directors (FD) and Clerk to the Corporation (CC) (Appendix 3). The findings from the interviews give an insight to the way support and job satisfaction is seen from the perspective of the Governing Body (GB) and how this is cascaded through the College Executive (CE) to the strategic and operational management levels. The questions used for the VP and FD were the same as those used in the focus group (Appendix 3), primarily to identify if there were any differences in the perception of support and job satisfaction across managerial levels.

The HR officer (HRO) interview (appendix 4) identified formal college policies and processes in respect of support and job satisfaction. The HRO is currently tasked with reviewing the PMR and is therefore aware of some of the issues being researched.

Electronic questionnaire

The electronic survey (Appendix 5) was sent to twenty four cross college managers at operational and strategic levels after interviews to prevent prompting. Twenty responses (83%) were returned. As the group of respondents is small, actual numbers not percentages are used. The questions have been formulated as statements to identify the level of understanding felt by the participants, in relation to whether they agreed or disagreed; there is no neutral response as all participants have involvement with the college support mechanisms. The questions used were arranged in sequence from induction through to job satisfaction because ‘… order inconsistencies can confuse respondents and bias the results’ (Mora 2010 p1).

Summary

The use and responses from the primary research methods enable the author to identify some of the positive aspects and potential issues of management support within College X and to what extent they have in providing a level of job satisfaction to its managers. This together with the literature review will enable a greater understanding of the mechanisms used to ‘respond to the new needs of employees and the environmental changes of the organisation……and that which executive leaders and managers should confront to facilitate participative management’ (Soonhee seen 24.3.2011).

4. Findings

‘When a Master governs, the people

are hardly aware that he exists.

Next, best is the leader who is loved.

Next, one who is feared.

The worst is one who is despised.

If you don’t trust the people, you make them untrustworthy.

The Master doesn’t talk, he acts.

When his work is done, the people say

“Amazing: we did it, all by ourselves!”

(Lao Tzu, translated by Mitchell 1999 p16)

The findings of the primary research and literature review seek to identify if the support mechanisms used by the college do in fact enable its managers to gain a feeling of satisfaction or achievement in their job roles without impinging on their sense of autonomy.

Formal Support

College Policies

College policies available on the intranet should give managers instant support in respect of specific issues and procedures. However, to address them they are not always aware that policies exist or how to use them. When a policy is introduced training should be given which as one interviewee responded is “meaningful and enables line managers to have a clear understanding of the support offered”, this in turn allows them to take ownership, and, for example, no middle managers interviewed were aware the college had a Stress Management Policy, a vital document which would have been useful as several of them have current issues with “stressed staff”.

Induction and Probation

College X provides all managers with a range of policies and processes that should offer effective cycles of support through the ‘… three key aspects of effective performance – planning performance; supporting performance and reviewing performance…’ (Torrington & Hall 1995 p 317). Formal approaches to the giving of support provide a balance that encourages managers to feel confident and trusted to make the right choices within the confines of college procedures and ‘…yet underline the feeling that there is not a stigma in asking for help’ (O’Connell 2005 p174). When participants were asked about the formal processes of induction and probation the responses showed that although the processes were informative and well organised, there were limitations in the effectiveness of ensuring a new post holder felt adequately prepared to undertake their job effectively.

These responses may in part be due to the lack of formal standardisation in the way line managers (LM) conduct the induction of new staff. Each adapts the process to suit their sections perceived priorities. Some have very supportive methods e.g. one manager gives new staff a memory stick with guidance to policies and procedures and a list of frequently asked questions. HR arrange a termly focus group to help new appointees, and these according to the HRO could be more timely as they often fail to be of use especially to new managers who have to react to rapid change usually brought about by external demands. The personality of the LM also affects induction and probation, several of the interviewees said their LM had been extremely supportive and that a “good working relationship had been established”, this was illustrated in the questionnaire responses to question 5.

The use of probation periods should allow an open platform for discussion however managers found difficulty discussing negative aspects partly because of fear of grievances being taken out against them. Where there is a conflict of interest, HR will try to match up managers who have the right approach for that subordinate.

Performance Management Reviews and Appraisal

PMR and appraisal should be the formal drivers of support in an institution, ‘an effective appraisal should not produce surprise: it should be an honest summative statement …’ (Tranter 2000 p 152) which ‘… offers a number of potential benefits to both the individual and the organisation’ (Mullins 1985 p 639). The PMR used in College X is currently under review as the GB feels there should more analysis of data and dovetailing of appraisal and staff development in the process, a view shared by several interviewees. The CE also recognise that the current provision/policy is not fit for purpose mainly because of the ‘one for all’ documentation which does not reflect the range of activities, duties and responsibilities staff.

The questionnaire responses for 6 and 7 identify that PMR is not universally seen as a positive and constructive experience although it gives a positive sense of well being and satisfaction.

The current PMR is an annual process; all interviewees felt this was ineffective as it was “difficult to remember and recognise performance across the year” and the idea of a phased or continual review based on both quantative and qualitative data would be more effective. There were however concerns that constant review could result in the ‘Big Brother’ effect and managers would lose their autonomy.

