Media

The new media technologies have been referred to as the communication revolution due to the immense changes they have brought to mass communication and social lifestyles in past decade or so. The expression ‘new media’ has been in use since the 1960s and has had to encompass an expanding and diversifying set of applied communication technologies such the it is somehow impracticable to tell just what the ‘new media’ comprise.

As far as the essential features of new media are concerned, however, the main ones seem to be: their interconnectedness; their accessibility to individual users as senders or receivers; their interactivity; their multiplicity of use and open-ended character; and their ubiquity and almost limitless extended located-ness. The new media could be said to have brought a communications revolution because it seems to have brought a revolt against mass communication and all that it used to stand for. The two main driving force of this communications revolution are satellite communication and computer technologies.

The key to the immense power of the computer as a communication device lies in the process of digitalization that allows information of all kinds in all formats to be carried with the same efficiency and also in a multiplex. New means of transmission by cable, satellite and radio have immensely increased the capacity to transmit. New means of storage and retrieval including the personal video recorder, the mobile phone, CD-ROM, compact disc, DVD, etc, have also expanded the range of possibilities, and even the remote control device has played a part.

The many possibilities of ‘media-making’ (camcorders, PCs, printers, cameras, etc, especially in digital form) have changed immensely the practice of journalism whether print or broadcast, such that the amateur or the professional are being bridged. There are also new kinds of ‘quasi-media’ such as computer games and virtual reality devices which seem to be overlapping with the mass media in their culture and in the satisfaction of use. The communications revolution has being of benefit to traditional media and the audience due mainly to the interactivity that has become possible.

What is the nature of convergence? Convergence is the coming together of different technologies, the fusion of two or more technologies to form something new and different, something that has attributes of each but is altogether unique. The new technologies and products that result from convergence are greater than the sum of the original parts, and the two most powerful and pervasive technologies – information and media are converging. The result of convergence has been called ‘techno-fusion’. What are the differences between the old and the new?

Today the differences between the old and new are difficult to distinguish partly because some media forms are now distributed across different types of transmission channels, reducing the original uniqueness of form and experience in use. Also, the increasing convergence of technology, based on digitalization, can only reinforce this tendency. Thirdly, globalization has reduced the distinctiveness of domestic content and institutions and as such content and practices are becoming global or universal though some are domesticated variants of the global.

Nevertheless, there are some clear differences in terms of physical and psychosocial characteristics, in terms of perceived trust and credibility for example. Differences are obvious concerning freedom and control where the new seems to be freer and less controlled especially by government. Secondly, differences are clear concerning what each is good for and the perceived uses by individual audience members. What is New Media? New media rely on digital technologies, allowing for previously separate media to converge.

Media convergence is defined as a phenomenon of new media and this can be explained as digital media. The idea of new media captures both the development of unique forms of digital media, and the remaking of more traditional media forms to adopt and adapt to the new media technologies. Convergence captures the development futures of old media and merges it with new media. Blogs, and Podcasts are all part of new media. MySpace and Facebook are part of social media (also known as viral marketing), which is a branch of new media.

What is new about the new media? It is pertinent at this point to understand that a medium is not just an applied technology for transmission of certain symbolic content or of linkage among people but that it also embodies a set of social relations that interact with features of the new technology. There are some evidences that mass media have changed from the past two or three decades from the days of one-way, one-directional and undifferentiated flow to an undifferentiated mass audience due to certain features of new technology.

What is new is basically due to the fact of digitalization and convergence. Digitalization is the process by which texts can be reduced to binary form and used in production, distribution and storage. Convergence is the digital linkage and symbiosis between media forms in terms of organization, distribution, reception and regulation. Mcquail (2006) has defined convergence as the process of coming together or becoming more alike of media technologies due to digitalization. The new media transcends the limit of traditional print and broadcast in the following ways: ?

It enables many-to-many conversations ?It enables the simultaneous reception, alteration and redistribution of cultural products ? It dislocates communicative action beyond national boundaries bringing in the ‘death of the distance’ across the world More succinctly, what is new about the new media may be the combination of interactivity with innovative features such as, the unlimited range of content and content format, the scope of audience reach, and the global nature of communication.

Other features include, that the new media are as much private and public communication and that their operation is not typically professional or bureaucratically organized to the same degree as the mass media. Another feature of the new media is that the boundaries between publisher, producer, distributor, consumer and reviewer of content are blurring, leading to a general meltdown of roles that may result in the emergence of separate, more specialized institutional complexes of media skills and activities.  Audience Fragmentation and Programme Content in International Broadcasting Countries and cultures have long been in communication across borders; however, in the 20th century, first radio, then television and the internet accelerated that process dramatically. National leaders are often unnerved when broadcasts or other information comes straight across borders without any chance to stop, control, or mediate it.

In the 1930s and 1940s, around World War II and the cold war, radio seemed menacingly effective in propaganda across borders. Radio competitions and clashes, even some miniature cold wars of their own, erupted among a number of countries in the Asia, Middle East, Latin America, Eastern Europe and the West and USA. By contrast, broadcast television seemed comfortingly short range as it took preeminence from the late 1940s on. Satellite television was the next big technological development in international broadcasting.

As early as the 1960s controversies started concerning the use of this type of transmission for fear of the propaganda and intrusion into national borders. The debate culminated in a schism between the developed and the developing regions of the world concerning cultural imperialism, media imperialism and the imbalance in news flow across the globe. The global spread of satellite and cable TV channels in the 1990s has seemed to increase the outflow of American and European television programming and films to other countries.

The internet has become the latest major t technology to deliver radio, television, music downloads, video downloads, films, news stories, newspapers, and new forms of content, like weblogs, across national and cultural borders. The growth of the internet in the late 1990s and 2000s has also threatened the ability of national governments to control cross-border flow of information and entertainment. The internet continues to bring a great deal of content from the USA and the West into other parts of the world.

However, it also much cheaper to produce either information or entertainment for the internet, so many governments, cultures, religion, and ideologies now produce for and distribute over the internet. Governments dominated activity in international radio, despite early developments and precedents from commercial international shortwave broadcasting prior to World War II. However, it seems private actors instead of governments now dominate global television news and entertainment.

