Nature

Experiment 4: Friction Laboratory Report Anna Rucelli Ignacio Michael Giorgio Lapus Ted William Lardizabal Janell Leica Lee Department of Occupational Therapy College of Reabilitation Sciences, University of Santo Tomas Epa, Manila Philippines Abstract The experiment verifies the laws of friction with the use of a spring scale, a block of wood, its different surfaces and the different surfaces of other objects. Another part of the experiment uses the palms of the hands to produce friction then apply lubricants then see the differences.

The experiment also observes the effect of air resistance on falling paper. 1. Introduction Friction is the force resisting the relative lateral (tangential) motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, or material elements in contact. It is usually subdivided into several varieties: * Dry friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces in contact. Dry friction is also subdivided into static friction between non-moving surfaces, and kinetic friction (sometimes called sliding friction or dynamic friction) between moving surfaces. Lubricated friction or fluid friction resists relative lateral motion of two solid surfaces separated by a layer of gas or liquid. * Fluid friction is also used to describe the friction between layers within a fluid that are moving relative to each other. * Skin friction is a component of drag, the force resisting the motion of a solid body through a fluid. * Internal friction is the force resisting motion between the elements making up a solid material while it undergoes deformation.

Friction is not a fundamental force, as it is derived from electromagnetic force between charged particles, including electrons, protons, atoms, and molecules, and so cannot be calculated from first principles, but instead must be found empirically. When contacting surfaces move relative to each other, the friction between the two surfaces converts kinetic energy into thermal energy, or heat. Contrary to earlier explanations, kinetic friction is now understood not to be caused by surface roughness but by chemical bonding between the surfaces.

Surface roughness and contact area, however, do affect kinetic friction for micro- and nano-scale objects where surface area forces dominate inertial forces. The normal force is defined as the net force compressing two parallel surfaces together; and its direction is perpendicular to the surfaces. In the simple case of a mass resting on a horizontal surface, the only component of the normal force is the force due to gravity, where N=mg. In this case, the magnitude of the friction force is the product of the mass of the object, the acceleration due to gravity, and the coefficient of friction.

However, the coefficient of friction is not a function of mass or volume; it depends only on the material. For instance, a large aluminum block has the same coefficient of friction as a small aluminum block. However, the magnitude of the friction force itself depends on the normal force, and hence the mass of the block. If an object is on a level surface and the force tending to cause it to slide is horizontal, the normal force N, between the object and the surface is just its weight, which is equal to its mass multiplied by the acceleration due to earth’s gravity, g.

If the object is on a tilted surface such as an inclined plane, the normal force is less, because less of the force of gravity is perpendicular to the face of the plane. Therefore, the normal force, and ultimately the frictional force, is determined using vector analysis, usually via a free body diagram. Depending on the situation, the calculation of the normal force may include forces other than gravity. [pic] A common way to reduce friction is by using a lubricant, such as oil, water, or grease, which is placed between the two surfaces, often dramatically lessening the coefficient of friction.

The science of friction and lubrication is called tribology. Lubricant technology is when lubricants are mixed with the application of science, especially to industrial or commercial objectives. Superlubricity, a recently-discovered effect, is the substantial decrease of friction between two sliding objects, approaching zero levels. A very small amount of frictional energy would still be dissipated. 2. Theory ?s = maximum static friction normal force ?K = kinetic friction normal force 3. Methodology

For the first activity, a piece of wood was placed on top of a wooden board with a spring scale attach to it. The minimum force needed to start the motion was determined by pulling the spring balance which is numerically equivalent to the maximum static friction. The kinetic friction was determined by pulling the spring balance with constant motion. This procedure was repeated by using the other sides of the block and their fsmax and fK was recorded. For the first trial in the second activity, the fsmax and fK of the wooden block was determined.

For the succeeding trials, 100g weight is added to the block every trial and their fsmax and fK was recorded. This was called the normal force which is equivalent to the weight of the block plus 100g. After getting their fsmax and fK, their µs was calculated by using the formula µs = fsmax/fn. Also the µK was calculated by using the formula fK/ fn. For the first trial of the third activity, the fsmax and fK of the wooden block was determined while it was pulled over a wooden board. In the second trial, the wooden surface/board was replaced with the tiles of the floor.

So the wooden block was pulled over the tiles of the floor and its fsmax and fK of the wooden block was recorded. For the third trial, sand paper was used as surface while the wooden block was pulled and its fsmax and fK was recorded. For the next trial, plastic cover was used as surface while the wooden block was pulled and its fsmax and fK was recorded. Lastly, paper/cartolina was used as surface while the wooden block was being pulled and its fsmax and fK was recorded. For the fourth activity, one member of the group was asked to rub his/her hands together for one minute.

After rubbing, was asked to place his/her hands on his/her cheeks and the sensation felt was observed. The succeeding trials were done by applying powder, oil, and lotion before rubbing the hands. The sensation felt was also recorded. For the last activity, a paper was dropped over a motion detector and its terminal velocity and square of terminal activity was recorded by using a program installed in the computer. The following trials were done by adding 1 paper every trial on top of each other and were dropped on the motion detector. Its terminal and square of terminal velocity was recorded.

Engineers work to develop economic and safe solutions to practical problems, by applying mathematics, scientific knowledge and ingenuity while considering technical constraints. The term is derived from the Latin root “ingenium,” meaning “cleverness”. The industrial revolution and continuing technological developments of the last few centuries have changed the connotation of the term slightly, resulting in the perception of engineers as applied scientists. The work of engineers is the link between perceived needs of society and commercial applications.

As for engineering definition it is a discipline, art and profession of acquiring and applying technical, scientific, and mathematical knowledge to design and implement materials, structures, machines, devices, systems, and processes that safely realize a desired objective or invention. The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of more specialized sub disciplines, each with a more specific emphasis on certain fields of application and particular areas of technology. The concept of engineering has existed since ancient times as humans devised fundamental inventions such as the pulley, lever, and wheel.