The HRO tasked with reviewing PMR suggested “there is a need to incorporate appraisal and general performance into the Performance Policy”.

As a result of the suspension, managers felt they have had to self evaluate relying on externally set performance indicators; these include Tribal Benchmarking, External Audits, Quality Development Plan (QDP) and the Self Assessment Review (SAR). Formal feedback is essential, as suggested by Herzberg for increased motivation and ‘… for finding ways of challenging and renewing the work of a team so that it can continuously perform at increasingly high levels and transform its work from being acceptable to outstanding’ (Murgatroyd & Morgan 1992 p 151).

Therefore to ensure managers are challenged and perform effectively the development of a new policy tool is seen by the GB as key to ensuring adequate support is identified and appropriately given. The responses for question 12 indicate that almost half the respondents do not receive the encouragement and challenge to explore learning and new skills that could positively influence their job satisfaction.

Appraisal is an effective method of communication, especially in relation to strategic objectives and innovation; it can act as a sounding board for managers to propose the changes needed for team and personal performance, Interviewees, especially at senior levels, felt this mechanism was important however the “lack of opportunities due to workloads could be frustrating because of the limited time to talk – this is not a criticism, just that everyone is busy”. All interviewees felt a sense of loss because of the suspension as they felt it was as important a means of support for their teams as it was for them. PMR enables the work and innovation of managers to be formally recognised, and the CE and GB encourage feedback of good practice to be formulated as resolutions which are rolled out across the college.

Middle managers (MM) questioned felt that although work was recognised by their LM but they felt disheartened when it was not always passed on the senior management. According to HR there should be a formal and consistent vehicle to notify staff of a job well done. The GB do send letters congratulating staff and commendations are minuted. O’Connell suggests ‘…we valued the ‘individual’ member of staff and thereby made him or her ‘feel valued’ (O’Connell 2005 p 157).

At a recent prize giving ceremony the Principal thanked staff publicly for their hard work as ‘senior management need to recognise, celebrate and reward quality improvements’ (Torrington & Hall 1995 p 303). This act made all managers feel proud to be a member of the college.

Staff Development and Training (SDT)

‘The job holder is uniquely placed to understand his or her needs, although support and training are likely to be necessary…’ (Wood, Barrington & Johnson cited in Goss 1994 p 75). All managers in the college participate in development and training much of which is self motivated. One interviewee commented that they had received more SDT in the first six months of working at College X than they did in their previous employment of twelve years. The GB fully support staff development and have taken the decision to keep the SDT budget high for 2010-11. However they want the college to develop a more synergised approach to SDT by linking the needs of the strategic plan directly to PMR. Question 9 implies that there does need to be more focus on SDT via the PMR, thus supporting the GB’s strategic direction.

Interviewees of all levels stated that no external development opportunity was rejected however there appears to be little evidence of how reports on training effectiveness and its methods of utilisation within the college are recorded and distributed, one suggestion for this was the use of SharePoint.

SDT targets are set for each unit or school in the college. Most managers felt there was little initial training in operational management skills. It has been proposed that when the new PMR policy is introduced all new management appointees should have to undertake formal training in leadership and management skills, in line with Institute of Leadership and Management (ILM) criteria.

Informal Support

The majority of interviewees agreed that “their peers gave them a sense of companionship and support that really helped them in the college”, however others felt isolated due to the nature of the post. The introduction of a mentoring programme could alleviate this by ensuring all managers have the same level of security and collegiality. FDs felt they rarely meet as a group and when they did “it tended to be due to crisis management, but it does allow us time to talk”. Informal and flexible support that was not rigidly monitored, i.e. an open door policy gave the majority of interviewees and questionnaire participants a sense of positivity and support.

All participants emphasised the need for Away Days – planned time when ‘… effective teams will stop working … and review the quality of their ways of working (Murgatroyd & Morgan 1992 p 145) enabling those involved to reflect as a group on past performance and develop new initiatives. The concept was introduced by the CE as an opportunity to involve all managers in the development of the college strategic plan. The most recent event enabled the CE and GB to give managers a strong sense of psychological support and security in troubled transformational times and established a shared mission, vision and values (Appendix 6).

Summary

Through examining key issues it is evident that a well structured management support system is necessary in order for those involved to feel confident and valued and fulfil the performance targets set internally and externally. The development of the new PMR, appraisal and induction processes together with a more integrated approach to SDT should enable managers to function to greater effect. The CE and GB are clearly aware of the need for proactive rather than reactive systems. The last staff satisfaction survey had a disappointing response of only 23.5%. Hence, the GB tasked the Principal, HR and Chair of the HR Committee to identify ways of increasing participation in future, as it is a key indicator of how the college is viewed as well a measure of job satisfaction amongst its employees.

Effective PMRs, development and training, attention to the emotional and physiological needs of being valued, trusted and empowered should therefore create ‘… confidence, loyalty and ultimately improved quality in the output of the employed’. (www.emeraldinsight.com seen 23.3.2011).