What are the implications for the audience of the shift from government international radio broadcasting to private international satellite television? What of the further shift on the internet to supplement or replace the dominance of major international radio and international commercial TV? What of the implications of the fact that most radio audiences today tend to be quite localized, given a choice, particularly with the spread of higher fidelity stereo FM broadcasts, which deliver the best available radio sound quality but seldom cover more than a limited urban area?

What are the motivations for broadcasting internationally? Four major reasons have been adduced for both state-run and private organizations transmitting directly across borders: to enhance national or organizational prestige; to promote national or organizational interests; to attempt religious, ideological or political indoctrination; and to foster cultural ties. When governments are the primary actors as it is here, the goal is often summed up as public diplomacy. That is the deliberate effort by governments to affect foreign public opinion in a manner that is positive to their goals.

Public diplomacy may be defined as the influencing in a positive way the perceptions of individuals and organizations across the world. Another perspective on this sees motivations in terms of: being an instrument of foreign policy, as a mirror of society, as symbolic presence, as a converter and sustainer, as a coercer and intimidator, as an educator, as an entertainer, and as a seller of goods and services. Evidence of the importance that governments attach to international broadcasting can be found in their total commitment to funding and support using diverse models as may be found in BBC, VOA, Radio Moscow, RFI, etc.

Similarly, as the internet now permits a greater variety of players to broadcasting, many more have entered to pursue all or some of similar goals. Why audiences listen or view across borders? According to the categories of listening motivations listed by Boyd (1996) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), audiences tune in to hear news and information, to be entertained, to learn, to hear religious or political broadcast, to enhance their status, to protest, or to pursue a hobby.

Concerning the question of media effects on audience in international broadcasting, the available studies show that the effects of international radio broadcasting are relatively limited. Nevertheless, there are at least some historical cases in which international radio as part of public diplomacy had considerable impact. Radio Free Europe clearly had a role in fomenting the Hungarian uprising of 1956. The USA conducted ‘radio wars’ against Cuba and Nicaragua fomenting refugee flight if nothing else.

The use of radio in international broadcasting is changing decisively; however, as most of the services are moving away from transmitting on shortwave radio and moving towards re-broadcasting or re-transmitting on leased local FM facilities and also supplementing these efforts by web casting. Today, international radio broadcasters tend to put their signals out as streaming audio feeds on the internet. International radio is also sometimes sought by those who do not trust the local or national media readily available to then.

This and other factors may be affecting the international audience in the direction of fragmentation. Few international broadcasters today have anything resembling a mass audience, instead they have fragments of core listeners of viewers who are attracted by tradition or habit or interests in specific programming such as news, music, documentaries, sports and so on. Audience Fragmentation in International Broadcasting The rise of new media has brought the question of audience fragmentation and selective exposure to the front burner of concerns by the broadcast media.

This is because audience fragmentation has emerged as the inevitable consequence of audience diversity based on diversity of participation and reception that have been enhanced immensely by the convergence of media technologies. Audience fragmentation may also be due to diversity of media content and the loyalty or otherwise of the audience to these various programmes. In the same way there are many broadcast channels and stations even at the external broadcasting level such that loyalties may have become fragmented over the multitude of international stations available to the audience.

The array of broadcast options available to the audience may have thus created a remarkable degree of audience fragmentation. There has been created a new multi-platform world due to the convergence of new media. For example, the number of listeners or viewers who now use their PCs or mobile phones for monitoring the newscast instead of waiting for specific time periods of broadcast from their station of choice usually on traditional media may be increasing as more and more people adopt several new media options available to them.

Such fragments of listeners or viewers may actually replace their traditional media channels with the ones they now have in multimedia. Some viewers now choose to watch news highlights on the web at their convenience rather than the scheduled news cast they used to frequent. Traditional broadcasters cannot afford to ignore cable and satellite operators as well as the web, mobile and other alternative distribution channels who may have contributed to the fragmentation of their traditional audience.

Today media scholars and practitioners have continued to debate whether the mass audience really exists any more or whether mass audience has not become a myth. This issue or question persists because they challenge them to re-think presumed givens of the past while also providing a framework within which to examine the undeniable evidence of fragmentation of the broadcast audience today. As information and communication technologies increasingly become available and affordable to people and are more widely adopted news and current affairs media may have to strategize on ow to move away from being mass media to media targeting and specific niche programming and distribution. The external channel may have to do some audience research to find out what type of audience are disengaging form their traditional media and for what reasons. So also the world-view of such audience may have to be ascertained and embedded in programme content so as to attract the audience. Other forms of distribution that may compliment the traditional may have to be considered and appropriated. How to view and review the audience against the backdrop of fragmentation?

Any evaluation of audience should start with a disturbing doubt about the continuing validity of the term. On the threshold of an era in which pressing a button summons any song, stock number or movie episode on display anywhere in the house and ‘grazing’ and ‘on demand’ viewing or listening replace the regular traditional listening or viewing habits. The notion of audience as a community or solidarity group, or as a form of involvement in a text which one has not summoned or invented oneself, a text that can surprise, becomes problematic.

The danger to audiences posed by their disembodiment into individual dreams bubbles, or their disappearance into time-shift recorders who never find time to listen or view, is not as close as the technologies that allow it. The conditions underlying identity, sociality and community are slower to change than technologies. We know that the world cup or the English league or the Olympic Games find us attending as faithful audience members, be it within the community, the nation or even the globe.

These examples however suggest that the term ‘audiences’ is too general. Fans may be more fitting in the case of football, and ‘public’ in the case of an al-Qaida attack. But, whether listening or viewing as we used to know it is seriously threatened, the acutely destabilizing transformations of communication technologies suggest that the concept of ‘audience’ should be studied in tandem with its counterpart: the dominant media and genre it faces.

Those changing technologies also suggest that the way in which audiences are situated – is everyone listening or viewing at the same content, are they listening or viewing alone or together, are they talking or silent, is the transmission live or recorded – is inseparable from characteristics of the media they interact with, marked by their technological and institutional characteristics, and the ways in which they perceive their consumers. The larger picture suggests that the contemporary media environment holds two types of threats to audiences.