Each of these inventions is consistent with the modern definition of engineering, exploiting basic mechanical principles to develop useful tools and objects. The term engineering itself has a much more recent etymology, deriving from the word engineer, which itself dates back to 1325, when an engine’er (literally, one who operates an engine) originally referred to “a constructor of military engines. ” In this context, now obsolete, an “engine” referred to a military machine, i. e. , a mechanical contraption used in war (for example, a catapult). The word “engine” itself is of even older origin, ultimately deriving from the Latin ingenium (c. 250), and meaning “innate quality, especially mental power, hence a clever invention. ” Later, as the design of civilian structures such as bridges and buildings matured as a technical discipline, the term civil engineering entered the lexicon as a way to distinguish between those specializing in the construction of such non-military projects and those involved in the older discipline of military engineering (the original meaning of the word “engineering,” now largely obsolete, with notable exceptions that have survived to the present day such as military engineering corps, e. g. the U. S. Army Corps of Engineers. Engineering, much like other science, is a broad discipline which is often broken down into several sub-disciplines. With the rapid advancement of technology many new fields are gaining prominence and new branches are developing such as materials engineering, computer engineering, software engineering, nanotechnology, tribology, molecular engineering, mechatronics, etc. These new specialties sometimes combine with the traditional fields and form new branches such as mechanical engineering and mechatronics and electrical and computer engineering.

A new or emerging area of application will commonly be defined temporarily as a permutation or subset of existing disciplines; there is often gray area as to when a given sub-field becomes large and/or prominent enough to warrant classification as a new “branch. ” One key indicator of such emergence is when major universities start establishing departments and programs in the new field. For each of these fields there exists considerable overlap, especially in the areas of the application of sciences to their disciplines such as physics, chemistry and mathematics.

Engineering is a subject that ranges from large collaborations to small individual projects. Almost all engineering projects are beholden to some sort of financing agency: a company, a set of investors, or a government. The few types of engineering that are minimally constrained by such issues are pro bono engineering and open design engineering. By its very nature engineering is bound up with society and human behaviour. Every product or construction used by modern society will have been influenced by engineering design.

Engineering design is a very powerful tool to make changes to environment, society and economies, and its application brings with it a great responsibility. Many lists of engineering societies have established codes of practice and codes of ethics to guide members and inform the public at large. Engineering projects can be subject to controversy. Examples from different engineering disciplines include the development of nuclear weapons, the Three Gorges Dam, the design and use of Sport utility vehicles and the extraction of oil.

In response, some western engineering companies have enacted serious corporate and social responsibility policies. Engineering is a key driver of human development. Sub-Saharan Africa in particular has a very small engineering capacity which results in many African nations being unable to develop crucial infrastructure without outside aid. The attainment of many of the Millennium Development Goals requires the achievement of sufficient engineering capacity to develop infrastructure and sustainable technological development.

Safety is the state of being “safe” (from French sauf), the condition of being protected against physical, social, spiritual, financial, political, emotional, occupational, psychological, educational or other types or consequences of failure, damage, error, accidents, harm or any other event which could be considered non-desirable. This can take the form of being protected from the event or from exposure to something that causes health or economical losses. It can include protection of people or of possessions.

Safety engineering is an applied science strongly related to systems engineering and the subset System Safety Engineering. Safety engineering assures that a life-critical system behaves as needed even when pieces fail. Continuous changes in technology, environmental regulation and public safety concerns make the analysis of complex safety-critical systems more and more demanding. Safety is often seen as one of a group of related disciplines: quality, reliability, availability, maintainability and safety.

These issues tend to determine the value of any work, and deficits in any of these areas are considered to result in a cost, beyond the cost of addressing the area in the first place; good management is then expected to minimize total cost. Theoretically, safety-engineers take an early design of a system, analyze it to find what faults can occur, and then propose safety requirements in design specifications up front and changes to existing systems to make the system safer.

But actually, safety engineers are assigned to prove that an existing, completed design is safe. If a safety engineer then discovers significant safety problems late in the design process, correcting them can be very expensive. This type of error has the potential to waste large sums of money. The exception to this conventional approach is the way some large government agencies approach safety engineering from a more proactive and proven process perspective, known as “system safety”.

The system safety philosophy is to be applied to complex and critical systems, such as commercial airliners, complex weapon systems, spacecraft, rail and transportation systems, air traffic control system and other complex and safety-critical industrial systems. The proven system safety methods and techniques are to prevent, eliminate and control hazards and risks through designed influences by a collaboration of key engineering disciplines and product teams. Software safety is a fast growing ield since modern systems functionality are increasingly being put under control of software. The whole concept of system safety and software safety, as a subset of systems engineering, is to influence safety-critical systems designs by conducting several types of hazard analyses to identify risks and to specify design safety features and procedures to strategically mitigate risk to acceptable levels before the system is certified. Additionally, failure mitigation can go beyond design recommendations, particularly in the area of maintenance.

There is an entire realm of safety and reliability engineering known as Reliability Centered Maintenance (RCM), which is a discipline that is a direct result of analyzing potential failures within a system and determining maintenance actions that can mitigate the risk of failure. This methodology is used extensively on aircraft and involves understanding the failure modes of the serviceable replaceable assemblies in addition to the means to detect or predict an impending failure.

Every automobile owner is familiar with this concept when they take in their car to have the oil changed or brakes checked. Even filling up one’s car with fuel is a simple example of a failure mode (failure due to fuel exhaustion), a means of detection (fuel gauge), and a maintenance action (filling the car’s fuel tank). For large scale complex systems, hundreds if not thousands of maintenance actions can result from the failure analysis. These maintenance actions are based on conditions (e. g. , gauge reading or leaky valve), hard conditions (e. . , a component is known to fail after 100 hrs of operation with 95% certainty), or require inspection to determine the maintenance action (e. g. , metal fatigue). The RCM concept then analyzes each individual maintenance item for its risk contribution to safety, mission, operational readiness, or cost to repair if a failure does occur. Then the sum total of all the maintenance actions are bundled into maintenance intervals so that maintenance is not occurring around the clock, but rather, at regular intervals.