Conclusion

The aim of this assignment was to identify the effectiveness of the formal and informal support mechanisms available to all managers of college X. And if the psychological, social and development needs of employees are supported to the same extent as that of its students. From the results of the primary research it is evident that the available support does enable managers to carry out their day to day job roles. However this is not consistent across the college and the experiences of managers varies greatly, as one interviewee said “if you open me up I will have the college name through me like a stick of rock” illustrating the feeling of well being and genuine job satisfaction created by good support”. However at the opposite end of the spectrum, another commented “there is no incentive – when you do introduce something innovative someone higher usually takes the credit and gets recognition”.

Students have a plethora of support including; course tutors, learning coaches, counselling and financial support. To some extent this research does suggest that the majority of managers do have comparable support from their superiors, use of HR expertise and staff development. It is not sufficient to just have those resources, it is how their effectiveness contributes to the improvement in performance of the managers they support. Managers at all levels receive feedback on strategic or operational targets and indicators that is the priority although much of the feedback is ‘ad hoc’ and not recorded although many managers liked this informal approach. Ensuring feedback is regular and consistently applied coupled with finding the appropriate time and arena is proving to be a more difficult aspect to resolve.

The autonomy given to managers by the CE permits them to carry out their duties in a way they see fit, as one interviewee said “I’m paid to do the job, not continually ask what is to be done”, another commented “trust is absolutely a positive aspect, although there is no direction from my line manager, I feel empowered”. Trust and value in the individual’s judgement is seen by the majority of managers as implicit for the mature and positive work environment at college X.

The current support mechanisms are suggested by interviewees, as somewhat inadequate and outdated in respect of the feedback and development they need to undertake the roles and performance demanded of them in the fast changing climate of FE. Fletcher suggests that ‘… all systems have a shelf life – perhaps changes are required to the system to renew interest and energy …’ (Fletcher cited in Torrington & Hall p 327) and it is evident that the GB and CE are pro-actively committed to creating an environment where all supportive systems are integrated, have meaning in their relationships and recognise positive contributions from the individual employee and their effect on the performance of the institution as a whole.

4. Recommendations

At the end the focus group and interviews, all participants were asked what changes they would like implement so as to create a more supportive work environment which promotes job satisfaction. Many of these concur with the findings of the research undertaken.

Develop a system of mentoring and continue more effective induction and probation periods, which is timely and enables new managers to have first hand guidance and support in respect of college procedures and procedure thus enabling them to undertake their duties effectively from the very start.
Improve lines of communication in respect of the recognition and distribution of good practice by developing greater use of peer groups so that managers of all levels do not work in isolation benefit from the support of others. And increase the use of ‘away days’ to inform, give direction and feedback to strategic and operational managers thereby engaging everyone in the improvement of performance in college.
The anonymous data and findings collected for this research should, with the permission of all interview and questionnaire participants contribute to the current review of the PMR and appraisal processes.
Introduce effective methods of development and training to ensure all managers are aware of and confident in the use of procedures identified in college policies, this has been identified by the GB as a priority.
Establish through a skills audit or needs analysis a programme of management training for the next academic year in relation to actual issues such as conflict training, people management and motivational skills thereby ensuring their subordinates are effectively supported and managed.
Develop a system that enables the information and knowledge gained from development and training events is available for circulation amongst managers and appropriate measures are introduced to ensure value for money and positive outcomes in performance.
Use the findings of this report to act as a foundation for further research and literature review in preparation for dissertation.
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– HRM in Action. London. Open University Press

Denscombe, M. (1998) The Good Research Guide. Philedelphia. Open University Press

Estyn (2010) As Self Assessment Manuel for FE Colleges. Cardiff. Estyn

Everard, K.B. Wilson, G.I. (2004) Effective School Management (4th Edition) London.

Sage Publishing

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– HRM in Action. London. Open University Press

Goss, D. (1994) Principles of Human Resource Management. London. Routledge

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Kaur, G. Kainth, G,S. papers.ssrn.com/sol3/papers.cfm?abstract_id=1784465

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www.webpagesuidaho-ed/-mbolin/tella2pdf

Mora, M. 2010 Using Questionnaires. Seen 10.11.2010

Mullins, L, J. (1985) Management and Organisational Behaviour. London.

Pitman Publishing

Murgatroyd, S. Morgan, C. (1992) Total Quality Management and the School.

Buckingham. Open University Press

Neath Port Talbot College Staff Satisfaction Survey 2010

O’Connell, B. (2005) Creating an Outstanding College. Cheltenham. Nelson Thornes

Oldham, G. R. Cummings, A. (1996) cited in Soonhee, K.

http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/mark.wattier/Kim2002.pdf

Soonhee, K. http://campus.murraystate.edu/academic/faculty/mark.wattier/Kim2002.pdf

Steers, R. Porter, L. (1991) cited in Goss, D. (1994) Principles of

Human Resource Management. London. Routledge

Torrington, D. and Hall, L. (1995) Personnel Management – HRM in Action.