One is the abundance of what is offered, chasing viewers or listeners to an endless choice of niche channels or stations and time-shift options which may operate as a boomerang pushing us to turn on good old broadcast radio or TV and find out what is on. The second threat is the internet. It has been contended that internet user are not really ‘audiences’ as it can not be seen as an electronic mass medium but rather as an umbrella, multi-purpose technology, loaded with a broad range of disparate communication functions, such as shortcutting mediators in the management of daily life.

In reality the internet fosters audiences but goes beyond that to provide a myriad of services that may not be in the mode of mass communication especially as it does not fulfill the need of listening or viewing texts over which audiences have no direct control and /or texts that enable the suspending of unbelief. Assuming that in spite of the dramatic transformation in the media environment, audiences are still alive, so do the technologies that nurture them , what follows is a review of the changes undergone by mass media audiences and the ways in which these changes were defined.

A very useful scheme to define audiences categorizes them into three: citizens, consumers and jugglers. The audience is categorized thus based on the historical progression of broadcasting through three eras, moving from ‘scarcity’ to ‘availability’ to ‘plenty’. Each phase carries an image of the audience. Scarce broadcasting addresses audiences as a unified mass of ‘citizens’ while available broadcasting addresses them as individual ‘consumers’.

Today’s broadcasting of plenty seems to be addressing lonely ‘jugglers’ somewhat paralyzed by endless choice, offering listeners or viewers to either commute between isolated niches or listen or view broadcast as ‘impotent witnesses’. Ellis (2000) as cited by Straubhaar and Boyd (2003), implied that in the first era of scarcity of broadcast, radio and then TV address ‘citizens’ who in the period of availability turn into ‘consumers’ and in the phase of plenty become ‘jugglers’.

The ‘citizen’ is a passive audience’ often comprising a lonely crowd subjected to broadcast directed at the mass audience as such broadcast reaches all groups uniformly, but this is soon changed to the ‘consumer’ who is an active audience who has choices and multiple interpretations and plurality of ways of getting involved and varying tastes that can be addressed. The age of plenty provides endless options for activity for the ‘juggler’ audience, but raises the issue of how such activities should be defined.

Here, near endless choices weakens commitment and makes the audience to resort to juggling between competing programmes, stations or channels, or media. The monstrous dimensions of choice in this present phase may be leading in two directions. As indicated by Ellis, jugglers can choose between retreating to any obscure, esoteric, isolating niche of broadcasting or joining the citizens and /or consumers by turning to broadcast of traditional radio or TV. What is the implication of audience fragmentation for programme content?

Following the identification of today’s audience as a ‘juggler’ audience due to fragmentation the main programme content strategy should border on how to retain the core listeners and viewers and provide niche programmes at the same time. This requires audience research on a more or less continuous basis. International broadcast channels may have to imitate the local FM channels that have mastered the art of creating programme formats that make them unique even where there is a proliferation.

The BBC and VOA do a lot of audience research but hardly make them public but they have started utilizing re-distribution and re-transmission on local FM in some regions of world and also making their presence available on the internet and on satellite and cable. What are the prospects of new media? The new media have been widely hailed as a potential way of escape from the oppressive top-down politics of mass democracies in which tightly organized political parties make policy unilaterally and mobilize support behind them with minimal negotiation and grass-roots input.

They provide the means for the provision of information and ideas, almost unlimited access for all voices and much feedback and negotiation between sender and receiver in the mass media. They promise new forums for the development of interest groups and formation of opinion, and allow social dialogue without the inevitable intervention of governmental institutions or state machineries. They promise true forms of freedom of expression that may be difficult to control by government. There is the prospect of a reduced role for professional journalist to mediate between citizen and government and to mediate in the public sphere generally.

There is also the promise of absence of boundaries, greater speed of transmission and low cost of operations compared to traditional media. The biggest prospect is the ready access for all who want to speak, unmediated by the powerful interests that control the content of print and broadcast. What are the challenges? The new media are no different from the old in terms of social stratification of ownership and access. It is the better-offs that can access and upgrade the new technologies and they are always ahead of the working class or the poor.

They are differentially empowered and if anything move further ahead of majority of the people. The new media require new skills and new attitudes to learning and working. There must be the attitude of life-long learning to catch up with new skills demanded by the pace of technological changes. There is also the issue of multi-tasking and its burden or otherwise on the users of new media technologies. Finally, there is overriding challenge of control and diminishing of the freedom of new media.

References

1. Anokwa, K. Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. (2003). International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson. Axford, B. and Huggins, R. (eds). (2001). New Media and Politics. London: Sage.
2. Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold.
3. Jones, S. G. (2003). Encyclopedia of New Media. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Kamalipour, R. Y. (2007). Global Communication, 2nd ed. Belmont, CA: Thomson.
4. Koelsch, F. (1995). The Infomedia Revolution: How it is changing our world and your life.
5. Montreal: Mcgraw-Hill Ryerson. Liebes, T. (2005). Viewing and Reviewing the Audience: Fashions in Communication Research, in Curran, J. and Gurevitch, M. (2005). Mass Media and Society, 4th ed. London: Hodder Arnold.
6. Mcquail, D. (2006). Mcquail’s Mass Communication Theory. London: Sage.
7. Slevin, J. (2000). The Internet and Society. Cambridge: Polity.
8. Straubhaar, D. J. and Boyd, D. A. (2003). International Broadcasting, in Anokwa, K. , Lin, A. C. , Salwen, B. M. International Communication: Concepts and Cases. Belmont, CA: Wadsworth/ Thomson.

Popular Culture and Print Media Print media is classified as anything that is in print and is also used to inform the public. The most prominent forms of print media are newspapers, books, magazines, direct mail, and yellow pages. Outdoor advertising like billboards and transit posters are different types of print media but are very effective in conveying the advertisement across. What one sees and reads has a big influence on what he or she says, how one says it, and his or her action.

The influence print media has on people and communities have contributed to the change in popular American culture today. Print media is placed to catch everyone attention, it is everywhere one may look. People will find some form of print media strategically placed to catch onlooker’s attention. More than a communicative feature, print media has influenced American culture and consumerism over the years. Print media sets the trend on what is fashionable and what is out of fashion. More important, it serves as a significant factor to inspire and impede consumerism.