This bundling process introduces further complexity, as it might stretch some maintenance cycles, thereby increasing risk, but reduce others, thereby potentially reducing risk, with the end result being a comprehensive maintenance schedule, purpose built to reduce operational risk and ensure acceptable levels of operational readiness and availability. The two most common fault modelling techniques are called failure mode and effects analysis and fault tree analysis. These techniques are just ways of inding problems and of making plans to cope with failures, as in probabilistic risk assessment. One of the earliest complete studies using this technique on a commercial nuclear plant was the WASH-1400 study, also known as the Reactor Safety Study or the Rasmussen Report. Once a failure mode is identified, it can usually be prevented entirely by adding extra equipment to the system. For example, nuclear reactors contain dangerous radiation, and nuclear reactions can cause so much heat that no substance might contain them.

Therefore reactors have emergency core cooling systems to keep the temperature down, shielding to contain the radiation, and engineered barriers (usually several, nested, surmounted by a containment building) to prevent accidental leakage. Most biological organisms have a certain amount of redundancy: multiple organs, multiple limbs, etc. For any given failure, a fail-over or redundancy can almost always be designed and incorporated into a system. Health is the general condition of a person in all aspects.

It is also a level of functional and/or metabolic efficiency of an organism, often implicitly human. At the time of the creation of the World Health Organization (WHO), in 1948, health was defined as being “a state of complete physical, mental, and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity”. Only a handful of publications have focused specifically on the definition of health and its evolution in the first 6 decades. Some of them highlight its lack of operational value and the problem created by use of the word “complete. Others declare the definition, which has not been modified since 1948, “simply a bad one. ” In 1986, the WHO, in the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion, said that health is “a resource for everyday life, not the objective of living. Health is a positive concept emphasizing social and personal resources, as well as physical capacities. ” Classification systems such as the WHO Family of International Classifications (WHO-FIC), which is composed of the International Classification of Functioning, Disability, and Health (ICF) and the International Classification of Diseases (ICD) also define health.

Overall health is achieved through a combination of physical, mental, emotional, and social well-being, which, together is commonly referred to as the Health Triangle. Health and working together safety engineers plan, implement, and coordinate safety programs to prevent or correct unsafe environmental working conditions. They promote workplace and product safety by identifying and monitoring potential hazards to people or property.

They then apply an advanced knowledge of industrial processes and human performance principles to reduce or eliminate the risk of injury or damage. To create a safe and environmentally sound workplace, engineers coordinate with outside organizations, such as fire departments or the Occupational Health and Safety Administration (OSHA); design and install safety devices on machinery or clothing; and investigate causes of industrial accidents to prevent further incidents. They also conduct tests to ascertain air quality, noise level, temperature, or radiation.

Once the analysis is complete, they then consult with governmental organizations on how to handle such problems in compliance with safety regulations. Health and safety engineers then coordinate the training of workers on safety procedures using safety equipment, devices, and clothing. Working under the Health Department and the work involves is the planning, administration and performance of public health engineering duties concerned with the execution of one or more phases of the environmental health program.

The work entails advising public officials or individuals on problems requiring professional public health engineering expertise, including measures for improvement and compliance with legal requirements, assisting in the promotion of public health through application of environmental health practices, assisting in the enforcement of the provisions of local and State health matters and investigations of related conditions and problems. The work is performed under general supervision of a Senior Public Health Engineer with leeway allowed for exercise of independent judgment in carrying out details of the work.

Engineers also played a relatively indirect role in medicine until the last 40 to 50 years. They produced instruments and articles specified by doctors and medical practitioners. There was however an interesting contribution made by Isambard Kingdom Brunel in 1855. He responded to the scandal of the appalling conditions of the Crimean War military hospital, publicised by Florence Nightingale, by designing the first portable hospital of one thousand beds within six days of receiving a request for help from the War Office. The project was completed in five months from design to admission of the first wounded soldier.

The introduction of anaesthetics in 1846 fundamentally changed surgery by suppressing pain. This gave surgeons more time and allowed for the developments of new techniques which made surgery more constructive. However modern medical developments really began in 1876 when Robert Koch, a German doctor, proved for the first time that microorganisms could cause disease. The first chemical agent to attack infection, salvarsan or ‘606’ (arsenobenzene) was developed by Paul Ehrlich in 1910 and although it had many side effects, remained the only means of curing acute infection until the second world war when penicillin was introduced.

Although penicillin was originally discovered by Sir Alexander Fleming in 1928, it was the innovation and ingenuity of chemists and engineers such as Ernst Chain, who built for Beechams the fermenter which enabled bulk semi-synthetic penicillins to be produced. Whilst chemists and engineers were involved in delivering the benefits of microorganisms such as antibiotics and vaccines, electrical engineers were advancing and applying technology to the benefit of healthcare.

Of special merit was Godfrey Hounsfield’s singular contribution in the 1960s of the development of three dimensional reconstructions from two dimensional (2D) X-rays, namely the brain scanner, later to be developed into the body scanner. Engineering in medicine has been an important and it’s believed that the role of the engineer in many areas of healthcare will grow. Constant innovation and development is needed to avoid the generations of the 21st century looking back at our surgical and medical techniques with the same appalled fascination in the 19th century.

The ever-expanding array of medical technologies includes artificial hips and organs, endoscopy (enabling minimally invasive surgery), intelligent prosthetic devices (artificial limbs, hearing aids) and implantable devices (pacemaker, defibrillator), novel technologies used in cardiac catheterization, patient monitoring, and medical imaging. These developments have had a tremendous impact on the medical industry and have led to numerous technologies and medical devices without which modern medicine would be unthinkable.

