Metaphysics

Traditional views treating metaphor at linguistic levels show that metaphors in literature are more creative, unique, impressive, interesting, plentiful, and complex than those in non-literary texts (Semino & Steen, 2008). It is believed that the “real” source of metaphor is in literature (Kovecses, 2010a). As a genre of literature, poetry has all the qualities of literature (Abrams & Harpham, 2012). It is even more metaphorical than prose fiction thanks to the poets’ creative genius (Kovecses, 2002; Lodge, 1977-  28  cited from Semino & Steen, 2008).

In such beliefs, the poet Dickey suggests a fourstep process of metaphor-making, namely, (i) making picture comparisons in the mind, (ii) discovering the threads of continuity that run through these pictures and which create a “narrative of dramatic action”, (iii) recombining these elements so that they undergo a “fruitful interchange of qualities, a transference of energies, an informing of each other”, and (iv) translating this process into the medium of language (cited from Myers & Wukasch, 2003). Analogously, Ricoeur (1977) also defined the process of making metaphor including three steps, selection, substitution and language formation.

On the contrary, the CMT stated that metaphor is pervasive in everyday life; and the knowledge of everyday conceptual system can shed light on most of the cases of poetic metaphors because they are mostly extended from our everyday conventional system of metaphorical thought (Lakoff, 1993; Yu, 1998). It is further shown that poetic metaphorical expressions can be unconventional and novel, but the metaphorical concepts underlying them remain conventional and commonplace to most people in the community (Carriello, 2010; Kovecses, 2010a).

The poetic language should consequently be regarded as part of the everyday language; and the analysis of the special acts of language and literature must start and end with that of everyday language (Turner, 1991).

It is noteworthy that most of poetic metaphors derive from conventional metaphors, they are thus neither creative nor original nor imaginative. However, poetic linguistic metaphors can be manifested in unconventional ways.

Furthermore, most but not all of the poetic metaphors are reflected based on everyday language. As mentioned above, there are still metaphors that are structured outside our everyday conceptual system. They provide new understanding of human experience. Such metaphors are “typically less clear but richer in meaning than either everyday metaphor” (Kovecses, 2010a, p.49). The metaphor LOVE IS A COLLABORATIVE WORK OF ART is the one Lakoff and Johnson (2003) used to illustrate the existence of such imaginative and creative metaphors.

Also in terms of metaphor in poetry, Gibbs (1994) claimed that despite using the same underlying conceptual metaphors, the language of great poets is more creative than that employed by most ordinary speakers. These poetic metaphors are made special by reworking ordinary everyday metaphors via four techniques- extending, elaboration, questioning and combining (Gibbs, 1994; Kovecses, 2010a; Lakoff and Turner, 1989); particularly as follows:

Extending is defined as adding a new conceptual element or an unconventional aspect to the source domain through new linguistic means to make the conventional metaphor novel. Kovecses (2010a, p.54) illustrated this technique via the lines “In the middle of life’s road/ I found myself in a dark wood” by Dante. There is seemingly no newness as the conventional metaphor LIFE IS A JOURNEY is employed; but the creativity here lies in linguistic means by which the “life’s road” is described as passing through “a dark wood”. Dante extends the LIFE-ASJOURNEY metaphor by adding this unconventional element to it.

Unlike extending a metaphor by introducing new elements in the source domain, elaboration employs already existing elements in a new, unconventional way. This technique is believed to be a principal mode of poetic thought that goes beyond the ordinary (Lakoff & Turner, 1989). For example, in the lines When I dream of meeting/ the enemy, […] white acetylene/ ripples from my body… (Adrienne Rich, The Phenomenology of Anger, cited in Kovecses, 2010a, p.54-55), the conventional source domain a hot fluid used to describe anger is elaborated as a dangerous substance, acetylene. This modification is an unusual way of treating language to make poetic expressions creative and figurative.

The next technique- questioning is understood as calling into question of the very appropriateness, or pointing out the inadequacy of our everyday conventional metaphors. Let us consider an example cited from Kovecses (2010a, p.55), Suns can set and return again,/ but when our brief light goes out,/ there’s one perpetual night to be slept through (Catullus 5).

The poem points out that there are some questions of the appropriateness of the common conceptual metaphors for life and death, A LIFETIME IS A DAY and DEATH IS NIGHT. It is because once one dies, they cannot live again; or death is a “perpetual night to be slept through” and the dead never come back to life again, which challenges the validity of these metaphors. Therefore, the cognitive mechanism of questioning the validity of accepted metaphors may be based on the partial nature of metaphorical structuring.

Finally, combining is using the materials of several conventional metaphors in a single expression or at the same time. It is the most effective technique in making our everyday conceptual system rich and novel (Kovecses, 2010a). Let us look at the clause black night doth take away [the twilight] of the verse from Sonnet 73 by Shakespeare: In me thou seest the twilight of such day/ As after sunset fadeth in the west;/ Which by and by black night doth take away,/ Death’s second self that seals up all in rest.

It is expressed skilfully with a combination of the following metaphors:

– black: LIFETIME IS A DAY, LIFE IS LIGHT, DEATH IS NIGHT – night: DEATH IS NIGHT, LIFE IS LIGHT – take away: LIFE IS PRECIOUS POSSESSION, EVENTS ARE ACTIONS  Blending together, these conventional metaphors reveal the idea that death (correspondent to night) takes away the precious possession of life (corresponding to light) (Lakoff & Turner, 1989, p.71).

In summary, on the basis of the conventional metaphors used by lay people, poets readjust their linguistic expressions to fit poetic circumstances and make their language novel, creative and imaginative via the tools of extending, elaboration, questioning and combining. Bartel (1983, p.54-55) thus pointed out four qualities of poetic metaphors: (i) inseparability form their contexts, (ii) their freshness and uniqueness, (iii) their newness produces not only surprise but also tension, and (iv) several different metaphors emerged in a subtle and interesting interaction. The consequence is that whereas the interpretation of conventional metaphors concerns sense retrieval, the comprehension of novel metaphors involves sense creation; and poetic language of metaphor when it is understandable can convey new poetic insights about human experiences (Bowdle & Gentner, 1999; Gibbs, 1994).

Since our study is carried out based on the materials of poetry, the poetic reworking mechanisms of ordinary metaphors become essential to help us analyse the data, find out the novelty in English and Vietnamese poetic language.

Concepts of space, time and sensory perceptions

In the cognitive view’s equation of meaning with conceptualization, semantic structures are characterized based on the experience of space and time (Bussmann, 2006). The structure of space, time and person is hence fundamental to cognitive process and the understanding of the world (Peer, Salomonc, Goldbergb, Blanke, & Arzy, 2015).

Space

Space is a boundless three-dimensional extent in which objects and events occur and have relative position and direction (Merriam-Webster dictionary). Space contains objects and events, but there also exist empty space and unoccupied places. Spatial relationships involve topology, orientation and distance relations between places (Bussmann, 2006; Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012). More specifically, spatial language is concerned with expressions describing location, movement, configuration and the relationships between objects in space (Coventry, 2009; Slack & Van de Zee, 2003). According to Lý Toàn Thắng (2005), spatial properties and relationships of objects can be reflected directly by senses through images or indirectly by logic through concepts. The spatial properties of an object through senses that can be defined by shape, size, space occupied, position, distance, etc. are manifested differently in languages. Thus, spatial language can be formalized in terms of topology and orientation (Mani & Pustejovsky, 2012,). It is used to reflect the existence of objects, their configuration, locations and motions in space. In human communication, utilizing spatial language is often extended to many abstract domains including love (Casasanto & Bottini, 2014; Landau & Jackendoff, 1993).