By influencing one’s consciousness and perception, print media has formed society into what has become “American Culture” of today. The influence print media has can make one desire the thing he or she use to dislike, believe in principles he or she used to have an aversion to, and continually consume items in excess. Print media has been extending the knowledge of the news or chronicles across the nation by keeping the public up- to- date on information pertaining to one’s life, services, products, and the environment.

Several trends that have propagated by the print media are food, fashion, and weigh loss programs. People are focused more on these trends today than ever before. Print media has made it more accessible for people to obtain whatever information he or she needs to keep up with these particular trends. Because of the down economy, more people are cooking at home instead of dinning out. People prefer to cook meals that are quick and easy to prepare and are healthier for the family. A few of the popular trend includes; organic or soy dairy product, ethic foods, one dish meal, vegetables, and ruits. This food trend has caused the prices of the items in the grocery stores to increase. In turn, the increase has sparked the owners of the grocery stores to enhance the distribution of sales advertisement. They are more sales advertisements printed and mailed to the consumer’s home nowadays than ever before. People can plan what they want to buy, before they leave their home, according to what is on sale. These advertisements sent through the mail also allow people to budget accordingly or even cut out sale coupons that will make their shopping more cost efficient.

Magazines and tabloids are a few sources that primarily focus on fashion. Usually, they employ a fashions staff that includes a team of fashion writers who are used often to highlight the different fashion trends. In addition to, magazines and tabloids, one can find an entire section dedicated to fashion in newspaper like the Sunday Times Style Magazine. This particular magazine is committed entirely to the most up- to- date fashion. These fashions set the trends that young and older people like and are willing to wear.

These papers often use celebrities to advertise certain product such as clothes by a specific designer or brand contributes to the fashion culture of today. Weight loss programs have also propagated he print media market. This is solely because many people are trying to be healthy and fit. They currently have whole magazines dedicated to weight loss. These are Body and Soul Magazine and Shape Magazine and they provide people with information about diets, fitness, healthy eating, and recipes from home. They also provide expert advice on how to live healthier from doctors or fitness gurus.

The advertisements in these magazines show people who are skinny and healthy and this makes people reading these magazines want to be like them. Today print media has become one of the most successful industries. The different types of print media give the people an excessive amount of options to choose from. Whether it is from a newspaper or magazine, every source has a particular benefit. Print media is driven by the need for advertisers to reach the audience they are targeting and in places were people are looking for information.

The constitution gives us the freedom of speech in our country. However, we must keep in mind that exercising these liberties includes duties and responsibilities. The media is an integral part of everyday life and has become a leading player and influence of our society and it have an outcome on our nations’ future, viewpoint, and the globe’s view of us. The media are responsible for mainstream America ideals and the familiarity of the image based on the impact from the media. The media are fundamental of social influence and political decisions.

The media have turned the average person on reality television into an international star. Sensationalism is in newspapers, on televisions, in magazines, or just a click away on the internet. The media landscape is on the horizon. Commercial and advertisement entice Americans to create financial debt and can influence a poor diet all due to the media. Ratings manipulate the information to such a high level it converts into entertainment. Media is largely funded by advertising. Media have the responsibility to give readers, viewers and listeners accuracy and accountable.

Media should uphold fairness and meticulousness. Media has built into for the most part crucial aspect of our era, influencing every citizen. I will discuss the unease relating to media responsibility today, but I will also challenge to depict the importance of the responsibility. A utilitarian purpose can be proficient only through an endeavor to added diverse ethical standards established by the social order improve our society. The media are what we read, listen to and watch; the foremost impact is psychological, intellectual and share commercial implications. Many media outlets cater to the business sector, s they must gain a profit. The Media and entertainment industry forms public opinion and the terms of public debate. Comparable, through its partnerships with advertisers, the media also, exerts a powerful influence on the decisions we make, the products we buy, and the variety of analysis, we ask when we make our daily preference. In financial partnership with advertisers, the media also put forth buying influences which drives our nation economically, public opinion which affect the decisions we make, and the products we purchase alters the trends. The media are what we read, listen to and atch; the psychological impact funneled by the media which forms public debate. Unrelenting media coverage fed the fascination with both court cases. Media has a moral ethical responsibility to tell the truth, unbiased and remain balanced. Each of us has a responsibility to challenge and demand what we expect from the media on the subject of an unbiased account of issues and politics. The media have become a control center in the political arena. The clout is the power to the political decision of the people. The political system, have an immense influence on politics and on forming social transformation.

Television along with social media can to the highest degree of influence the election of a national runner on the basis of image. Today, individuals who despise the media must use the media to assist them to forerunners ahead in the polls.The Internet assists social equality by giving a voice to every citizen in every home and every workplace. Social media certainly plays a pivotal role in bringing media scraps and video goes viral world-wide creating national and international interest. Many celebrities ersonal lives are in the mainstay of modern times and the media. Misbehavior is constantly displayed in public view and it’s become the signs of the times and is not going away. Celebrities invite negative attention to boost their career. Though many papers syndications have been reduced those remaining in conjunction with and magazines compete on news about celebrities and scandals. All that is perilous, immoral or incorrect takes precedence has a prominent place, especially in those papers that are mainly sold from newsstands. Media pays thousands of dollars to gather the dirt for up-to-the-minute candal on the front page every day in order to sell papers. The media’s momentous spotlight is high-profile crimes coverage. Crime and victimization should include more privacy. Crime reporting is at an all time high being biased. The media have a tendency to take a stance of guilt before a verdict is rendered. The D. A. and law enforcement seek publicity. The judge can be influenced by the trial, For instance, the Casey Anthony murder case and the murder trial of O. J. Simpson created a new market for courtroom drama influence, both positive and negative. . Nowadays there can be repercussions for moral breach.