Today’s activities range from nano- to information technology and involve such diverse applications as microsensors, artificial organs, physiological modelling, genomics, molecular imaging, home care monitoring, ergonomics, information processing, data management, and patient safety. Environment in this case is natural environment, commonly referred to simply as the environment, encompasses all living and non-living things occurring naturally on Earth or some region thereof. The concept of the natural environment can be distinguished by two components.

Complete ecological units that function as natural systems without massive human intervention, including all vegetation, animals, microorganisms, soil, rocks, atmosphere and natural phenomena that occur within their boundaries. Others is universal natural resources and physical phenomena that lack clear-cut boundaries, such as air, water, and climate, as well as energy, radiation, electric charge, and magnetism, not originating from human activity. The natural environment is contrasted with the built environment, which comprises the areas and components that are strongly influenced by humans.

A geographical area is regarded as a natural environment (with an indefinite article), if the human impact on it is kept under a certain limited level. In engineering, is more related with environmental engineering whereas define as the application of science and engineering principles to improve the environment (air, water, and/or land resources), to provide healthy water, air, and land for human habitation and for other organisms, and to remediate polluted sites. Environmental engineering involves water and air pollution control, recycling, waste disposal, and public health issues as well as knowledge of environmental engineering law.

It also includes studies on the environmental impact of proposed construction projects. Environmental engineers conduct hazardous-waste management studies to evaluate the significance of such hazards, advice on treatment and containment, and develop regulations to prevent mishaps. Environmental engineers also design municipal water supply and industrial wastewater treatment systems as well as address local and worldwide environmental issues such as the effects of acid rain, ozone depletion, water pollution and air pollution from automobile exhausts and industrial sources.

At many universities, Environmental Engineering programs follow either the Department of Civil Engineering or The Department of Chemical Engineering at engineering faculties. Environmental “civil” engineers focus on hydrology, water resources management, bioremediation, and water treatment plant design. Environmental “chemical” engineers, on the other hand, focus on environmental chemistry, advanced air and water treatment technologies and separation processes. Additionally, engineers are more frequently obtaining specialized training in law and are utilizing their technical expertise in the practices of Environmental engineering law. Most jurisdictions also impose licensing and registration requirements. Modern environmental engineering began in London in the mid-19th century when Joseph Bazalgette designed the first major sewerage system that reduced the incidence of waterborne diseases such as cholera. The introduction of drinking water treatment and sewage treatment in industrialized countries reduced waterborne diseases from leading causes of death to rarities.

In many cases, as societies grew, actions that were intended to achieve benefits for those societies had longer-term impacts which reduced other environmental qualities. One example is the widespread application of DDT to control agricultural pests in the years following World War II. While the agricultural benefits were outstanding and crop yields increased dramatically, thus reducing world hunger substantially, and malaria was controlled better than it ever had been, numerous species were brought to the verge of extinction due to the impact of the DDT on their reproductive cycles.

The story of DDT as vividly told in Rachel Carson’s “Silent Spring” is considered to be the birth of the modern environmental movement and the development of the modern field of “environmental engineering. ” Conservation movements and laws restricting public actions that would harm the environment have been developed by various societies for millennia. Notable examples are the laws decreeing the construction of sewers in London and Paris in the 19th century and the creation of the U. S. national park system in the early 20th century.

Briefly speaking, the main task of environmental engineering is to protect public health by protecting (from further degradation), preserving (the present condition of), and enhancing the environment. Pollutants may be chemical, biological, thermal, radioactive, or even mechanical. Environmental engineering emphasizes several areas: process engineering, environmental chemistry, water and sewage treatment (sanitary engineering), waste reduction/management, and pollution prevention/cleanup.

Contribution to society is engineers and scientists assess the impacts of a proposed project on environmental conditions. They apply scientific and engineering principles to evaluate if there are likely to be any adverse impacts to water quality, air quality, habitat quality, flora and fauna, agricultural capacity, traffic impacts, social impacts, ecological impacts, noise impacts, visual (landscape) impacts, etc. If impacts are expected, they then develop mitigation measures to limit or prevent such impacts.

An example of a mitigation measure would be the creation of wetlands in a nearby location to mitigate the filling in of wetlands necessary for a road development if it is not possible to reroute the road. Engineers and scientists also work to secure water supplies for potable and agricultural use. They evaluate the water balance within a watershed and determine the available water supply, the water needed for various needs in that watershed, the seasonal cycles of water movement through the watershed and they develop systems to store, treat, and convey water for various uses.

Water is treated to achieve water quality objectives for the end uses. In the case of potable water supply, water is treated to minimize risk of infectious disease transmittal, risk of non-infectious illness, and create a palatable water flavour. Water distribution systems are designed and built to provide adequate water pressure and flow rates to meet various end-user needs such as domestic use, fire suppression, and irrigation.

Most urban and many rural areas no longer discharge human waste directly to the land through outhouse, septic, and/or honey bucket systems, but rather deposit such waste into water and convey it from households via sewer systems. Engineers and scientists develop collection and treatment systems to carry this waste material away from where people live and produce the waste and discharge it into the environment. In developed countries, substantial resources are applied to the treatment and detoxification of this waste before it is discharged into a river, lake, or ocean system.

Developing nations are striving to obtain the resources to develop such systems so that they can improve water quality in their surface waters and reduce the risk of water-borne infectious disease. There are numerous wastewater treatment technologies. A wastewater treatment train can consist of a primary clarifier system to remove solid and floating materials, a secondary treatment system consisting of an aeration basin followed by flocculation and sedimentation or an activated sludge system and a secondary clarifier, a tertiary biological nitrogen removal system, and a final disinfection process.

The aeration basin/activated sludge system removes organic material by growing bacteria (activated sludge). The secondary clarifier removes the activated sludge from the water. The tertiary system, although not always included due to costs, is becoming more prevalent to remove nitrogen and phosphorus and to disinfect the water before discharge to a surface water stream or ocean outfall. Engineers apply scientific and engineering principles to the design of manufacturing and combustion processes to reduce air pollutant emissions to acceptable levels.