London. Open University Press

Tranter, S. (2000) From Teacher to Manager. Harlow. Pearson Education

Weinberg, A. Cooper, C. (2007) Surviving the Workplace. London. Thomson

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www.businessdirectory.com

According to Stanhope and Lancaster (2008) defines a community as: “A social group determined by geographic boundaries and/or common values and interests. Its members know and interact with one another. It functions within a particular social structure and exhibits and creates norms, values, and social institutions” (World Health Organization [WHO], 1974, pg. 7). Stanhope and Lancaster (2008) defines community health as having: “three common characteristics, or dimensions: status, structure, and process. Stanhope & Lancaster (2008) also go on to say: “Each dimension reflects a unique aspect of community health: (pg. 45). Community health in terms of status, or income, is the most well known and accepted approach; it involves biological, emotional, and social parts. The biological (or physical) part of community health is often measured by traditional morbidity and mortality rates, life expectancy indexes, and risk factors profile” (pg. 345). The community is the client if a nurse is helping individuals even one at a time in the community. Stanhope and Lancaster (2008) states: “The community is the client only when the nursing focus is on the collective or common good of the population instead of on individual health” (pg. 44) and “Although the nurse may work with individuals, families or other interacting groups, aggregates, or institutions, or within a population, the resulting changes are intended to affect the whole community” (Stanhope and Lancaster, 2008, pg. 344). One Healthy People 2020 health indicator that applies to this particular area, which is Oklahoma City, would be “Quality of life and well-being” (Healthy People 2020 at a glance. (2010). There is a large population of poverty level residents. Many people in the community of the south side Oklahoma City are living in homes that are not safe or are unclean.

Additional aspects will be discussed in the Window Survey of south Oklahoma City. The boundary for the north part of Oklahoma City runs almost parallel to interstate I-44 from the east to the west. It is located in the central metro area of the state of Oklahoma, with boundaries east of the cities of Mustang and Yukon, and west of the cities of Spencer and Del City. The southern boundary of Oklahoma City overlaps interstate I-240 that runs from east to west and is north of the cities of Moore and Norman. The economic boundaries for the southern part of Oklahoma City can run the ambit from residents below poverty level to those that would be considered to be upper-class in their monetary value. There are neighborhoods that many would not feel comfortable after dark because there has been a rise in crime to those areas. The zoning of these homes are single story, quarter acre lots that are approximately one thousand to fifteen hundred square feet. These impoverished areas have small, older homes that are two to three bedroom homes that are unkempt and, at times, are cockroach infested. The houses are built closely side by side and do not have much open space throughout the neighborhood.

Most of these homes show signs of decay related to the amount of repairs that need to be made to the home. Many of the residents are renting and cannot afford to make the necessary repairs or have landlords that are unwilling to comply with the safety of their occupants. The stores in the south part of Oklahoma City are ones that cater to a lower income, such as, Payday loans, Buy For Less, Ross, Payless shoes, Wal Mart, etc. Race representation in this area of south Oklahoma City is a majority of Hipic, black, white, and Native American.

When driving through this community, there are men and women who can be seen each day standing on the corners of busy streets holding various cardboard signs which ask for help and state they are out of work. The houses have children’s toys laying in the front yards and dogs can be seen in the backyards roaming or on chains. The transportation for many, are cars that range from 1980’s to the 2000’s. They appear to be in need of repair in many cases. Since many of the residents in this area have little money, there are service centers, such as Auto Zone, and Midas that aide in “do it yourself” repairs.

However, there is a divide in the income level because within five to ten miles there are neighborhoods with homes that are valued from a quarter of a million to half a million dollars. These upper class neighborhoods are surrounded by brick walls with gates that require codes for entrance. One higher class neighborhood is called Rivendale. Surrounding these areas are higher end shopping centers, such as Chasity Square. This particular shopping center has stores called Mann’s Best Friend that provides all natural dog food and baked goods for pets.

In both of the low income areas and higher income areas, there are many churches of various religions that are represented, including Catholic, Baptist, Non-denominational, Methodist, Lutheran, and Jehovah’s Witness. These are common meeting places for many in both communities. Aspects that would affect the health in this community, would be alcohol, tobacco, and drug abuse. For those in the low income areas, stress of everyday life in which they struggle would draw them to these vices, for those in the higher income areas, it would be the stress of working to maintain their lifestyle.

Other health concerns would be obesity of those who cannot afford healthy eating habits, high blood pressure affects both low and high incomes for different reasons, diabetes, and for the low income, lack of preventative care. There is Planned Parenthood for well woman checks, organizations that provide blood pressure checks and diabetes screening, and the YMCA works on a sliding scale of income for membership to the gym to help prevent obesity.

Media is covered by local news stations and the Daily Oklahoman. ? References Healthy People 2020 at a glance. (2010). PT in Motion, 2(6), 22-23. Retrieved From EBSCOhost. Stanhope, M. & Lancaster, J. (2008). Population-Centered Health Care In the Community. (7th ed. ). St. Louis, MO: Mosby Elsevier. World Health Organization: Community health nursing: report of a WHO expert committee, Geneva, 1374, World Health Organization.