Today 75% of endorsement contracts contain a moral clause that allows companies to exit without penalty in the event of an incident by the celebrity that substantially damages the company’s reputation. Often the “incident” is limited to criminal activity and previously it was not uncommon for the legal language within the clause to even mandate that an actual conviction of a crime be present before the deal is terminated. The truth is out there to access global news information which has served as an advocate for society and its right to be acquainted with an essential role of involving us in concerns such as ivil rights issues, famines around the world and health epidemics. They give us an intimate sense of national issues and global concerns to bring us awareness. Many Americans feel that we ought to reap the benefits of media, globally, due to new media platforms, global media can cross cultural boundaries. Foreign relations as cultural barriers are jaded by the media While media are in itself more helpful than harmful, are setting a trend in their media and computers have changed the way the media messages is gathered, processed is produced affecting the printing and broadcasting processes.

Media currently continues to have an enormous impact on the way people conduct their lives on a global scale desiring to become more like western societies. Mass media are striving to arrange operations around the globe; some nations want to protect their own domestic media and culture. The massive expansion of TV culture expresses Hollywood subculture. TV viewers in Nigeria, India, China or Russia now dream of the American way of life, as seen on TV serials . In addition to financial interests, the global media and the internet have an impact on how the globe views Americans via media content, politics and culture, can many countries assume our country to be greedy. Mass media are influence by the culture and interests of our nation and viewed as an extension of the American way. Although the media keep us updated on our nations enemies and spectators an objective view f what is occurring without violating any human rights or offending viewers gaining what is happening in their parts of the Middle East Arab media channels like Al-Jazeera and other news channels are airing more graphic media in nature violating human rights and this has many negative effects on their viewers. Since there is no certain restriction on broadcasting violence, from airing the casualties in the combat zone Terrorists gain publicity due to the exposure that their networks give them, to promote their message of violence to create fear. News channels are sensationalizing the hatred toward the

United States and other nations. Like our nations guidelines, media should ban the broadcasting due to empowering the terrorists by airing terrorists acts, and by making the atrocious details accessible to the public, the media are path that construct antagonistic society to set in motion terrorism. The press plays a pivotal role in modern society and social responsibility is at an all time high and imperative on mass media. Social responsibility is the concept roots in liberta¬rian theory with more prominence on the press’s responsibility to society than on the press’s freedom.

Tentatively coming the a superior point than libertarianism, a category of moral and intellectual evolutionary trip from discredited old, libertarianism to a new or perfected libertarianism where things are forced to work as they undoubtedly should have worked under libertarian theory.  The media have a responsibility to society to present of the media mandates moral responsibility. Utilitarian ethics is enormously influential in North American society, ‘probably the basic moral philosophy of most nonreligious humanists today’’ (Harris, 2002, p. 119). Utilitarianism is prevalent in the media professions, and in quasi-form is the mind-set of most students preparing for careers, such as journalism, that serve democratic societies.  The media must show prudence, discernment and circumspection. Whilst making journalistic decisions are that moral and ethical the press has a moral commitment to the meet the requirements distributing ideas and information supported of society that will bring into being he betterment of moral. The Society of Professional Journalists Code of Ethics has high integrity to strive to higher ethics in regards to the media that journalists adhere to a high Code of Ethics to seek truth and report it which often involves easier said than done decisions and share responsibility for the penalty of unethical reporting and the impact on society. Journalists have an absolute duty to tell the truth, regardless of the consequences. Truth is key in ethics; journalists must take into account the probable penalty of their reporting.

Plato call attention to the principle; his parable was meant to show that we live in a world of false impression and that we must get rid of our false impression to find the truth. Aristotle Nichomachean Ethics held that reason used to generate happiness, which gives us moral and intellectual virtues. The moral virtues include moderation, courage and nobility; the logical various wisdom. Trust is key in ethics and social responsibility. Media is of imperative importance to develop trust its supporters identified as being ethical, deliver excellence and responsible.

The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) and China Central Television (CATV) are the two popular media owning millions of audiences in the world. For years, they have been making efforts to adopt new technology, new techniques and new means for developing high standard programmer. However, mainly due to different social structures and different cultural background between China and the I-J, the BBC and CATV also have several differences in governors, funding resources and channel designs. In this essay, the background of the BBC and CATV will be briefly introduced, allowed by an analysis of their similarities and differences.

The BBC is the main public service broadcaster in the ASK. It was formed in October 1922 by a group of leading wireless manufacturers (History of the BBC, 2005). Currently, the Corporation comprises 9 1-J-wide Television Channels (See Appendix 1) and 10 1-J-wide Radio Stations. With its vision as to be the most creative, trusted organization in the world, the BBC provides a wide range of distinctive programmer and services for its viewers and listeners (Purpose and Values, 2005). CATV which was established in 1958, is the national TV network of the People’s

Republic of China. Presently, CATV has 16 channels broadcasting various programmer (See Appendix 2). The coverage of CATV-I reaches over 94. 4% of the total population of China, with the number of viewers exceeding 1. 15 billion (Profile CATV, 2005). The corporation has been serving as a window for Chinese people to understand the world better and for the world to get a better understanding of China. As the two authoritative media in the world, the BBC and CATV have made enormous contribution to people’s life and cultures. There are some similarities in them.

Firstly, tooth of them provide a comprehensive rage of programmer analogously or digitally in order to satisfy the needs of their users. Besides, with the development of modern technology, they are trying to use internet to propagandist their programmer. Both of them have their own websites containing various contents such as programmer schedules, news, and contact methods. In addition, they also respect their users. Both of them are glad to listen to public comments and regularly consult users in order to improve their work. However, the two media also have some differences.

First of all, CATV is run by the central government of the People’s Republic of China. On the other hand, the Bib’s activities are currently governed by a Royal Charter – a document that shapes the BBC, defining its objectives and functions. It is supported by the Agreement between the BBC and the Government, which sets out how the BBC will meet its general obligations, the services it will provide, and the standards it will meet (Your BBC Your Say, 2005). Whereas CATV serves its political role first, the BBC tends to represent the public interest and be free of political bias.

Furthermore, CATV is mainly funded by advertisements, whereas the BBC is funded by public subscription in the form of a License fee. CATV viewers do not need to pay for its programmer, but they need to watch a lot of advertisements during programmer. Advertisements during golden time such as the time after the CATV News help CATV generate huge amounts of revenues. According to the latest data, CATV gained 8. 5 billion ARM from advertisements in 2005 (Profile CATV, 2005). The BBC, on the other hand, obtains its revenues mainly from license payers.