Scrubbers, electrostatic precipitators, catalytic converters, and various other processes are utilized to remove particulate matter, nitrogen oxides, sulphur oxides, volatile organic compounds (VOC), reactive organic gases (ROG) and other air pollutants from flue gases and other sources prior to allowing their emission to the atmosphere. Scientists also have developed air pollution dispersion models to evaluate the concentration of a pollutant at a receptor or the impact on overall air quality from vehicle exhausts and industrial flue gas stack emissions.

To some extent, this field overlaps the desire to decrease carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gas emissions from combustion processes. Technology is an application of knowledge to the practical aims of human life or to changing and manipulating the human environment. Technology includes the use of materials, tools, techniques, and sources of power to make life easier or more pleasant and work more productive. Whereas science is concerned with how and why things happen, technology focuses on making things happen.

Technology began to influence human endeavour as soon as people began using tools. It accelerated with the Industrial Revolution and the substitution of machines for animal and human labour. Accelerated technological development has also had costs, in terms of air and water pollution and other undesirable environmental effects. Technologies significantly affect human as well as other animal species’ ability to control and adapt to their natural environments. The human species’ use of technology began with the conversion of natural resources into simple tools.

Engineering is the goal-oriented process of designing and making tools and systems to exploit natural phenomena for practical human means, often (but not always) using results and techniques from science. The development of technology may draw upon many fields of knowledge, including scientific, engineering, mathematical, linguistic, and historical knowledge, to achieve some practical result. Technology is often a consequence of science and engineering — although technology as a human activity precedes the two fields.

For example, science might study the flow of electrons in electrical conductors, by using already-existing tools and knowledge. This new-found knowledge may then be used by engineers to create new tools and machines, such as semiconductors, computers, and other forms of advanced technology. In this sense, scientists and engineers may both be considered technologists; the three fields are often considered as one for the purposes of research and reference.

As for conclusion, engineer and engineering plays vital role in our life. Engineer has contribute a lot with the careful research and development using all the mathematical and science related in creating, solving and also improve our daily life. In existent of engineer also we are aware in the safety, health and environment. In ways, engineers identify what is safe and what not. Engineer create something in aided the medical profession thus improving the quality of life.

Engineer also contributes in preventing pollution to occur and also find alternative for not destroying the environment. With more technological advancement, engineer have unlimited to what they can do in contribution to the society. Engineer must bear in mind, that everything must have it weakness and consequences. As such, engineer with obligation to serve the society must have good research and have think all the effect that could have happen before doing anything.

Climate change is defined as “Change of climate which is attributed directly or indirectly to human activity that alters the composition of the global atmosphere and which is in addition to natural climate variability observed over comparable time periods”(Bruno and Mehmet 2010). Modern methods of production create greenhouse gasses as a negative externality via the market failure and government intervention is needed to rectify the situation.

Climate change is an issue for the Australian government as it needs to intervene to correct the market failure caused by the free markets inability to provide property rights to mitigate damages caused by the negative externality. (Calhoun 2010) The greenhouse gas externality is a by-product of the production of goods and services via the over-production of emissions. Dr Peter John Wood argues that” climate change is an indisputable threat” and on that basis, as well as the world stage Australia has taken the reins in acting upon climate change.

An externality is defined as” are the unintended consequence of one economic agent’s economic activity that affect another agent’s economic activity, but which are not adequately priced through the market (Sonia and Jeff 2011)”. This is also known as market failure and requires government intervention to be able to rectify the problem due to a lack of property rights and correct mitigation for parties involved with the transaction. In this case, one form of the market failure is because the cost of CO2 is not factored into the transaction price.

The Gillard government continued a legacy that was started with the Howard government back in 2007 that saw a Carbon Emissions Trading scheme take part in the Australian government to tackle Australia’s greenhouse gas emissions (Chris 2011). The Carbon tax was implemented on June 1st 2012 and has been controversial amongst politicians and economists alike according to Clive’s article “Australia’s Carbon Tax: A Sheep in Wolf’s Clothing”.

The steps taken to implement a policy should be understood first before critiquing from different viewpoints.

The four major points of policymaking are:

1. Specify the goals of policy

2. Identify the targets

3. Specify the policy instruments

4. Model the economy linking the instruments to the targets

Using this framework, the goal’s of the policy are to mitigate damages caused by the production of greenhouse gasses on the (global) environment on a national scale and decrease the amount of pollution via increasing the price of polluting. The targets of the policy are the agents involved (Firms producing pollution, environment and households) with the transactions. Firms are the largest creators of the pollution and the households are directly affected by price increases, therefore their welfare post-tax needs to be considered in a socially acceptable policy. The policy instruments include subsidies to the households most affected by the increases in prices of amenities as well as the Pigovian Tax on polluting (Energy 2012). Lastly, the model that directly links the economy to the instruments proposed can be shown below.

Tax brings the externality into equilibrium with the social cost. The amount of gain to the social benefit is the darker area and is also the taxation revenue collected on behalf of the government. This also decreases output by the difference in Original output-New output. This can also be shown on a Supply and Demand graph. The graph to the right illustrates the effectiveness of the tax on the existing market price and therefore reducing the quantity of pollution emitted. This tax is directly placed on the top 500 polluting firms in Australia which account for the majority of the pollution via production.

The Department for Climate Change and Efficient Energy published their “Forth Assessment Report” outlining that “There is clear evidence that our climate is changing, largely due to human activities”. One can infer that the government is acting morally and taking partial responsibility for these human activities, hence action for change and mitigation.

Market failure is defined as the inability of the market being able to deliver an efficient level of goods and or services (Calhoun 2010). This is an important aspect when determining what aspects of a policy are vital in addressing the issue at hand, because the situation of pollution is a non-Pareto optimal situation due to the negative externalities created in the transaction between agents.