Time

Temporal information plays a very important role in communication and in many specialized domains of human activity. Fraisse illuminated the importance of time in human life by explaining that our existential conditions vary constantly and modify us in different ways because our existence is structured and shaped by the rhythms of nights and days (cited from Hamdi, 2010). An obvious property of time that we all experience is its passing. Newton stated, “time, of itself, and from its own nature, flows equably without relation to any external” (cited from Evan, 2004). It is composed of points and intervals, and represented by its common units such as year, month, day, hour, minutes, second, etc. (Hajnicz, 1996). There are two opposite concepts of time: temporary and permanent time (McTaggart, 1927; Sinha & Gărdenfors, 2014). Temporary time represents time experienced from the inside on the basis of grammar tense, adverbs, and nominal temporal landmarks. Permanent time is time viewed from the outside and specified by before and after, earlier and later, first and last, etc. Although it is popular and well-known, time is one of the problematic aspects of human experience. Evans (2004) supposed that temporal experience is manifested in two levels: lexical and cognitive based on some notions such as temporal, duration, interval, moment, sequence and event. In lexical level, time is conventionally represented by time, past, present, future, etc. However, people ordinarily think and talk about time not in time’s own terms, but rather in terms of motion through, and location in, three-dimensional space (Evans, 2004). Similarly, Lakoff and Johnson (1980a) stated that time is frequently constructed in terms of space. Therefore, the data for our analysis under temporal terms should be chosen carefully so that they don’t overlap with the ones of space.

 Sensory perception

Sensory imagery is any description involving one or more of the five senses – sight, smell, sound, taste and touch. Each sense has a corresponding sensory organ – eyes, noses, ears, tongue and skin respectively. Sensory perception is an awareness of things, a process of identifying and interpreting sensory information under environment stimuli through the senses (Medical dictionary). According to Nguyen Lai (2009), the field of perception has to be linked to that of thinking in relation to metaphor. Therefore, sensory perception is one link in a chain of cognizing the world, especially emotional world. Furthermore, since the sensory perception is a relatively straightforward process and an accurate reflection of reality (Barth, 2012; Van de Lagemaat, 2015), sensory language is often deliberately used so as to increase descriptive and perceptive effects, particularly those on abstract concepts as love.
In brief, space, time, and sensory perception are fundamental cognitive domains, in relation to which the mappings of conceptual metaphors are motivated (Lakoff, 1993; Langacker, 1987, 1999; Tissari, 2001). In this study, the language of space, time and sensory perceptions that are employed to express love are investigated. On the basis of the love metaphors introduced by Lakoff and Johnson (1980a,b), Kövecses (1986, 1988, 2000), and some other researches, the metaphorical expressions of love are analysed and classified into these three basic domains. The procedure is presented in more detail in the next chapters.

Love as an emotion

In line with Merriam-Webster and Oxford dictionaries where love is defined as any of a number of emotions related to a sense of strong affection and personal attachment, McTaggart (1927) treated love as an emotion felt towards persons; it is intense, passionate, and leads to the desire of closeness and union. Love may cause happiness or sadness, pleasure or pain; therefore, love is a complex emotion. According to Tallis (2004), love may exist in many forms; however, there is one manifestation of love that appears to have fascinated humanity since the dawn of civilization. It is the love that a couple share when they fall in love – passionate or romantic love.
Romantic love is regarded as a complex sentiment of erotic, cognitive, emotional and behavioural components that are impossible to disentangle, a mix of emotional and physical desires along with unrealistic and idealistic attitude towards a partner (Karandashev, 2015; Sternberg, 1988). In a more general definition, Gottschall and Nordlund (2006) stated that romantic love is a complex emotion manifested in a romantic context between two persons with partly sexual attraction. It is a representative feeling kept for only one person and expected to last forever. When someone is in romantic love, they are intensely attracted to the beloved’s whole person (but not just to the body) and desire strongly to join with this person. This feeling can change one’s own life priority. In a romantic relationship, one tends to idealize his or her partner, care for this person’s well-being; and when one is absent, the other will feel pain or empty. It is also the emotion of which the metaphorical expressions are chosen for our study.

Reading is defined as an active cognitive process that involves decoding symbols to understand and arrive at meaning. Shihab (2011) argues that it involves connecting an author’s idea to what the reader already knows, this is known is using schemas. Reading readiness has been defined as the point at which a person is ready to learn to read and the time during which a person transitions from being a non-reader into a reader.

Reading readiness is a state of development, which involves the maturation of specific processes and prepares the child mentally, physically, and social-emotionally. The National Open University of Nigeria (2013), argues that physical readiness demands that the child possesses functional speech organs, can hear and see, and that the child can demonstrate evidence of at least low-level word recognition and perception.

Mental readiness refers to the child’s intellectual ability and accurate pronunciation of words and sounds. It also connotes a child’s oral capabilities, such as speaking in complete sentences, the recitation of rhymes, listening to and telling short stories, as well as using a variety of vocabulary. Mental readiness also demands a child is able to engage in simple dialogues with others. Socio-emotional readiness entails that the child should be emotionally and psychologically stable in order to accommodate the social and cognitive tasks of reading. Aside from emotional readiness, the child must demonstrate a keen interest and desire to read.

It is important to understand what factors affect reading readiness and the theory behind it. In doing so, we can help tackle low readiness in children upon entry into primary school. There can be a wide variation of ability within a first-year class, especially in relation to reading. It is apparent that some children enter school able to recognise some words and even read short texts, while others are unable to recognise letters in the alphabet. In my essay I shall be discussing the social and cognitive theories, which attempt to explain reading readiness; and making recommendations based upon psychological research on how to tackle low readiness.

Psychology would suggest that reading readiness can both be encouraged and hindered. One social psychology theory which aims to explain differences in children’s readiness to read, is the Home Literacy Environment (HLE). This term is used to describe the literacy-related interactions, resources, activities and attitudes that children experience at home. The Home Literacy Environment is conceptualized as a diverse interactive experience that is a key component in emergent literacy acquisition (Schmitt, Simpson, & Friend, 2011). Research has established the importance of early literacy experience in the family context for young children’s pre-literacy skills and for later reading achievement (Lonigan, 2006).

Abundant research has provided insight into the importance of home environments for children’s reading literacy development. Early literacy experiences lay the foundation of the learning-to-read process prior to formal schooling. They include a broad range of family activities, such as exposure to literacy, parent-child storybook and picture book reading, as well as opportunities for literacy interactions between the family members. Psychologists such as Wood (2002) argue that to encourage children to explore literacy, families must have access to print resources and literacy material. Parents’ attitudes to reading activities are also reported to have an impact on the home literacy environment, as they determine the extent to which parents themselves get involved in activities and encourage their children to do so.