It received EH,940 million in science fees in the latest audited financial year 2004/2005 (Annual report 2004/05, 2005). The license fee guarantees that a wide range of high quality programs can be made available unrestricted to everyone and helps support production skills, training, and local or minority programmer (Plans, Policies and Reports, 2005). Besides, the absence of commercial pressures allows programmer planners to be in direct contact with the needs and expectations of the general public (Christopher 1999, p. 106).

A majority of the BBC users prefer paying license fees rather than itching advertisements, and over 52% of users surveyed held the opinion that the BBC would lose its independence if it relied on advertising or sponsorship (Review of the Bib’s Royal Charter: A strong BBC, independent of government, 2005). Because of this distinguishing characteristic, compared with CATV, BBC may care more about license payers when deciding its future, and could be more independent of commercial interests. Although both the BBC and CATV are providing a wide rage of programmer for audiences, they still differ in the TV channel designs.

It seems that CATV focuses such on the status of the audiences. For instance, it launches three international channels in four languages for foreigners and oversea Chinese. In contrast, the BBC lays stress on viewers’ life cycle. It designs channels according to different age groups: Scabbiest is for children under the six, CAB is for children from six to twelve, BBC 3 is for youth from 16 to 34, and News 24 focuses on audiences above 55 (Yang, 2004). The difference in channel designs shows the different strategies in their market segmentations, which may be resulted by different roles they play and efferent users they face.

With the end of the cold war, the drive towards democratization assumed center state. Out of a total 206 states in the world, 195 claims to be either democratic or republican. In spite of it, the nature and function of many self pro claimed democratic systems leave much to be desired. This has led to international efforts, led by the US, to engage in the twin task of democracy promotion and democracy protection. India joined the community of the democracies in 2000, at the turn of the millennium, and later became a member of the UN democratic funds in2005.

It has sought to contribute to the efforts aimed at promotion and strengthening of democracy in its own way. The author of the book under review, Professor Muni, calls it “significant shift” in India’s foreign policy. As a close followers of India’s foreign policy he has tries to isolated the “democracy dimension” in India’s foreign policy towards its immediate neighbors on an individual country basis over three distinct phases, which makes interesting readings. Professor Muni has enough experience as an academic and a diplomat to comment on such an important issue with great care and diligence.

After a brief review of theories of democracies and its interface with foreign policy, the author situates the Indian experience over three different phases. He argues during the first phase (1947-1960s) soon after freedom from colonial rule, India emphasis “independence and nationalism”. The principal architect of Indian foreign policy, Jawahar Lal Nehru, set out to build of free, cooperative and peaceful Asia. This explained Nehru’s vociferous argument in favor of inclusion of communist china in the comity of nations as an independent state.

He went on to fashioned his policy of non alignment as a main benchmark of India’s foreign policy and try to stay out of the bipolar power politics. His policies towards neighboring countries demonstrated his predilection for democracies in spite of the compromises he made to protect the strategic and economic interests of India. The author makes a detailed analysis of Nehru’s approach towards Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan, Myanmar and Pakistan and concludes that Nehru’s preferences for democracies was often trumped by India’s vital security concerns.

During the second phase (1960s-2000) the successors of Nehru, the author argues, adopted a pragmatic policy devoid an idealism that marked the Nehru years. The post 1962 (sino-) years, as Nehru confessed shocked him out of his idealism and prepared the grounds for unapologetic realism in Indian foreign policy. Professor Muni demonstrate through his narrative of twists and turns of Nepalese politics that Indian supported democratic moments in Nepal when its suited its strategic interests unencumbered dilemma that characterized by Nehruvian years.

All through, the main driver of India’s policy towards neighbors was to keep the region free from adversarial influences. The security challenges post by china and Pakistan largely determined the parameters of India’s foreign policy since the 1970s. Even as India evolved as a democratic nation and institutions promoting democratic values took firm roots in the country, during this phase there was no enthusiasm to propagate democracy and encourage democratic forces in the neighborhood.

Nevertheless, India played an important role in the liberation of East Pakistan in 1971, integrated Sikkim in 1975 and supported exiled democratic forces from Myanmar in 1970s and 1980s. Democracy mattered only when it converged with India’s strategic interests. However, india choose to diassociate it self from democratic forces in the mid 1970s. in Bhutan, india’s sided with the king and discouraged the popular movement raised by Bhutanis of Nepales region. It is quiet and other india forced the nepaled king to negotiate with the democratic forces in 1988.

In the case of Myanmar, since the late 1980s, it decided to mend its relationship with the military Junta and ignore the democratic forces to balance china’s increasing proximity to Myanmar. The third phase since the start of new millennium as found India in the company of US, seeking to promote and protect democracy around the world. India has calibrated its policy towards its neighbors accordingly. Despite its aversion from the maost of Nepal, it played a critical role in the mainstreaming of this group and revived the democratic process.

Despite playing a modest but critical role in Bangladesh’s return to democracy in 1990, it has maintained a study aloofness from the rough and tumble of Bangladesh politics. In recent years a fresh wave of the democracy swept the neighborhood. The author has appreciated India’s diplomatic responses to these changes. There is also a brief discussion on India’s efforts and indo-US coordination in the process of reconstruction and democratization in Afghanistan since 9/11.

The author implies that in view of India’s strategic interests in Afghanistan, it is imperative for India to continue with its developmental work despite attacks on its citizens by paksitan-sponsopred terrorists. In some author suggest that in its conduct of foreign policy, India should not blindly follow the US at the cost of its strategic interests. The book provides useful insights to India’s neighborhood policy over the last six decades. The author brings to bear his personal interaction many leading actors in both India and Nepal to present his analysis of Nepalese politics forcefully.

His study of other neighbors of India somehow struggles to come that level of compliance and intensity. To be share to the author, given india’s leverage in Nepal and its ability to influence its politics, Nepal was certain to attract that much attention and care. However, one wondered if the author have accorded some space to India’s reaction to the imperfect nature of Srilankan democracy with its lack of emphasis on inclusivity and pluralism. Given the threat it posed to the Srilankan polity and deep Indian involvement in the 1980s, Srilanka deserved some attention in the book.