The government’s intervention due to the market failing is justified by its role in the G8, Kyoto Protocol and its response to the public on the matter (“Australia to have leading role in carbon mitigation” 2007). Another reason is that property rights are not defined clearly with the environment, therefore the government intervention to make the Marginal Social Cost equal the Marginal Social Cost via a Pigovian tax, decreasing the amount of negative externality produced (greenhouse gasses).(Bruno and Mehmet 2010)

Macro-economically speaking, this issue impacts both Australia’s macroeconomic goal of efficient resource allocation and sustainable economic growth. Due to high public opinion on green alternatives and clean production, changes in consumer preferences will mean that some goods and services provided using traditional fossil fuels or unsustainable methods may be boy-cotted or fall second preference to ‘green goods’(Kathleen 2012)

The Efficient resource allocation goal of Australia addresses “…where resources are allocated in the most efficient manner”(Weng 2008). The environment is a common resource and traditionally has not been defined to any specific owner. Firms may utilise the environment (clean air, sunshine and or clean water) as a factor of production, examples may include Personal Trainers or tour guides. With a market failure existing, it renders the goal incomplete as there is an excess of pollution and undersupply of environment as it is a rival good. Either the polluters must reduce their output of pollution or they must mitigate the affected agents. This causes a problem in the regard, whom is affected by the pollution and by how much does the affected agents need to be mitigated for.

Sustainable economic growth in the long term is impacted by climate change. Not only will Australia be affected by the hypothesised changes to temperature for standards of living, but the changes may affect agricultural output and goods demanded by countries importing (supporting) clean production methods. Australia, by implementing policy change enables the economy to be in a better position to respond to act with funds allocated via the policy impact (“Australia: Australia Prepares for Carbon Tax” 2012).

Comparing the current Carbon Tax (Clean Energy Bill) to alternatives that have been proposed such as Carbon Trading Schemes and Subsidies for Clean Investment have both advantages and disadvantages (Calhoun 2010). Australia’s Carbon Tax initially is a fixed price of $23 per Metric Tonne of Carbon Dioxide emitted from the top 500 polluting companies in Australia(Harris 2012). This in its simplicity is a Pigovian Tax, which is used to deter consumption/production of a good or service that causes the negative externality. Simultaneously the Indirect tax signals the taxed firms that they should spend investment capital on ways to lower their output of CO2 emissions (Carrie 2011).

Pigovian taxes are designed to increase the price of the good that causes the negative externality by the amount that best reflects the cost to society in the production of the good which will internalise the effects of the externality (Carrie 2011). Examples of these in Australian society include the Alco-Pop tax and tobacco tax. In the case of the Carbon Tax, the good being taxed is pollution and the parties being mitigated are the Australian government on behalf of the environment in which it is representing, in effect the environment is gaining property rights in this explanation.

The Pigovian tax, when applied will cause a reduction in the level of pollution due to the cost added. This will vary from firm to firm due to the elasticity of the cost to pollute. It is safe to assume that all firms are elastic with pollution expenses; therefore the economics of the tax are sound.

Pigovian taxes have been praised for their simplistic approach to combating both losses of competitiveness due to inefficient methods of production and on goods themselves which are non-essential for consumption when viable substitutes are available according to Harris’s economic survey in 2012. Examples include using solar power on mine sites instead of Gas or Coal power.

Pigovian Taxes however are not ideal in the case of Carbon Leakage, whereby firms choose to produce their goods offshore in countries that are not yet or not participating in Carbon Reduction. It reduces Australia’s carbon footprint, however the loss of production in Australia mean relative to before the tax, there is a reduction in output. (Dellaware 2011).

By contrasting these to alternative methods to combat climate change such as an Emissions Trading Scheme (Cap and Trade) or the Carbon Offset system. All theoretically are able to reduce the level of the negative externality, however they all have different dynamics to each other and need to be applied using the framework aforementioned in the essay.

The Cap and Trade system allows for the Coasian Bargaining of the right to emit greenhouse gasses as part of production of a firm. These permits would be of a set supply, and would limit firms to a ‘cap’ of pollution. These would be traded in the open market meaning that the market subject to demand and elasticity by a firm, determines the price of the permit. This would encourage firms to innovate and reduce the number of permits needed to produce, or be more efficient with the given quota of pollution per year.(Kathleen 2012)

Advantages of the Cap and Trade system mean that the total level of greenhouse gases are controlled, IE a set amount per year meaning that it is easier to attain goals from the Kyoto Protocol. International trading markets are also proposed and feasible meaning that there is greater competition for permits which leads to more efficiency domestically. Firms that are unable to compete or innovate into cleaner greener methods are either absorbed by larger more efficient and environmentally viable companies or liquidate, meaning less pollution output.

Another advantage is that there is little regulation and or further government attention required to maintain the Cap and Trade system. Because the market forces determine prices between firms, the need for a middle man is removed. Comparing this to a Carbon Tax, where constant auditing, monitoring and enforcement is both time consuming and expensive from a tax payers perspective.

Comparing the two graphically below show the changes in price and quantity in the strict control of either supply of increase of price.

The Carbon tax is indirect, it controls the price movements, which affect the quantity, and the Cap and Trade system controls the supply, which then determines the price. The biggest disadvantage to not controlling the price of pollution as oppose to the quantity is that it does not promote efficient investment on clean alternatives to production and instead causes prices to rise of the permits, allowing larger companies to purchase the right to continue polluting and drive out smaller less profitable companies, provided they can’t sustain operation by selling excess permits to excessive polluters. Graphically, they yield the same result however; Clive argues that the amount of red tape needed to maintain the Cap and Trade System is not viable.

Introducing the Carbon Offset scheme, means that carbon offsets are purchased which in turn mitigates the marginal private cost of the firm to equilibrium level. Firms can only pollute according to their offset amount and has been successful in Europe with 5.5 Billion dollars of offsets traded according to Bruno and Mehmet’s paper on Governance and the Carbon impact.