Social psychologists such as Bandura (1961) argue that children learn and base their opinions and interests from those around them, and so a lack of interest or involvement in reading at home from parents would project onto the child, and so hindering their readiness to read. Parents who engage in many literacy activities with their children foster the development of positive attitudes to reading (Sonnenschein & Munsterman, 2002). From a rich literacy environment positive effects can be expected with respect to early language skills and emergent literacy, which in turn support the development of reading competencies (Bus, van IJzendoorn, & Pellegrini, 1995; Senechal, & LeFevre, 2002). Providing richer, more interactive experiences with print for children, for example by using decontextualized language, prompting children to explain or predict events in the story, may scaffold children’s developing language skills.

Preschool children who have enjoyed a rich HLE, and thus have already experienced literacy from an early age, enter school with a head start in reading literacy, proportionate to their preschool years, compared to those children who were not exposed to a rich HLE. The advantages include knowledge about principles of language and texts, pre-literacy skills such as phonological awareness, and understanding the importance of literacy.

This fact indicates that the time of entering primary school is rather late for compensation. Therefore, it is important that measures to foster reading development in the family are taken at an earlier stage. The implementation of family literacy programmes, especially for families with low academic background, could be one way to help reduce social disparities (McElvany, & Artelt 2009). A lack of exposure early on may intimidate children entering school who have no prior knowledge, and thus delay readiness even further. The home literacy environment theory would therefore conclude that to tackle low reading readiness upon entry into primary school, children need to be exposed to rich literate content from an early age.

The reliability and validity of this research must be considered; some researchers have used conservative measures of the HLE that measure only one indicator, commonly the availability of books at home, or simply the amount a child is read to. While in comparison, others have included broad conceptualizations including demographic variables, parent-child text interactions, parent’s reading habits, playing word games, and visiting the local library (Schmit et al., 2011; Levy, Gong, Hessels, Evans, & Jared, 2006; Lyytinen, Laasko, Poikkeus, 1998; Senechal, LeFevre, Thomas & Daly, 1992).

The inconsistent measures of HLE make it more difficult to infer an overall conclusion that providing a child with a home learning environment will increase reading readiness; simply because we cannot confine the definition to one single factor. Therefore, further research into which specific aspects of the HLE are most beneficial to children would provide us with valuable insight.

The above research suggests that a lacking home literacy environment will lead to low reading readiness in children when starting primary school. However, alongside the abundance of literacy exposure and reading materials in homes, studies found high correlations with mother’s literacy ability and their child’s. One explanation for this may be genetical. A parent whom has more highly developed literacy skills is more likely to have these materials in the home environment, and encourage their child to read.

On the reverse side of course, a parent whom is lacking in these literacy abilities is unlikely to be pushing their child to or exposing them to rich educational and interactive content. Therefore, it must be considered that the reported correlations between a rich home literacy environment and readiness to read are purely that, correlations, and that the true causation is genetical. Further research into families where parents lack literacy skills but encourage and surround their children amongst books should be undertaken and compared to those with both high literacy skill and HLE, and those with neither.

Piaget’s (1936) theory of cognitive development explains how a child constructs a mental model of the world. He regarded cognitive development as a process which occurs due to biological maturation and interaction with the environment. According to Piaget, children are born with a very basic mental structure on which all subsequent learning and knowledge are based. A schema is a cognitive framework or concept that helps organize and interpret information. Schemas can be useful because they allow us to take shortcuts in interpreting the vast amount of information that is available in our environment and are a way of organising knowledge. Schemas are the basic building blocks of some cognitive models and enable us to form a mental representation of the world. Piaget (1952, p. 7) defined a schema as “a cohesive, repeatable action sequence possessing component actions that are tightly interconnected and governed by a core meaning.”

Schema theory is a cognitive explanation of how readers use prior knowledge to comprehend and learn from text (Rumelhart, 1980). The term “schema” was first used in psychology by Barlett as “an active organization of past reactions or experiences” (1932), later schema was introduced in reading by Rumelhalt (1980), Carrell (1981) and Hudson (1982) when discussing the important role of background knowledge in reading comprehension (all cited in An, 2013). The fundamental principle of the schema theory assumes that written text does not carry meaning by itself. Rather, a text only provides directions for readers as to how they should retrieve or construct meaning from their own previously acquired knowledge (An, 2013).

According to schema theory, comprehending a text is an interactive process between the reader’s background knowledge and the text. Efficient comprehension requires the ability to relate the textual material to one’s own knowledge. As Anderson (1977, p.369) point out, “every act of comprehension involves one’s knowledge of the world as well”. Reading comprehension operates in two directions, from bottom up to the top and from the top down to the bottom of the hierarchy. Bottom-up processing is activated by specific data from the text, while top-down processing starts with general to confirm these predictions.

These two kinds of processing are occurring simultaneously and interactively, which adds to the concept of interaction or comprehension between bottom-up and top-down processes (Carrel and Eiserhold, 1983. Cited in An, 2013). Teaching reading can be accomplished by using the first three of the four cognitive stages that psychologist/biologist Jean Piaget developed. The stages suggest that children begin by collecting sensory and motor information, and then gradually organize that information into first symbolic thoughts and then abstract ones. Reading requires both the understanding of symbolic thought to translate sounds into letters, and abstract thought to translate words into ideas. The fourth stage, formal operations, begins around age 12 and is concerned with adult-style abstract thought beyond that which is needed to learn to read.

Schemas are based on past experiences and therefore in young children this is hard to implement as they have a lack of life experience. Piaget believed that new-born babies have a small number of innate schemas – even before they have had many opportunities to experience the world. These neonatal schemas are the cognitive structures underlying innate reflexes, however the schemas necessary to comprehend text are far more advanced and need to be developed over time.

While this may help to explain a low reading readiness at a young age, it doesn’t necessarily offer an explanation for the individual differences amongst children entering primary school. One may assume this could simply be put down to less life experience in those children, as well as less encouragement on children to use their own knowledge to understand a piece of text. Researchers have suggested that the skill of using schemas is one that can be developed and taught, comprehension tasks are a large part in early years teaching, and so parents should direct this into home life early. Through questioning children on texts, they can teach them to make connections and understand what they are reading.

A limitation of this theory, however, is that the concept of schema cannot be directly observed as it is an internal process, therefore, it cannot be objectively measured. This reduces the validity and reliability of his work. Furthermore, Piaget studied his own children and the children of his colleagues in Geneva in order to deduce general principles about the intellectual development of all children. Not only was his sample very small, but it was composed solely of European children from families of high socio-economic status. Researchers have therefore questioned the generalisability and validity of his data.

After looking at both the Home Literacy Environment, and the theory of schemas as an explanation of readiness to read, I believe that there is clear integration between the social and cognitive theories. Schemas are built from our own social experiences and interactions in life, they are the building blocks of knowledge we acquire in order to make sense of the world. In relation to reading readiness, a rich breadth of literacy material and exposure will thus lead to the necessary schemas for a child to comprehend text. By increasing a child’s HLE, in turn their cognitive schemas should also increase.

Therefore, my recommendations for parents would be to immerse children in a world of literature and allow them to explore a love of reading, as well as developing their comprehensive skills by encouraging the child to engage with the text. This should help develop their ability to use schemas and teach children at an earlier age the importance of doing so. Regarding my recommendation to early years teachers, a similar approach should be taken. Nevertheless, it is important to remember that children who enter school with a lack of readiness to read may become more adverse and intimidated if too much pressure is placed upon them.