Introduction

This essay compares and evaluates two principal Marxist theories of state, the instrumentalist and the structuralist theories. For the development of insight into the functioning of the capitalist mode of production normally, and the transformation of its system (contemporary capitalism) in and through its moments of economic crisis, and therefore of state, there is a requirement for a dynamic theory of the capitalist state (Jessop, 1978). A state refers to an organized community living under the government which is defined as a unified political system. The government refers to the administrative bureaucracy, the particular group of people controlling the apparatus of the state, the means through which the state power is employed at a given time. States are served by continuous sequences of different governments (Poulantzas, 1976; Miliband, 1965).

The instrumentalist position crudely implies that the state serves to enforce and guarantee the stability of the societal class structure in the capitalist system as an instrument in the hands of the ruling class. The functions ascribed to the state are therefore understood with regard to the exercise of power by personnel in strategic positions through this instrument (the state) either directly through manipulation of policies or indirectly through exerting pressure on it. On the contrary, the instrumentalist view fronts the argument that the state can be viewed as being a direct servant of the ruling or capitalist class coming under the direct control of the members of this class in key positions of power in the state, the administrative bureaucracy.

The Marxist theories of state highlight the centrality of the state to the capitalist reproduction process. In capitalist societies, it is evident that capitalist social relations are reproduced and the state is therefore implicated in this crucial process of the reproduction of capitalist relations (Jessop, 1982; Jessop, 1978). Such a function ought to be performed by some apparatus, institution or a combination and often many, if not all, of these institutions are either heavily regulated by the state or are state apparatuses themselves (Jessop, 1977; Mandel, 1971). The state therefore emerges as the node in the network of power relations characteristic of contemporary capitalist societies and hence becomes the key focus of attention for Marxists.

Capital is fragmented into numerous competing units and yet is reliant on crucial generic conditions that have to be satisfied for profits to be secured and surplus value extracted from labor (Ross and Trachte, 1990). A capitalist economy unregulated by the state, a truly free market, and characterized by the multitude of competing capital is inherently unstable and prone to crisis. It suffers contradictions and steering problems that can never be resolved unless regulation is instituted to manage the conflicting interests (Jessop, 1982). Continual accumulation eventually threatens the stability of the capitalist economic system itself and its modes of production (Wright, 1977; Poulantzas, 1976). The state must of necessity intervene within this risk-prone economy to secure ideal conditions conducive for continued capitalist production, supremely regulating the economy and safeguarding the circuit of capital (Sweezy, 1942).

With regard to the instrumentalist theory, Paul Sweezy (1942) notes that the state is, “an instrument in the hands of the ruling class for enforcing and guaranteeing the stability of the class structure itself” (p. 243). Miliband (1983) affirms this theory identifying the class that rules in a capitalist society to be one that “owns and controls the means of production and which is able, by virtue of the economic power thus conferred upon it, to use the state as its instrument for the domination of society (p.23). These concepts follow Marx’s famous Dictum in The Communist Manifesto which states that “the executive of the modern state is but a committee for managing the affairs of the whole bourgeoisie” (Miliband, 1965).

Miliband makes the conception of the state as non-existent, but as a conceptual reference point standing for “a number of particular institutions which, together, constitute its reality, and which interact as parts of what may be called the state system” (Miliband, 1983, p. 49). He emphasizes that state power lies in these institutions and through them, the people occupying leadership positions in each of them wield this power in different manifestations (Miliband, 1983, p. 54).

The basic thesis of this perspective is that in modern economies, capitalists have the ability to formulate policies that represent their interests in the long-term, as well as to ensure, through institutions of the state, that the policies are adopted, implemented and enforced (Stone, 1971). The modern state, in this regard, is dominated by the capitalist class and serves the interests of the capitalism. Under the capitalist system, specific organizations of government, culture society and the economy, often in competition, institutionalize the control of key resources which typically consist of wealth, status, force and knowledge. The instrumentalist approach thus views the organized possession, ownership and control of these key resources in any society as the basis for the exercising of power.

Institutions enable the organization of power in a society, vesting individuals occupying positions of authority within them such as the board of directors and executive officers the capacity to make decisions regarding the deployment of key resources owned or controlled by the institution. Government also bestows authority on its public officials to employ administrative coercion or force wherever needed against anyone who fails to comply with the law (Stone, 1971; Domhoff, 1990). The individuals occupying these positions of authority control different types of power which can be characterized as economic, political or ideological. Power can thus be imputed to these particular groups of individuals in light of their control of key resources, with wealth and income (capital) often the generalizable source of power in a capitalist society (Stone, 1971; Domhoff, 1990; Miliband, 1970).

Normally, the capitalist class has the ability to mobilize key resources and to deploy them more efficiently and with greater capacity than other classes in society which is the theoretical basis for Miliband’s postulate that “the ruling class which owns and controls the means of production and which is able, by virtue of the economic power thus conferred upon it, to use the state as an instrument for the domination of society” (Laclau, 1975). The capitalist class is in essence an economic network overlapping between and based upon institutional position such as management and property relations such as ownership (Mandel, 1971; Miliband, 1983). The corporate elite in modern economies, for instance, wield immense economic power through their authority over resource allocation within individual firms and the deployment of the same resources towards other diverse, wide-reaching goals such as political, educational and cultural goals (Domhoff, 1990; von Braunmuhl, 1978).