Advantages exist in the offset scheme whereby it guarantee’s firms to take positive action/investment due to money spent on offsets directly in the form of buying credits from firms specific for reducing pollution and or investment on re-forestation and cleaner methods of production. Other arguments exist stating that having a Cap of pollution will force in-efficient firms to find the lowest cost method to reduce their pollution. Again, like any alternative to the Carbon Tax, much more bureaucratic procedures, monitoring costs and governing bodies are required to manage such a proposal (Oh 2007).

1. Similarities exist between the two policy options in that both require a base measured level of pollution to which caps and prices can be compared

1. Both systems will generate revenue via the increase of the Marginal Private cost which can be distributed via the governing body.

1. Both systems will require a governing body to standardise and monitor activities to be equitable (International-Emissions-Trading-Association 2011)

Using this information, the policies will affect different groups of individuals differently. The Carbon Tax will have some impact on households, but greater on the top 500 firms. Understanding how it will affect each party will enable a better understanding of the Pareto Efficiency concept.

Households under the Carbon Tax will be charged more for amenities and certain activities such as air travel. Using the graph below it is clear that electricity is the largest producer of greenhouse gases and will have the largest impact via the tax.

increase of costs of using electricity, any household that earns less than 80,000 dollars a year will benefit from subsidies and household assistance packages from the Liberal Government (Energy 2012).Households will also gain in subsidies and other cleaner initiatives from the government via the revenue collected from the tax which will increase their standard of living, proposed by the new energy reforms(Energy 2012). Linking back to Figure 1, the gains in Social Benefit are the largest gains that the households have, which economically speaking should be a new Pareto optimum specific to householders.

Firms on the other hand, if subjected to the tax will have an increase in costs relative to the $23 per metric tonne of CO2 emitted. There is also the added cost of administration fees and loss of investment due to higher costs. Other costs that may be included are changes in capital. Pigovian taxes are aimed to have a distortion effect, decreasing the amount of CO2 emitted, changing what firms use to produce and furthermore where future capital investment may be directed (Bruno and Mehmet 2010).

Firms from the impact of a Cap and Trade system will be partaking in Coasian Bargaining. This system has been used in the European Union and has shown dramatic decreases in the levels of CO2 by firms (International-Emissions-Trading-Association 2011). Due to the nature of the market, firms will bid and enter a price war against each other that will drive firms to have the lowest operating cost to save on purchasing permits. Firms that do not use the entire permit’s quota are able to bid off their remaining excess to firms whom can afford to pollute, or can’t afford to innovate into cleaner methods of production.

Production, if the firm is pollutant dependant will be affected due to a rise in fixed and variable costs and may decrease output (Gilbert 2007). If the firm is not heavily reliant on pollution, it will see increases in its profits due to the revenue gained from trading the permits. The Cap and Trade system promotes production efficiency according to Gilbert Metcalfe’s proposal for a US Cap Swap in those methods that reduce CO2 output cost less via the tariffs placed.

The Cap and Trade system from a household’s perspective will be similar to that of the carbon tax, however a time lag may be present due to firms having a time period in which they can allocate their pollution as opposed to an indirect tax.

Each policy suggestion from an economic perspective has its own merits and weaknesses and need to be considered when creating a policy that affects both households and firms. The policy must be fair, equitable and efficient to all parties involved. By comparing the implemented Carbon Tax with the feasible alternative, the Cap and Trade system, the different viewpoints of firms and households are understood.

Geography School Based Assessment Name:Jadio Dennis School: Jonathan Grant High School Year of Exam: 2012 Territory: Jamaica Registration No. Candidate No. 100164 Topic: To identify and examine whether residence of Ensom City, Spanish Town are aware of the origin, development and the precautions to be undertaken during a hurricane. Geography School Based Assessment NameJadio Dennis School Jonathan Grant High School Year of Exam 2012 Territory Jamaica Registration No. Candidate No. 100164

Topic: To identify and examine whether residence of Ensom City, Spanish Town are aware of the origin, development and the precautions to be undertaken during a hurricane. Strategy Sheet Table of Contents Page Aim of Study Location of Maps Method of Data Collection Presentation of Data Conclusion Bibliography Appendix Aim To identify and examine whether residence of Ensom City, Spanish Town are aware of the origin, development and the precautions to be undertaken during a hurricane. Method of Data Collection How? Fifteen (15) questionnaires were issued by the researcher to 15 persons of Ensom City.

They were distributed to every other house in which four (4) was male and sixteen (11) was female. Also Secondary Sources were also consulted for relevant data example internet and textbooks. N. B A copy of Questionnaire is provided in the appendix (1a) Where? The Study was done in Ensom City, Spanish Town. When? The School Bases Assessment (Sba) was conducted on October 24 2011 between the hours 1pm to 5 pm (in hurricane season). Each questionnaire was issued for two days then collected back by the researcher to continue further studies. Presentation of Data According to ucar. du a hurricane is an intense, rotating oceanic weather system that possess maximum sustain winds of exceeding 119km/h (74mph). It is formed and intensified over tropical oceans regions. 11 of the 15 residence agreed that hurricanes are found in the tropics. Figure 1: showing what region hurricane is developed by residence of Ensom City. In Figure 1 it shows how much of the residence are aware of the formation of hurricane. It shows that 11 of the residence chose tropics for the formation region which was correct because hurricanes do develop at these regions, however the other four chose temperate and fringe zones.

Figure2 showing the formation of hurricane chosen by the residence of Ensom City Figure2. Shows the amount of residence that agreed to each way how hurricanes are formed. The chart only contains the number of persons who agreed to each given formation. It shows that five of the residence agreed that hurricane needs warm area to make it thrive or to become stronger which was indeed correct as said in Longman Geography for CSEC. The chart also show that four residence chose that hurricane depends on the spinning of the earth and ten agreed that hurricanes needs winds that change direction and increase speed.