Reading should be regarded as a fun activity within the classroom and children should be left, within reason, to choose their own books and how they want to read. Children whom still do not show signs of readiness to read should not be forced to begin too soon, and instead encouraged to explore texts in different ways. For example, children who simply have no desire to learn should be encouraged to play word games or perhaps taken to the library; showing them texts in a more fun environment, rather than forced to read in a classroom when they are unable. Teachers should provide materials and questions that moderately challenges a child’s current schema, but not so challenging it is out of reach. Reading readiness is an act that manifests in a child’s early development.

This development should be properly enhanced by parents, guardians and language instructors as well so that the best should be achieved of the child. Reading is indispensable and a valuable asset to any child who desires to explore the universe and to be knowledgeable. With the appropriate reading materials, environment, and teachers who are willing to help children imbibe reading culture, good reading skills can be inculcated into children.

According to the legal dictionary (2010) the definition is fairness, moral eighteens, a system of law in which every person receives their due from the system including all rights. ” Justice is comprised of our needs, fair share, fair play, standing and trust. Cicero once SAA “the Foundation of Justice is good faith” The main theory of justice Is that It is designed to be fair and an Impartial point of view that has been adopted Into our reasoning. Basically, the theory of justice guides us to look and study the writings from philosophers like Rails, Locke, and Hobbes.

Locker’s view on justice was based on the social contract theory. This belief is that free people need to Greer on some ground rules in order to live together. There are also specific theories dependent on the type of Justice. There is the principle that pertains to a distributive style of Justice which basically determines Justice as to what is the fair share. Then there Is restorative Justice. Restorative Justice Is how we react to an activity that violates what society deems fair play. The principles of Justice need to be fair to those involved and need to be consistent.

This of course is barring any extenuating circumstances and if these circumstances exist there needs to be a vital difference so o other solution can be applied. “Perfect wisdom has four parts, biz. , wisdom, the principle of doing things aright; Justice, the principle of doing things equally in public and private; fortitude, the principle of not flying danger, but meeting it; and temperance, the principle of subduing desires and living moderately (Plato). ” Utilitarianism In order to understand how the principles of justice and how they differ from utilitarianism we need to know what utilitarianism is.

Utilitarianism is the belief that the morally right choice is the only way to cause the most good. The utilitarianism belief may produce good but it also may trample the rights of the individuals. So the saying goes the good of the many outweigh the few or the one. So I would have to say that the mall difference between justice and utilitarianism as we know It would be society has laws that pertain to everyone equally. Utilitarianism has two forms also. Act utilitarianism is defined as a person doing something that will benefit many but they do it without regards to their personal feelings or laws that society has made.

Rule Utilitarianism is solely based on the idea hat provides the best outcome. According to Banks (2009) “a utilitarian approach to public policy would require that government officials base their actions and programs on ten most accurate Ana telltale International AT particular classmates and of the likely results of the alternatives and options available to them” (Banks 2009). Justice Defined As stated above the definition of Justice would be a system of law in which every person receives their due from the system including all rights.

However if you asked someone in a criminal Justice agency they most likely would say that it is a system hat consists of the police, the courts and the correctional facilities. They would also say that Justice is what is received for committing a wrong. Today people see Justice as the item that is given out for breaking the law. Security I would have to say the difference between Justice and security is Justice is the system and security is a tool. Security is defined as the freedom from danger or risk. I view security as part of the system. This is because security is becoming more a part of the criminal Justice system.

The present study Is an attempt to Investigate the translation of image In metaphors. In translation of metaphor, It Is necessary to start with Investigating the concept of metaphor. So the definition of metaphor and different kinds of metaphor are presented. Imagery is a key concept in metaphor that helps the reader to visualize and experience the author’s writing. Different type of imagery also presented. Then translation of metaphors ,including cognitive approach, is considered. At last the translation of metaphor in Persian poetry is investigated.

Introduction Translation plays an essential role in transferring message from one culture to another (Batavia,2008). Deference between SSL and TTL can sometimes pose challenges in the process of translation. One of these challenges is the translation of metaphor. Metaphors can become a translation problem, since transferring from one language and culture to another Is difficult. “Translation of metaphor will be always seen as problematic, no matter which approach to metaphor Is chosen” (Olivier, 1998:5).

Literature review There are no Instructions for devising metaphors; there Is no manual for determining hat a metaphor “means” or “says”; there is no test for metaphor that does not call for taste. A metaphor implies a kind and degree of artistic success; there are no unsuccessful metaphors There are tasteless metaphors, but these are turns that nevertheless have brought something off, even if it were not worth bringing off or could have been brought off better. (Davidson 29) According to Adage(1987:77) “metaphor presents a particularly searching tests of the translator’s ability’.

Furthers Olivier (1998:5) claims: “the translation of metaphor (… ) Is problematic no matter which approach to metaphor is chosen”. Degrees of translatability of metaphor are classified as follows: 1 . Metaphors are untranslatable: the advocates of this are Nadia, Avian and Darlene, and Adage. They believe that translation creates a different metaphor In the target language. 2. Metaphors are fully translatable: Sloppier, Reels and Mason claim that there is no problem in metaphor translation. Metaphor is translated as a new metaphor in target language. 3.

Metaphors are translatable but pose a degree of interlinguas in equivalence: Van Den Broke, Arabian Olivarez, Tour and Newark have this view. 4. Conciliatory approach: Snell Horny said that he text type determine the range of rendering. Mandible(1 995) focus on the translator’s reaction time to show differences in the translation of SCM ( similar mapping condition) and the DIM ( different mapping condition). The work of other theorists like Coves(2005), AH Hosannas(2007), Male(2008) and Rainmakers and Gaur(2010) are all product-oriented, show that translation products depend on SCM and DIM.

The common basis between all of these studies Is that “the more the two languages conceptualize metaphors In a salary way. The easier the task of translation will be. Also some research have been done In relevance to the effect of translation on metaphor by Schaeffer(2004) and Starriest(1993). Towboats (1993: has to be culture specific, thus presenting what amounts to often insurmountable problems for translation, which is by definition a transactional process. Schaeffer (2004): Discussed some implications for a cognitive theory of metaphor to translating metaphor without trying to draw a theory or a model. Dickens (2005): Simplified Model, Full Model, a reworking of Newark in terms of legalized and non- legalized metaphors, where Arabic-English translation of metaphor is reduced to exuberance and congruence. First, it is claimed that if two languages have radically different conceptual systems, then translation from one language to the other is impossible.

Second, it is often claimed that if translation is impossible, then speakers of one language cannot understand the other language. Third, it is often claimed that if the languages have different conceptual systems, then someone who speaks one language will be unable to learn the other language because he lacks the right conceptual system. Fourth, to confuse matters further, it is sometimes claimed that since people “can” learn idiotically different languages, those languages couldn’t have different conceptual systems (Alaska, 1987: 311). What is metaphor? According to Newark metaphor is ” any figurative expression: the transferred sense of a physical word, the personification of an abstraction, the application of a word or collocation to what is doesn’t literally denote, to describe one thing in terms of another. ” He also introduces the polygamous words and English phrasal verb as metaphor. Most people think that metaphor is used only in the literature and is a feature of language. They introduce metaphor as “matter of words instead of thought r action”. But metaphors are used in every day conversation, in language, in thought and in action.