This approach is founded on the assumption that capitalist societies are prone to crises inherently, which originate in the regular economic stagnation cycles and/or continual conflicts between capital and labour precipitating class wars (Gold et al., 1975). Poulantzas argues that the capitalist mode of production in its basic structure brings forth class practices that tend to contradict and crisis tendencies that inevitably lead to the disruption of the capitalist system, a situation which necessitates the involvement of a separate structure that serves to maintain the system restoring its equilibrium (Laclau, 1975; Jessop, 1977). Due to these, structuralists argue for the necessity of the state to intervene politically to mediate class struggles and to maintain economic stability in capitalist societies (Sweezy, 1942; Gold et al., 1975; Poulantzas, 1978). Poulantzas (1976) argues that in the capitalist mode of production, the general function of the state, is ideally as “the regulating factor of its global equilibrium as a system” (p.45).

The structuralist theory disputes the idea fronted in the instrumentalist position outlined above taking the position that through the crucial influence of individuals in control the institutions of the state, have to function in ways that the general viability of capitalism is ensured into the future. It views the mode of production in a capitalist system specifically as a form of capitalism, not because members of the capitalist class hold state power in the powerful positions, but because the state, in its institutions (legal, political and economic) produces the logic of capitalist structure (Gold et al., 1975; Poulantzas, 1976).

From a structural perspective therefore, it would be argued that institutions of the state, which include the legal institutions, function to serve the long-term interests of capital and capitalism, unlike what appears to be fronted by the instrumentalist perspective, which appears to focus on the short-term interests of the leading capitalist class (Poulantzas, 1980). The structuralist fraternity thus argues that the state and its constituent institutions have some degree of independence from the elite in the capitalist or ruling class.

As summarized by Ernest Mandel (1971), the protection and reproduction of the basic fundamental relations of production, the social structure of societies in a capitalist system, form the function of the state as far as this is not attained automatically through the processes of the economy. Consequently, in their approach, structuralists front the argument that state policies and institutions are best understood through their function in maintaining the capitalist system.

The relationships that organize the production and distribution of commodities, essentially, private property and the market constitute the economic structure of a capitalist society (Stone, 1971; Ross and Trachte, 1990). The political structure consists of the institutionalized power of the state while the ideological instance refers to the collective thought systems and the subjective consciousness of individual actors existing in a given society (Poulantzas, 1976; Laclau, 1975). Structuralists advance the idea that the modes of production can be analyzed regarding the interrelations of functions between these economic, ideological, and political structures essential for the sustenance of a particular mode of production (Jessop, 1982; Offe, 1972; Przeworski and Wallerstein, 1982).

A capitalist society is considered stable when all these structures, as a cohesive system, function to maintain relations of production and hence the ability, in the capitalist system, to appropriate surplus value from workers. However, structuralists note that as a result of the capitalist system’s internal development, there are a variety of contradictions that are constantly at work within the system including economic crisis, class struggles and uneven development which generate crises of capital accumulation, as well as simultaneously undermining the domination of the ruling class (Wright,1977; Poulantzas, 1978). This is what Marx posits as “the tendency for the rate of profit to fall” (Jessop, 1978)

Competing factions are created by the practice of capital accumulation which generates fragmentation among the classes (Offe, 1972; Hall, 1980). Poulantzas maintains that uneven development results in an unstable equilibrium between economic, political and ideological instances (Poulantzas, 1978; Przeworski and Wallerstein, 1982). Structural equilibrium is therefore maintained by the state acting as a mediator preserving and enhancing capitalist interests through interventionist policies and institutional reforms. The modalities of the state constitute political functions insofar as their objective of operation is to maintain and stabilize a society in which the capitalist class dominates and exploits (Wright, 1977; Gold et al., 1975).

At the heart of the debate between the two theories is the concept of state power which unlike instrumentalist theorists, structuralists generally insist that it is not merely reducible to governmental institutions (economic, political or ideological) and state personnel. These, Poulantzas argues, have no power or cannot exercise power, but are arenas through which political power can be exercised and thereby exist by virtue of their role and function in a capitalist society (Poulantzas, 1978; 1976). He observes that the structure does not refer to the simple principle of organization that is external to the institution, the concrete social institutions making up a society, but refers to the systematic function of interrelationships among the institutions to the production of surplus-value and appropriation (Poulantzas, 1980; Sweezy, 1942).

Defining state power as the capability of a social class to attain its objectives through state apparatus, which he also defines as “the unity of effects of state power (i.e. policies) and the network of institutions and personnel through which the state function is executed,” Poulantzas (1978; Laclau, 1975) emphasizes the unity of function between the power of the state and its apparatus with the latter conceived to intrinsically include functions executed through state institutions by state personnel. The main indicators of state power objective are the influences of state policies on the accumulation of capital and the class structure (Poulantzas, 1976; Sweezy, 1942).