To the conclusion reader of the book finds the book and the author holds a strong grip over the material and issue it contained. The book deserve the attention of foreign policy analysts and scholars of international relations in India because in recent years India has sought to spell out its neighborhood policy tentatively with emphasis on building a web of interdependencies the neighbor and finally the book is a good depiction of India’s foreign policy specially in reference to its influences the democratic scenario in the outer world.

Why do advertisers spend millions of dollars on TV ads during the Super Bowl every year? Sure, it’s the most watched event on TV, but brands could arguably get better value from running ads on Facebook and Google.

Regardless of where you stand on , it points to important questions about the advantages and disadvantages associated with online versus offline ad buys. Among the media industry, it’s generally believed that digital platforms offer more data transparency and value than offline, but today’s (OOH) platforms are starting to challenge that belief.

Until relatively recently, OOH has been a strictly analogue industry, but with Web and mobile to support tracking for view metrics, programmatic ad buys and the use of beacons and their tracking view metrics. Innovations like these were among the topics covered in a series of events called , which took place Oct. 24 to 28 in New York.

Related:

In the same way that , so is outdoor. Here are three keys to the future of OOH, drawing inspiration from the mobile ad industry.

1. Bill advertisers according to attention metrics.

Digital ad platforms are capable of serving up ads that ultimately aren’t seen by anyone, so it’s important that attention performance should play a role in billing models. This is in the best interest of both parties. When advertisers pay out according to impressions, it’s unclear how much value they’re getting for their budgets. Impressions can run almost continuously, but they won’t do any good if no one is paying attention to them.

Viewability is critical, but you have to know how to measure it before you can charge for it. In order to adopt attention-based billing, OOH ad platforms need , which is easier said than done. Next-generation analytics platform is leading the charge.

2. Advertisers and platforms are strategic partners.

With mobile ads, we’re seeing innovative models emerge that share revenue between publishers, advertisers and agencies. With OOH, platform providers can designate certain spots for in-house ads that venue management can control on their own.

Related:

, for example, sets aside a certain share of their screens’ content for venue managers to use as they like. Studies show waiting in the checkout line is the most hated part of the shopping experience, so Impax works together with retailers to capitalize on engagement with sponsored content spots to entertain shoppers as they wait to finish their transactions.

“Retailers have responded to our model with tremendous enthusiasm, because it addresses some real needs,” said Dominick Porco, Impax’s CEO. “For starters, it will cut down on theft by providing an elegant means to close a lane and prohibit someone from leaving the store with a shopping cart full of unpaid groceries. It will enhance the shopping experience by providing shoppers with relevant information while simultaneously reducing the perceived wait time; a significant deterrent to customer loyalty. And lastly, it provides the retailer with a 21^st century communications platform to introduce and reinforce programs and incentives to their customer base.”

Related:

3. Maximize impact with contextual relevance.

Shrewd advertisers know how to command attention with to audience members. With OOH, which is by definition always location-specific, content can achieve maximum impact by speaking to locale-specific issues or venue-relevant activities.

The effect of positive reinforcement of grade 2 students on BEd SCM regarding on their cooperation in class

Abstract

Many different teaching strategies have been assessed to help increase the behavioral repertoires of Individuals with developmental disabilities and Outlast This study the effect of positive reinforcement of grade 2 students on Bed SCM regarding on their cooperation in class. The results indicate that the impact of positive reinforcement on their studies will motivate them to study hard.

Chapter 1 Reviewed literature

Behavior modification focuses on behaviors and behavior changes. Behaviors are what a person does or says. The purpose of behavior modification is to alp change behaviors that have a social impact on one’s life while improving a specific aspect of that person’s life (Malingerer, 2008). According to Matter and Goldstein (2001 ), “All behavior follows a set of consistent rules. Methods can be developed for defining, observing, and measuring behaviors, as well as designing effective interventions” (p. 96). Behaviors have one or more dimensions that can be measured.

These dimensions include the frequency or number of times a behavior occurs, the duration or how long a behavior occurs, and the intensity or hysterical force involved in a behavior (Malingerer, 2008). Behavior modification is a field of psychology that analyzes and modifies human behaviors (Malingerer, 2008). It is the consistent application of positive or negative consequences to reinforce the occurrence of a desirable behavior and/or to reduce the occurrence of an undesirable behavior.

As stated by Malingerer (2008), analyzing a behavior meaner to 7 determine the relationship between the environment and that behavior to better understand why a person behaved the way he or she did, and modifying a behavior earns to create and put into place procedures to help people change that behavior. Four major figures in psychology were influential in the development of the scientific principles on which behavior modification, a theory of psychology that has been around since the early sass’s, is based.

The first major contribution of behavior modification was Edward Thorniness development of the law of effect, in 1911, which states behaviors that generate a positive effect on the environment are more likely to occur in the future (libertine’s, 2008). An example of the law of effect pertaining o education is students receiving credit for doing their homework. This theory implies that students who consistently earn credit for completing their homework are more likely to continue this behavior. In 1913, John Watson started a movement called behaviorism.

Watson believed that observable behaviors were an appropriate subject matter of psychology and that all behaviors were controlled by outside events (Malingerer, 2008). Behaviorism can be witnessed in schools when students who live in abusive and/or unstructured environments misbehave because 8 they have to been exposed to or taught socially acceptable behaviors by their parent’s. These students’ undesirable behaviors are often a result of negative, unhealthy events that take place in their homes.

In the mid-sass’s, Ivan Pavlov’s experiments discovered the basic process of respondent conditioning (Malingerer, 2008). Respondent conditioning, also known as classical conditioning, pairs a stimulus and response that occurs naturally with another stimulus to elicit a response that does not occur naturally. This theory is demonstrated in the classroom when teachers use the statement, “give me five”. This specific behavior management technique is used to quickly and quietly cue students to stop what they are doing.