George Alaska claims that “our ordinary conceptual system, in terms of which we both think and act, is fundamentally metaphorical nature. ” Tall metaphor is described in two senses: in narrow sense, metaphor is figure of speech, one thing is described in terms of another. So metaphor is the combination of three components: tenor(object), vehicle(image), ground(sense) and is described as a resemblance between image and object. To explain more, we can say that the tenor and vehicle are connected by a verb that creates resemblance. The verb “to be” is often used to say the tenor is the vehicle.

In broad sense metaphor is explained as what Newark define metaphor. In this broad sense metaphor is the relation between mind and cognition. From historical point of view, metaphor is a Greek word for transport and is defined as a transportation of concepts from its normal location to a new location. In the past, metaphor was figure of speech or form of figurative language that defined in terms of aesthetic and rhetorical points. It has been analyzed in term of components (image, object, sense) and types (dead, click, recent… ). But nowadays, metaphor is seen in perspective of conceptualization and idealization.

So the cognitive conceptual stylistic approaches are chosen. Metaphor is similar to simile. In simile A is like B, but in metaphor “like” or “as” are not used. It means that in simile the comparison stated explicitly, while in metaphor and simile depends on this point of similarity between topic and image. This implicit similarity may be understood from context. Different type of metaphor Newark expresses six types of metaphor. 1 . Dead metaphor: “Dead metaphors are metaphors where one is hardly conscious of he image, frequently relate to universal terms of space and time, the main part of body and main human activity. In translation of dead metaphor the same image is transferred. “An example of a dead metaphor would be the ‘body of an essay. ‘ In this example, ‘body’ was initially an expression that drew on the metaphorical image of human anatomy applied to the subject matter in question. 2. Click metaphor: “Click metaphors are metaphors that have outlived their usefulness , that are used as substitute for clear thought , often emotively , but without corresponding to the facts of matter. Different image is made from SSL to TTL. Absence makes the heart grow fonder is a proverb click.

Achilles heel is an allusion click. Acid test is an idiom click. Age before beauty is a catchphrase click. Alive and kicking is a doublet click. Avoid like the plague is a simile click 3. Stock or standard metaphor: Stock or standard metaphor is an “established metaphor which in an informal context is an efficient and conscious method of covering a physical or mental situation both referentially and pragmatically and which is not deadened by overuse. ” In translation of standard metaphor the same image must be constructed n TTL. 4.

Adapted metaphor: This type of metaphor “is actually a stock metaphor that has been adapted into a new context by its speaker or writer(fleetness’ of a stock metaphor has been adapted or personalized in some way)” It can be translated by an equivalent adapted metaphor. 5. Recent metaphor: “This type of metaphor is produced through coining; they are often ‘anonymously’ coined”. Recent metaphors should be translated using continental analysis. 6. Original metaphor: “Original metaphors, are created or quoted by the SSL writer or speaker usually to make discourse more interesting and often used to highlight particular points. Translator has some choices: literal translation, reduction to sense or modification of the metaphor. Alaska and Johnson determine 3 type of metaphor under the title of conceptual metaphor: 1 . Orientation metaphor: spatial orientation (up-down, in-out) is the concern. For example: happy is up. Sad is down: I’m feeling up today. He’s really low these days. 2. Ontological metaphor: an abstraction such as emotion and ideas is replaced by a concrete thing such as object, substance or entity. In this definition some words need some explanation.

Entity is made when an abstraction is replaced by concrete physical object. For example, the mind is represented as a machine: my mind Just isn’t operating today. When abstraction is represented as material, substance is made. For example: there was a lot of good sprinting in the race. Container is one ontological metaphor: when one concept is shown as something that has outside and inside, and holds something else. For instance: get the most out of life. 3. Structural metaphor: this is a conventional metaphor in which one basic domain of experience is transferred to another basic domain.

This is the most complex metaphor. For example: argument is war, so we can say: your claims are indefensible. The conventional metaphor in this definition is a metaphor that is used in everyday example: if life is a Journey so we can say: it’s time to get on with your life. George Alaska represents another type of metaphor that is called image metaphor. According to Alaska “image metaphor maps conventional mental image onto other conventional mental image by virtue of their internal structure. ” Image metaphor is different from conceptual metaphor.

Some metaphors are used in advertising slogans, so they are o common and convert to something that is used in every day conversations. For example consider the metaphor of “life is a Journey’ “Life is a Journey, travel it Airlines) “Life is a Journey. Enjoy the Ride. “(Ionians) “Life is a Journey. Enjoy the ride with a GM reward card. “(General Motors) “Life’s a Journey–travel light”(Hugo Boss Perfume) Some metaphors used in the lyrics. For example: Life’s a Journey not a destination And I Just can’t tell Just what tomorrow brings. From the album A Little South of Sanity) Poets use metaphor in poems. A common poem by the use of “life is a Journey” is The Road Not Taken” from Robert Frost: Two roads diverged in a yellow wood, And sorry I could not travel both And be one traveler, long I stood And looked down one as far as I could To where it bent in the undergrowth. Then took the other, as Just as fair, And having perhaps the better claim, Because it was grassy and wanted wear; Though as for that the passing there Had worn them really about the same. And both that morning equally lay in leaves no step had trodden black.

Oh, I kept the first for another day! Yet knowing how way leads on to way, I doubted if I should ever come back. I shall be telling this with a sigh somewhere ages and ages hence: Two roads diverged in a wood, and I– I took the one less traveled by, and that has made all the difference. Function of metaphor description of entities more comprehensively than in literal language (referential purpose). The second purpose is to delight, to please (pragmatic purpose). The third purpose is to show similarity between two comparable things that have one characteristic in common.

Metaphors are also used to suggest the reader to think positively and beautifully to their life and world. “Love is a homeless guy searching or treasure in the middle of the rain and finding a bag of gold coins and slowly finding out they’re all filled with chocolate and even though he’s heart broken, he can’t complain because he was hungry in the first place. “(Boo Burnham, “Love Is”) “Time, you thief”(Leigh Hunt, “Rounded”) “Memory is a crazy woman that hoards colored rags and throws away food. “(Austin Maloney) “Life is a zoo in a Jungle. (Peter De Varies) “Life is a game played on us while we are playing other games. “(Even Sear) The application of metaphor Metaphor is an important device for communication. The work of Alaska and Johnson wows the application of metaphors in cognitive linguistics, as well as cognitive anthropology, computer science, and philosophy of language also in psychology. In psychology, the work of Alaska and Johnson shows interest in study of metaphor in cognitive and clinical psychology. In a cognitive perspective, metaphor is example of mental model as well as analogical reasoning and problem solving.

Analogies and metaphors make sense f the word. Gentler (1983) argues that metaphors help to understanding, decision- making, and action. Duke (1994) shows the effect of metaphor in applied field of software ergonomics. Tahiti, Photos and Grasses (1999) represent the effect of metaphor in communication process. Clinical psychology, concentrate on the role of metaphor in communication processes in psychotherapy. Imagery Imagery is not only the representation of visual image in our mind. Imagery is more complex. And can be categorize in five types, each relevant to one of our sense.