Under the structural view, notwithstanding their personal affiliations or beliefs and due to the logic of the capitalist system, state bureaucrats are constrained to act on behalf of capital (Stone, 1971). The state’s fiscal functioning and therefore legitimacy is dependent on and constrained by the economy and of necessity, therefore, serves the interests of the capitalist class (Stone, 1971; Sweezy, 1942). Also noteworthy, policies of state and its stability are central to the creation of a favorable business climate and the confidence that sustains investments and therefore economic growth (Stone, 1971; Gold et al., 1975). Through these assertions, Poulantzas claim that, in a capitalist system, political power has its constitution outside the state apparatus in the relations of production, the private control of assets of production, is founded. The conception of the functioning of the state going against bourgeoisie interests is thus deemed impossible, as it would imply the removal of its basis of power and control of the means of production.

In the relations of production, the ability to locate power outside of the state poses a serious challenge to the instrumentalist perspective of the state apparatus as the repository of state power (Laclau, 1975). While Miliband seeks to expose the dominant bourgeois ideology with his critique of its mythology, he however entertains the bourgeois assumptions about the state particularly that power resides in the personnel of the state rather than in the state apparatus. He focuses on class in terms of inter-subjective relationships and on the state in terms of interpersonal alliances, connections and networks of the state elite (Laclau, 1975; Ross, 1979). Poulantzas, in his support of the structuralist theory, differs with this view fronting the objective structural reality of social classes and the state, with the class being objective structural locations within the relations of production, and the state being the structure, form and function of the this capitalist institution (Poulantzas, 1978; Przeworski and Wallerstein, 1982).

Being agency- or personnel- centered and viewing the state as a custodian of capital, instrumentalism views the state as an instrument which is manipulated and steered according to the interests of the ruling elite or dominant class. This perspective asserts the pivotal superiority of agency, the individuals’ conscious actions and social interests/ forces, over structure. Personnel of the state are thus afforded dominance over the capitalist apparatus – the form and function of the state. The foundation of this perspective lay in Kenneth Finegold and Theda Skopol’s argument that “an instrument has no will of its own and thus is capable of action only as an extension of the will of some conscious actor” (Domhoff, 1990, p.42). This implies that the action of the state as an instrument under the control of the capitalist class has its origin in the purposive and conscious efforts of capitalists as a class in the structure (Domhoff, 1990; Stone, 1971).

Conclusion

Instrumentalism assumes primarily that through its ownership and control of the means of production, the capitalist class rules. Socialization, interpersonal connections and networks tie this class to the state and the state is used as an instrument to dominate the rest of society. Thus it is not guaranteed that the state is engaged in the reproduction of capitalist social and economic relations, rather, a situation can arise contingent upon the dominance of the capitalist ruling elite within capitalist society, and its personal ties to the members of the state apparatus.

In marked contrast, structuralism emphasizes the underlying importance of structures over agents and their intentions. Agents are regarded as having minimal capacity to influence the objective structures they bear. This perspective is structure- or state-centered, and views the state as acting in the interest of the ruling class collectively in the long term. The capitalist state’s form and function are essentially determined independent of the intentions, motivations and aspirations of members of the dominant class or political actors. The outcome of this is a political and economic system that retains the capitalist nature and turns state personnel into mere functionaries executing policies that are imposed upon them by the capitalist system.

However, it is evident that the state does not always dominate as it is often necessary in modern economies for businesses and elites to communicate with policymakers through avenues such as lobbying, campaign contributions and/or consulting which are considered to be transmission belts between capital and the state. With this view, the power structure emphasized by an instrumentalist approach can at least have some influence affecting whether or not the state exerts its full capacities on behalf of capital. The subsidiary mechanisms that this view emphasizes turn out to be required for the effective functioning of the major mechanisms pointed out by structuralists.

References
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Rounding gives us a value of 2, which translates to a mean response for our sample that ‘moderately agrees’ with the statement. Where one person responded with ‘unable to rate’ the sample was reduced to 19 and reasons for this response were then investigated at the interview stage. ANALYSIS. Refer to appendix A for the results of the Staff survey. It was surprising to discover from statement 1 that most lecturers said they were unaware of the aims and objectives of the institution, their focus was to teach the curriculum given to them. I got a sense that lecturers felt they were working in isolation and rarely felt part of the institution as a whole.

This idea was reinforced by comments made in follow up interviews with the lecturers that there was very little collaboration or cooperation in solving problems, or even in the planning of units goals or standards (statements 4-10). Lecturers said they experienced short-term quick fix solutions (statement 3) to problems ranging from student discipline (statement 14), curriculum changes (statement 20) and even personal issues such as visiting a doctor (statements 40,41). There were no overriding procedures (statement 44) to deal with even the simplest of issues, often the same problems would arise 3 or 4 times, and would be dealt with in a different manner each time depending on which officer was presented with the problem.

Lecturers would get to know different officers viewpoints, then carefully select which officer to approach with the problem to achieve a favourable outcome. Often the teachers felt to get advantaged they would need to form good relationships with one or two particular officers, just to get certain jobs done, this was indicated by statements 45-47, and more so in statement 50 on using behind the scenes lobbying to gain power, influence and access to resources.

Lecturers felt that officers revelled what can be crudely said as attention. Many officers had little to do during the day, and in a strange way were grateful for the task. They would try and take ownership of the problem, even if they were not competent to do so, lecturers would often say that by giving them problems to solve, they would feel important and powerful. Consequently would try to please the lecturers with favourable outcomes, but often final decisions would be out of their hands. This would frustrate lecturers more because indications from officers would be ‘don’t worry it will all work out we are doing our best for you….’