Students are expected to give the teacher their undivided attention while he or she speaks to the class. Teachers who implement this technique have conditioned their students to behave in a specific manner which is unrelated to the usual meaning of the statement. B. F. Skinner is considered to be one of the most influential sass’s, Skinner expanded the field of behaviorism first developed by Watson by laying out the principles of operant condition which claims that the 9 consequence of a behavior controls the future occurrence of that behavior (?FL alternative, 2008).

Skinner’s work has influenced the field of education, as well as the field of psychology. He believed that positive reinforcement was more effective than punishment when trying to change and establish behaviors. Through his work, Skinner identified five main obstacles to learning. These obstacles are a fear of failure, the task is too long and complicated, the task lacks directions, clarity in the directions is lacking, and there is little or no positive reinforcement (Frisson, 2008). Skinner also recognized that people can be taught age-appropriate skills using the following techniques.

These techniques are giving the learner immediate feedback, breaking tasks down into small steps, repeating the directions as many times as possible, working from the most simple to the most complex tasks, and giving positive reinforcement (Frisson, 2008). Behavior modification is used in many areas to assist in changing people’s problematic behaviors. These behaviors are considered to be socially unacceptable and inappropriate for one’s age and/or ability. Additionally, these behaviors are often disruptive to one’s life.

Malingerer (2008) noted that,” A wealth of research in behavior modification demonstrates that these 10 behaviors often can be controlled or eliminated with behavioral intervention” One field that consistently uses behavior modification is education, especially in the areas of classroom management and teaching students with special needs. The field of developmental disabilities has received more behavior modification research than any other area (Malingerer, 2008), as individuals with disabilities often have behavioral deficits that are able to be overcome with the use of behavior edification.

Behavior modification continues to play a major role in special education. It is used to create effective teaching methods and to control problematic behaviors such as not cot plying with school and/or class rules. It is also used to improve inappropriate social behaviors including temper tantrums, interrupting, and difficulty sharing. Furthermore, behavior modification is used to improve functional skills deficits pertaining to personal hygiene and toileting, promoting self- management, and training teachers (Malingerer, 2008).

Statement of the Problem The purpose of my paper was to explore behavior modification by using rewards to encourage positive, observable behavior changes in my students. Teachers have an opportunity to positively impact their students’ behavior, in addition to their education. I wanted to see if the idea of behavior modification was an effective method for teaching and encouraging students’ age-appropriate behaviors and social skills.

I researched the use of rewards and positive reinforcement with regards to behavior modification by creating a classroom more interacting and participation on the classroom. One aspect of teaching is educators’ abilities to effectively manage their students’ behaviors. Many teacher education programs expose preserve teachers to numerous strategies for managing students’ behaviors because the most challenging aspect of teaching continues to be Wetted and Mercer (2003), “The area of behavior interventions in classrooms receives more attention than many other aspects of schooling” (p. 9).

This is not surprising as teachers are expected to deal with discipline problems that were once a cause for suspension or expulsion from school since more and more students are being included in public school settings, in part due to the Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (Quinn et al. , 2001). Another area teachers struggle with is whether or not students should be rewarded for behaviors that are expected of them. Some educators believe that it is not their responsibility to provide incentives for students; they feel that this is the Job of parent’s.

However, research in the area of behavioral skills training claims that feedback in the form of positive reinforcement is essential to teaching individuals appropriate behaviors and expectations (Malingerer, 2008). Wetted and Mercer (2003) note that, “The most controversial issues in behavior management have been the use of rewards to n- motivate and teach students to follow classroom rules and routines and to complete academic assignments” (p. 88).

The appropriate use of positive reinforcement and behavior modification are important for success in the classroom, as frequent reprimands, low expectations, and infrequent praise often result in students who exhibit challenging behaviors (Morgan, 2006). Educators can use strong classroom management skills to end, or at the very least avoid, an increase in problematic behaviors. Significant of the study This study focused on the impact of positive reinforcement on their studies will motivate them to study hard.

It is used to create effective teaching methods and to control problematic behaviors such as not cot plying with school and/or class rules. It is also used to improve inappropriate social behaviors including temper tantrums, interrupting, and difficulty sharing. All of only students were classified as having special needs and were placed in my learning resource classroom due to cognitive and/or behavioral deficits that required specialized support from a special education teacher. Many of my students had a difficult time appropriately interacting with adults and peers, especially in the area of manners.

These students often required numerous verbal prompts and reminders from adults working with them to use manners. Unfortunately, the previous approach of verbally prompting my students to use appropriate manners did not have the intended positive effect of improving their social interactions. Scope and limitation This study considered the effect of positive reinforcement on the lassoer setting whom we wanted to see if the idea of behavior modification was an effective method for teaching and encouraging students’ age-appropriate behaviors and social skills on the particular setting on classroom.

Definition of Terms

1. Behavior – What a person says or does.
2. Cooperative Learning. – Cooperative Learning is a systematic pedagogical strategy that encourages small groups of students to work together for the achievement of a common goal.
3. Classroom management- A set of skills needed by a teacher to plan, implement, and maintain a learning environment in which students learn decision
4. Discussion. -There are a variety of ways to stimulate discussion.
5. Motivation- A driving force that encourages an action or behavior to occur
6. Positive reinforcement- positive reinforcement involves the addition of a reinforcing stimulus following a behavior that makes it more likely that the behavior will occur again in the future.
7. Reward- Something that is given in return for doing something else.
8. Skills- An ability and capacity acquired through deliberate, systematic, and sustained effort to smoothly and adaptively carryout complex activities or Job functions involving ideas (cognitive kills), things (technical skills), and/or people (interpersonal skills).
9. Teaching strategy- are the methods you use to allow learners to access the information you are teaching.

This action research project explored the theory of behavior modification through the use of rewards to promote positive behavioral changes in students with special needs. A classroom behavior management plan was created to observe the effectiveness of positive reinforcement on influencing students’ behaviors. This chapter presents the research methodologies used in the study.

This includes the research design, sources of data, data gathering procedure and the statistical treatment of data. Research Design The researchers employed the one group must be experimental without reinforcement while the other group is a controlled group that if there is a motivation using positive reinforcement. By using this design, the researchers were able to determine effects of positive reinforcement regarding on their participation in class. The experimental and controlled group was used as a basis of comparison of reinforcement. Materials This will be conducted in a classroom setting