Newark claims that language refers to visual image and metaphor is the language reference to other senses. Hearing and touch are more powerful than taste and smell. Different type of imagery Visual images are mental pictures that are constructed in your mind. It means that in order to compare two things use picture rather than word. For example: the Tavern was worn down with age, the wooden bar chipping away, the floors looking black from the dirt, and the ceiling carrying dark brown stains from water damage. Auditory images relate to sound. It is a form of mental imagery that is used to organize sound.

This image divided to two auditory modalities; verbal imagery and vividness and detail of auditory imagery depend on the background and condition of brain. As an example of auditory imagery we can express from an ode: “Or sinking as the light wind lives or dies; And full-grown lambs loud bleat from hilly bourn; Hedge-crickets sing; and now with treble soft The redbreast whistles from a garden-croft, And gathering swallows twitter in the skies. ” Kinesthesia images: where the reader can imagine the movements and action of a person or an object.

For example: his body moved fluidly throughout the obstacle course, dodging every object thrown at him with agility and grace while speeding down the path. Olfactory images which refers to smell of the odors and scents. Example: the perfume she sprayed reminded her of the sweet and calming scent of mangos and vanilla, a wave of relaxation soon overcoming her. Gustatory images refer to the words in your mind that make you think of taste. For example: the artificial cherry taste of the cough medicine was overly flowery and sweet. Tactile image: allow reader to imagine a feel or texture of certain things.

As an example: the blanket was as soft as cotton and as smooth as silk. Organic imagery which is the imagination of feeling what the character feels, such as thirst, hunger. As an example: he was completely drained of energy, his knees buckling from carrying his own weight and eyes drooping from exhaustion. Imagery used in three senses in literary eroticism: in the broad sense, the image need not be mental pictures. In narrow sense, imagery is description of visual objects and senses. The third, imagery means figurative language. Function of imagery Imagery is used in poetry and literature.

In poetry is as a backbone of poem because imagery used in poem to evoke a response in reader. Imagery has different connotation and meaning, but for the poet they convey a complete human experience in every few words. Imagery in literature is a collection of techniques that appeal to the senses. There are two main types of language used in literature: secretive and figurative: in the descriptive language we can refer to the senses directly, while in the figurative language we should use some description and invoke other meaning. To create imagery in literature, both types of languages are used.

The descriptive language use imagery directly to create a vivid, realistic description of the sense. This describes the appearance and setting, the different senses. Comprehension of metaphor There are some theories related to metaphor comprehension: 1 . Interaction theory: (proposed by Richards (1965), black (1962)), in this view the interaction between tenor and vehicle creates metaphor. . Mapping theory: (proposed by Alaska(1987)), this view use the terms of “source domain” and “target domain” to show the directionality of relation between these domains that called mapping. 3.

Blending theory: in metaphor there are two psychological spaces: source psychological space and target psychological space. These two spaces make a new space. The sense of metaphor called generic space. If the source, target and generic spaces create a new space metaphor is made. Metaphor translation According to Newark, “whilst the central problem of translation is the overall choice translation of metaphor”. Unremarkable; 104) In order to interpretation of metaphors, translator can choose among some possibilities: 1 . Exact equivalence of original metaphor, 2. A metaphorical phrase which express a similar sense, 3.

Untranslatable metaphor replaced with approximate literal paraphrase Problems relating to metaphor translation Adage points out “since a metaphor in SSL is, by definition, a semantic novelty, it can clearly have no existing equivalence in the TTL”. Another problem relates to what Limier claims ” most words in a language have absorbed cultural aspects and historical experiences”. Metaphors often are culture-bound, and the best way for translation is direct translation. Metaphor as an issue in translation study Prescription versus description These two polarities (prescription and description) are one aspect of translation problem.

The advocates of prescriptive approach are Nadia, Van den Broke, Newark and the advocates of descriptive approach are Tour, Snell Horny, Baker. (Fernando et al 2003:61) These approaches seeking SST faithfulness have been increasingly disregarded in favor of target oriented studies, which had an impact on the concept of equivalence. Transgenic equivalence thus doesn’t pursue ‘perfect’ but rather ‘acceptable’ rendering (Arabian-Lavaliere’s) Classical versus conceptual perspective Another classification in study of metaphor is the polarities of classical and conceptual approach.

While the principal of these two approaches are different, in recent decades some attempts have been done to combine these two approaches. In the classical view, metaphor was a rhetorical figure or a device to add interest to the text. At the same time, metaphor has been seen as something interesting, peripheral, as an object in realm of poetic rather than empirical analysis. Traditional understanding of metaphor as a figure of speech has been recently replaced with a more complex conceptual, cognitive approach(Schaeffer 2004).

The publication of ‘Metaphors we live by (1980) by Alaska and Johnson change the whole world of study. In recent years the new conceptual view of metaphor is the most important view. Alaska and Johnson argues that marathons are nothing less than demonstration of the whole system of experience and thought of human society- in other words, “metaphor permeate and pervade both languages and thought”( Fernando 2003:65). So metaphor is an expression of conceptual mapping, while this view is the same of lassie view but it is said that mapping is a surface demonstration of the relation in a deeper level.

Descriptive: _cultural Horny(1988-95), Towboats(1993) _(UN)translatability and cultural overlap(Adage(1976-1987) _(UN)translatability and structure of cultural information(Van Den Broke(1981) Prescriptive keeping the same metaphorical image _changing it into a simile _substituting by equivalent metaphor in the TTL _keeping the same metaphorical image and adding explanation _paraphrase Horny(1988-1995) claims that some abstract rule cannot describe metaphor, and the unction of metaphor within a context should be considered.

Newark never said anything about the choice from among the procedure. Alaska and Johnson argue that “the metaphors that are most alive and most deeply entrenched, efficient and powerful are those that are so automatic as to be unconscious and effortless”. In recent work related to metaphor translation, the cognitive approach is adopted by different theorists and statisticians. They look at the metaphor not as stereotyped types, but as a process of mapping between two different domains that called the source domain and target domain.

For example in the statement “this room is an oven” the target domain is our understanding of the concept of heat for it is the concept we wish to express through the metaphor. The source domain is conceptualized as “an enclosed heated compartment_ an extremely hot place, which is vehicle for the metaphorical transfer. The whole metaphor can be expressed as “heat is an enclosed heated compartment. ” The selection of translation method In order to preserve the image of metaphor 1 . Literal translation: the image in the target text is the same image transferred from source text. 2.

The image in source text is replaced by another form in 3. Image is transferred but annotation is added. This is used when target text. There are cultural differences. So by the use of annotation the reader with different cultural background can understand metaphor. Mapping In this view instead of terms tenor and vehicle, two other terms are used that called source domain and target domain. In this theory, metaphor is the projection from source domain to target domain. Mapping between these two domains helps the reader to understand conceptual metaphor and the translator to translate effectively. Translation of metaphor: 1 .

There isn’t the same metaphor In the target text 2. The metaphor existing in target text, but the mapping doesn’t follow directly. There are three possible reasons for this. -in target text another meaning is created. -the mapping doesn’t occur in target language -the mapping has restriction. Now the choice of translator depends on the existence of conceptual metaphor. If the conceptual metaphor doesn’t exist in target language, the translator has two choices: whether translate literally and add an explanation or without any consideration to mage-schematic mapping, translate the meaning of metaphor.