Then finish off with ‘inshallah,’ which actually means if Allah wills it. But was loosely meant as ‘I don’t really know what is going to happen, the decision is out of my hands.’ This only fuelled an impression that many pieces of information that were passed down from a central command were never fully understood by the UAE nationals that ran TSI, they just followed orders, ignored implications and invented their own reasons for the orders.

Not only did lecturers feel that they were poorly managed and had to use what they saw as unprofessional tactics to get the job done, equally officers were thought of as being managed poorly, as they were not equipped, trained or even competent enough to do their jobs. There was an over-powering feeling that it is all about who you know, not what you know, it was felt by lecturers that this ran from the lowest paid menial worker all the way up to the commander himself. Many thought that officers were appointed based on family connections, or contacts in higher positions of that society.

Many felt that this was true of the whole country, and all institutions and organisations were run a similar manner, especially with the governments focus on ’emiratisation’ which was trying to get a larger population of local Arabs into employment, so that the country was not so reliant on foreign manpower. Many of them needed to be trained by foreigners, but at the same time the local Arabs were given power in management positions over the more talented foreigners.

It was unfortunate that many of these local Arabs entering employment were ignored and business was running as usual around them as they were not trusted to effectively or competently carry out particular jobs, many of them were left sitting around all day drinking coffee. This was similar to the situation at the Technical studies Institute, where very small, simple tasks were given to these officers, they were often given management positions over the far more talented foreign staff, who in turn felt frustrated in not being given the authority to run the institute, which they felt could be run far more efficiently and effectively.

Students had some opportunities for reward (statement 15), unfortunately many of the prize giving ceremonies took place where disappointed lecturers were not invited, or informed even in those cases where lecturers were directly responsible for the subject area for which the students were being awarded. These ceremonies took place on the parade ground, in many cases before lectures, which began at 7:00 a.m. Once a year a graduation parade took place, which was universally attended and full of pomp and circumstance, with often nationally respected military dignitaries present. It is a well rehearsed extravaganza and a strong example of the behavioural and visual expression of the organisational culture.

Staff Development for lecturers was non-existent (statement 19), when I questioned a senior officer why this was so, the response I received was surprising, “we carefully select lecturers from overseas that have already received a wealth of training, if they needed any more development we wouldn’t employ them.” Many western staff felt that there lack of training, especially in dealing with students quite new to the English language and secondly themselves being new to the Islamic culture often caused them problems which could have been eradicated with some staff development. The area of using technology in the classrooms was noticeably absent, lecturers were not encouraged to use these, even though facilities were available. Lecturers felt that the local Arabs were equally in dire need of training, especially in management and organisation skills, as these seemed to be the roles that they were entering.

Curriculum was another major worry, all lecturers responded to statement 20 as strongly disagreeing to seeing the curriculum being reviewed and updated regularly. After probing questions, I found that lecturers of the same subject area were not even communicating with each other, they would teach to the best of their abilities, modifying the curriculum independently, but this would not be a shared, coordinated effort, which was ironic, as I found that the lecturers wouldn’t even dream about working in this way in their previous jobs.

Many of the lecturers felt that examination results were probably the greatest indicator of what teaching was going on in TSI, and that the officers looked at these more closely than any other indicator of a lecturer’s performance. Lecturers thought that as students were paid a high salary to be at the college, it is easy to continuously fail exams, repeat a year and in a way make a career of failing exams, student’s salaries would not really be affected. Examinations would often test memory rather than skills.

Lecturers mentioned that this was the case as many students had just begun learning the English language. Others argued that exams were purposely made easy to indicate a high pass rate, at the cost of a good standard of education. Often well motivated students were taught by a select few lecturers that held doctorate or masters degrees who were chosen by officers. Lecturers felt that some of their colleagues had become very complacent and lazy, compromising on educational standards, as examination results could be easily passed or explained away.

A key issue was that of innovation, foreign lecturers strongly disagreed with statement 25 that innovation was highly valued. Lecturers claimed that many of the local officers would listen very carefully to fully understand new ideas and then discourage the idea based on ‘it wouldn’t be practical to implement at the TSI’, or say ‘the commander will not go for that here.’ Often the officers would then present the ideas as their own, to get recognition for ‘their abilities’ and hope for further power influence and promotion.

The foreign staff could see this going on, and some lecturers would play the game, as they new that if the officer receives more power and influence, they could use his new connections, power and influence for their own purposes. The officer is obviously impressed with the lecturers’ viewpoint, as he ‘stole’ his idea, presenting it as his own, and therefore would listen more keenly for any further ideas. Often ideas would be passed on with the lecturers’ own agenda in mind.

This worked well for some lecturers as there were no promotions, incentives or chances to develop (statements 27,29,50), they would never directly have influence or power over such things as curriculum, examinations, funding of facilities, distribution of workloads, choosing who the heroes of the organisation were, hiring, firing, etc., except by manipulating influential officers.