But if conceptual metaphors are the same in source or target language the translation is as follow: if mapped instance is the same, an exact translation is used. And if different mapping is created in target language there are two choices: Use an explanatory simile or an instance with the same meaning is replaced. Finally if there isn’t image-schema mapping in two languages, an explanatory simile is used or explanation added to direct translation. Cognitive approach Mandible In this model the cultural beliefs and values between two culturally different faculty is added when cultural differences are existed.

If cultural background of two language readers is the same so we can say mapping conditions in the SSL and TTL are similar, and cultural gap create different mapping condition. These two conditions are basic terms used in mandible’s Cognitive Translation Hypothesis. Mandible(1995) argues that translation of metaphor with a similar mapping condition(SCM) is simple and less time-consuming. When translator face with different mapping condition(DIM), has some choices: rendering the metaphor to simile, paraphrasing, footnote, explanation and omission.

Mandible intended to show the translator needs to make a shift between mapping condition of source and target language. Coves Coves (2005) expresses the regularities of the ways conceptual metaphors are expressed linguistically in different languages. In this model the translation of sixteen English metaphorical linguistic expression of “Time is money’ metaphor as described in Alaska and Johnson is examined. Coves characterized each example by one or several patterns to show whether the form, literal meaning, figurative meaning, conceptual metaphor are similar or different.

He compares the linguistic expression of conceptual metaphor in two languages of English and Hungarian. He explain that different kind of possibilities or patterns are as follows: a. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions and similar lexical implementations. B. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions but different lexical implementations. C. Metaphors of different mapping conditions but similar lexical implementations. D. Metaphors of different mapping conditions and different lexical implementations.

AH Hosanna In the criticism of Mandible approach, AH Hosanna(2007) added one scheme, and present three schemas for metaphor translation. . Metaphors with similar mapping condition ( these are cultural universal SSL metaphors) 2. Metaphors have similar mapping condition but lexically implemented in different way( in this category, the ethical system in the TTL and SSL make metaphors different in lexical aspect) 3. Metaphors have different mapping condition( include culture-bound SSL metaphors) AH Hosanna also criticizes the Naiad’s equivalents.

Nadia believes that the translation should create the same response in TTL reader as in the SSL reader. AH Hosanna claims that this equivalence is impossible practically and can be applied only under two notations: the translator knows the experience and world view of TTL readership or translator knows the best way to adapt text with experience of TTL readership. Alaska and Johnson(1980) believe that metaphor is not only a linguistic things, but also is perceived in thought and action.

So in the cognitive view of metaphor, the psychological, coloratura and linguistic aspects are considered. Another model for metaphor translation is the model of Schaeffer(2004) and Strainers(1993). Their approach is descriptive. The political texts in English and German are compared. Schaffer express five type of metaphor translation. . Manifestation having been accounted for at the micro-level 2. Structural components of the base conceptual schema in the SST are replaced by expression that make entailment’s explicit. 3. Metaphor is more elaborate in TTT. . SST and TTT employ different metaphorical expressions which can be combined under a more abstract conceptual metaphor. 5. The expression in teeth reflects a They criticize the models of Mandible(1995), Coves(2005), and AH Hosannas(2007). They noted that translation of metaphors in this model is different from mapping condition and lexical implementation. In this model there are six logically possible schemes on a cog native basis. Some English metaphors and their Persian subtitles in 3 American movies (Face off, Con Air, Speed) are considered.

These six schemes are as follows: 1. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions and similar lexical implementation For example: I’d like to stand on my own two feet Definition: to become independent Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: I’d like to stand on my own feet 2. Metaphors of similar mapping conditions but different lexical implementations. For example: she is real 10. Definition: talented and knowledgeable Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: she is 20. 3.

Metaphors of different mapping conditions but similar lexical implementations. For example: he calls his teacher by his first name. Definition: to have a friendly relation with Translation in Persian: ss Is-a The word for word translation: he calls his teacher by his first name. 4. Metaphors of different mapping conditions and different lexical implementations. For example: somebody gets the gasohol out here Definition: annoying person Translation in Persian: The word for word translation: somebody get the stick out of here. The SSL metaphor doesn’t exist in TTL For example: he is a late bloomer There isn’t any equivalent in TTL So the TTL speaker use literal language to explain 6. The TTL metaphor doesn’t exist in the SSL (the SSL speaker use literal language, TTL speaker conceptualize an identity in metaphorical structure. Metaphor in Persian poems In Persian poetry, especially the lyric (odes), feeling, thought and situation or even the persons are described by metaphor. There are two reasons for this; first of all are the poetic aspects of metaphor; the other reason is that it is politically incorrect to express feeling explicitly.

Different aspects of love and characteristics of beloved, nature, wine are described by metaphor. Hafiz employs metaphor to mask his real meaning. He uses code words which do not represent their ordinary meaning. Metaphoric wine Wine is used in Persian poetry either in actual sense or in metaphoric sense. Hafiz sometimes use wine to refer to beloved, friend, teacher or master or God. Attar also refers to wine metaphorically as follow: 15 Metaphor in describing beloved: The beloved often is image of an idealized abstract entity rather than a physical

In this paper, I will discuss euthanasia and demonstrate its immoral implications using J. Gay-Williams’ essay, “The Wrongfulness of Euthanasia”; more specifically his attempt to show the wrongfulness of euthanasia through an argument from nature. I believe that the argument is valid and presents a very good approach for those who are opposed to euthanasia. Below is my effort to summarize this view by placing it in the standard argument format. Argument from Nature ) If there is a person in a situation, where a natural instinct compels them to take action, it is morally wrong to intentionally suppress that instinct. 2) In all euthanasia cases, there is a doctor is in a situation where their patient’s natural instinct compels them to survive. 3) Therefore, in all euthanasia cases, it is morally wrong for a doctor to intentionally suppress their patient’s natural instinct to survive. The argument above is derived from part one of Gay-Williams essay. He begins his discussion of the argument from nature by asserting that each person “has a natural inclination to continue living”.

He displays this furthermore by explaining, that everything about the composition of a human organism has been designed to have a conditioned reaction that makes “the continuation of life a natural goal. ” It is by this rationale he claims, “that euthanasia sets us against our own nature. ” In order to further demonstrate the argument’s validity and good quality, I will explain how it follows all the rules of a good argument. The rules are as follows: 1) all the premises are reasonable 2) the conclusion follows 3) the argument does not beg the question.

Premise one may be better explained in and of itself through an example having to do with a general, natural instinct. One example could be when someone is in a situation in which their family is put in harms way when an intruder with sinister motives enters their house. It is a natural reaction to protect that which belongs to you (in this situation your property-your “territory” and your blood- your family). To stand idly by and witness attacks upon your family and home, without in any way, making an effort to stop the attacks, would require an ntentional suppression of a natural instinct. Premise two becomes more specific by stating that in euthanasia cases throughout, a doctor is always in a situation in which their patient’s natural instincts compel them (for as we saw in the quotes from J. Gay-Williams, a human’s conditioned response in all situations-based on the make-up of the body-is to function in a way that would always enable (or lean towards) continuity. ) to survive. The way to show that this argument follows rule number two is to reveal its logical pattern. ) If there is P (a person in a situation), where Q (a natural instinct compels them to take an action), it is R (morally wrong to intentionally suppress that instinct). 2) In all S (euthanasia cases), there is P (a doctor in a situation), where Q (their patient’s natural instinct compels them to survive). 3) Therefore, in all S (euthanasia cases), it is R (morally wrong for a doctor to intentionally suppress their patient’s natural instinct to survive). I think that this argument is good. The way in which Gay-Williams went about presenting his case was commendable.

He did make brief reference to there being a God, and that human beings are supposed to act as “trustee of his body”, and in taking a life or our own, humans are acting against him. However, it seemed as though he was keeping in mind that many people might not share the same beliefs as he, and therefore needed to have rational arguments against euthanasia which pertained in no way to faith or religion. This was the admirable thing, because it seems that many times religious people, although trying to argue an important idea, seem to have no rational approach and end up “Bible-thumping”, and coming across as ignorant.

One objection someone might have to this argument would be to premise two. Someone might say that the premise is generalizing when it says “all euthanasia cases”, because in certain cases of euthanasia a person might not be being kept alive through natural means any longer (such as: artificial life support); therefore, it can’t be said that the person’s natural instinct is to survive because without life support the person would have already died thus following the natural instinct towards death. My response to this objection would be the following: in my interpretation of J.

Gay-Williams argument from nature, I used “In all euthanasia cases, there is a doctor is in a situation where their patient’s natural instinct compels them to survive. ” As my second premise. And I must admit, that with this as the second premise, the argument is flawed as the objector revealed. However, if I were to make the second premise not end with “natural instinct compels them to survive” and rather put “natural instinct compels them” then it wouldn’t be a flawed argument. This is because it would merely be adding a twist on the argument, which Gay-Williams did not come right out and say, but it is implied.

This twist that is implied is that it is morally wrong to go against any natural human instinct, and this includes the natural instinct of dying. Maybe then, the problem of removing someone or not removing someone from life support would no longer be the problem, due to the fact that artificial life support is preventing some people from allowing their bodies to follow the natural instinct to die. Now of course this seems a bit morbid, and I’m not at all suggesting that modern technology and what it can do to save lives is morally wrong, I’m simply showing what other routes this argument from nature implies.

In the preface of “They Say/ I Say’: The Moves That Matter in Academic Writing, the authors furnish certain types of writing templates geared toward cuing students to think cognitively as well as critically; ultimately producing a writing style that is unique and creative to the individual. Graff and Bernstein maintain that the templates they offer “help students make a host of sophisticated moves” in their rating “that they might not otherwise make”.

In addition, not only can the templates spark subconscious thoughts and ideas in students, but they can help the more experienced scholars as well. Whereas others regard their own beliefs to be self- justifiable and need no elaboration, the authors offer that by supplying the student with specific templates for “entertaining a counterargument” can help stifle these pretentious beliefs. Thus, it could be said about their shared opinions that templates o more than systematize ideas and concepts, but bring forth said ideas into being.

After rereading the introduction a few times, I agree. Those unfamiliar to entertaining such train of thought may be intrigued to know that by utilizing these templates, we can effectively portray our deepest intelligence by counterintuitive means. For example, looking at something from someone else’s perspective (perhaps even an opposing party) can bring new ideas to the surface that would otherwise main unknown.

Some might contest that the opposing perspective is irrelevant because the thoughts stem from their mind’s eye which, in retrospect, might impact the overall argument or statement that they wanted to convey. Although I understand the objections from skeptics, I still maintain that having an open mind when it comes to writing is crucial in the evolution of our thought process as students and professionals.

I can say that there might be limitations on how many ways we can approach an argument or topic before it becomes deceased. Although these writing templates may seem like they only apply to a minute vernacular, it does in fact apply to a wide array of professional and personal social environments.

Psychology has been a part of literature since the beginning of its existence. Its references in the Bible which affirm that mankind is separated from the animal kingdom and also show us the normal pattern to lead an effective and rewarding Christian life are parts of psychology in the foundation of life’s meaning. We see these writings as truth as we have them instilled within us at an early age when attending church and reading the bible.

Psychology works the same way in every type of material one reads. One is subject to psychology and the part it plays in each of the short stories, novels or poems one reads. However one may have not be fully aware of how it affects our perception of the material. It is what keeps us interested in the story. The psychological appeal that comes with certain styles of writing and peaks the interest of the reader who is waiting to see the conclusion. As Thomas Kellogg states, “for the act of writing exemplifies to me the very essence of what it means to be human. Psychology is represented in each writing by the relationships that are created teens the authors and its readers. In Flannels O’Connor “Good Country People” her cognitive approach is easily understood, “cognitive psychology differs from other models in that it focuses on the human cognitive activity of structuring and interpreting one’s world. ” In this story we relate because we see Helga who believes in nothing and has seen what she believes to be evil since losing her leg. Her mind is so engrossed in negativity that she cannot get past the past.

When she finally does she is left in the barn thinking to herself that she was right all along. We also see the DOD as her mother still believes in the bible and its meaning. She sees almost everyone as “good country people” or “the salt of the earth. ” O’Connor uses a written psychological approach in the names of the characters. Mrs.. Freeman who works at the farm is a gossip who freely repeats the stories she is told. Mrs.. Hopeful is theoretically a hopeful and positive person who is always accepting of people, the story suggests it is because she is a Catholic.

The phrases of “Everybody is different” and “It takes all kinds to make the world” implies that she accepts and likes all kinds f people. When she says “people who looked on the bright side of things would be beautiful even if they were not” shows her positive side of thinking. Manley Pointer is just that, a man in a story with all female characters. His Manley ways seduce the immature Helga who loses herself because of a need for the affection she is lacking. “Brewer’s ‘structural affect theory was the first model in discourse psychology that seriously attempted to integrate plot, agency, and emotions” into literature.

This story has done Just that by having smaller parts that lead to the suspenseful end where Manley takes her artificial leg and leave’s her stranded or even the quick reference where Helga thinks he may have stood her up. That is what keeps each reader interested in the plot and makes one want to know the outcome. “The psychology of literature is therefore unique in its treatment of psychological matters because words are used to express and communicate information. ” “Furthermore, writers are like psychologists in being interested in the mind, emotions and behavior. ” In cautiously picking each word of the story they convey a message.

In this story Mrs.. Hopeful describes her feelings for the new name of Helga for her daughter Joy. She thought “broad blank hull of a battleship,” it angered her so much that she refused to call her anything but Joy. “In the study of human nature, literature, a product of our evolved human brains, is a bountiful source of data on human desires and dispositions, drawing attention to what is really important in our lives. ” This is shown in the way Helga both longs for a companion but is also a bit weary at the same time. Or how the mother is portrayed as a Christian, but cannot be proud of her daughter and the degree she received from college.

When reading this story one can relate to he loneliness, happiness, lack of confidence masked by anger and utter disappointment felt by its characters. It is a truly outstanding story that shows the dynamic between the mother and her daughters, Helga and her mother, Helga and Manley as well as the mother and Mrs.. Freeman. Theses inner intricate stories can easily relate to everyday people and the trials and tribulations of society.