Also five persons choose that hurricane must have atmosphere that cools fast. Figure 3 showing the precautions chosen by residence of Ensom City, Spanish town that is to be undertaken during a hurricane. Figure3. Above show the precautions that are to be undertaken during a hurricane. It shows that the entire residents are aware that they are to stay in during a hurricane, stay away from windows and doors during a hurricane but 7 are aware to watch down power lines etc. Conclusion

The research had showed that some amount of the residence of Ensom City Spanish town is aware of hurricane development origin and precautions . This is proven because of the response on the questionnaires. The awareness of Residence on the origin of hurricane The questionnaire shows that 73. 3% of the residence questioned is aware of the origin of hurricanes. They agreed that hurricanes are formed in the hot regions of the world. The awareness of Residence on the development of hurricane The questionnaire shows that about 50 % of the residence questioned is aware of the development of hurricanes.

Hurricanes needs a warm area to develop The awareness of Residence on the precautions to be undertaken during a hurricane The questionnaire shows that about 90 % of the residence questioned is aware of the precautions to be undertaken during hurricanes. The agreed that they are to stay in, stay away from windows and doors and also to watch out for downed power lines Bibliography Paul Guiness et al, Geography for CSEC Nelson Thorns, 2008 Marolyn Gentles et al, Longman Geography for CSEC, 2006 Appendix

HOMOSEXUALITY: NATURE VERSUS NURTURE Nature; all things belong to Mother Nature; the trees, the flowers, insects, the great waters, animals, and even the human race; all following the laws of nature that we are instinctively born with. However somewhere along the line something or someone defies those laws and go against what nature intended. Whether or not this rebellion is fostered by nurture, or if there is an exception to the laws that Mother Nature has set forth is a question that psychologist and many people have encountered and most have yet to find the answer.

Homosexuality has been thought of as being something that some are born with and others believe it is a learned behavior. Whether or not nature or nurture is the cause for this “abnormality” we may never definitively know the answer to. But then again that all depends on what we define as being “normal”. To begin to answer the questions that plague humanity about sexual orientation we must first ask ourselves what exactly is sexuality and what role does it play in our society and the continuation of life.

Sexuality is broken down into three areas: heterosexuality, bisexuality, and homosexuality. If you look at these on a scale one’s sexuality would be measured by the degree in which ones feelings are more drawn too from one end of the scale to the other (Feldman, 2009, pg 376). There are several components that are argued to have a significant role in what a person’s sexual identity is. These components are both biological and environmental in nature (Feldman, 2009, pg 377).

Biologically hormones may play a role in determining sexual orientation (Feldman, 2009, pg 377). “Research has shown that women exposed to a drug called diethylstilbestrol (DES), taken by women to avoid miscarriage, before birth were more likely to be homosexual or bisexual” (Feldman, 2009, pg 377). “There is also research suggesting that brain structure could be a factor in the determination of ones sexuality” (Feldman, 2009, pg 377). The structure of the anterior hypothalamus, an area of the brain that governs sexual behavior, differs in male homosexuals and heterosexuals; compared with heterosexual men or women, gay men have a larger anterior commissure, which is a bundle of neurons connecting the right and left hemispheres of the brain” (Feldman, 2009, pg 377). Although biological reasoning can not be a clear cut explanation for homosexuality; it leaves us room to understand the condition of homosexuals rather than boorishly passing judgment on people for something they did not ask to be.

Examining the notion that homosexuality is a learned behavior rather than an innate behavior has led to one very interesting yet sad life lesson for one family suffering from what one could call the effects of inadvertent child abuse. David Reimer was born Bruce Reimer, however he was raised as Brenda Reimer. When David and his twin brother Brian were just six months old their mother took them in for a routine circumcision. The babies had been having difficulty passing urine and with the suggestion of the family Doctor Mrs.

Reimer took her boys in for the procedure that would ultimately change David’s life before it even began (McKenna, Kessler, Tiefer, and Schober, 2002). “The doctors had chosen an unconventional method of circumcision, one in which the skin would be burned. The procedure went horribly wrong and Bruce’s penis was burned so badly that it could not be repaired surgically. ” Thinking irrationally, Mrs. Reimer’s first concerns were how Bruce would cope as an adolescent lacking a penis.

The decision was made; after listening to a Doctor by the name of John Money, and taking into consideration his views on sexuality, it was decided that Bruce would be raised as a female, and was renamed Brenda. Dr. John Money of Johns Hopkins University in Baltimore argues that “boys – caught early enough – could be raised to be girls; nurture and not nature determines a child’s gender, the doctor argued” (McKenna, Kessler, Tiefer, and Schober, 2002). If this is to be true, that nurture is the determining factor in ones sexuality, then raising Bruce as Brenda would seemingly erase any hardship he would have to encounter growing up.

However that would prove to be furthest from the truth. Growing up Brenda couldn’t understand why she liked doing things that boys were doing and why as an adolescent she became attracted to girls and not boys. Eventually Brenda would learn the truth of her true identity and what he had been going through with Dr. Money and his “experiment”; a life experience that would ultimately lead to his committing suicide (McKenna, Kessler, Tiefer, and Schober, 2002).

Subjecting individuals to such traumas can prove to have a psychological hold on people who have to endure such horrific episodes in their lives. Sexual trauma and early exposure to sexual activity is another argument in the quest to determine the roots to homosexuality. There are so many young girls today that start out with sexual activity at an early age; some as early as ten years old. Over time these young ladies are exposed to sexual activity such as oral sex, group sex, and same-sex gratification.

They have allowed themselves to be misused by men, for lack of guidance, and find that blaming the men for their broken hearts is an easy way to act on their curiosities about same-sex relations. With the rise of same-sex parenting it is only natural for one to assume that such behavior displayed in the home would raise questions to rather or not this type of dysfunctional display of what a family is “supposed” to look like could actually be one of the causes of homosexuality amongst pre-teens and teens. If this is all they see at home this becomes normal to them; therefore making heterosexuality an abnormality.

However on the contrary studies show that “researchers looked at information gleaned from 15 studies on more than 500 children, evaluating possible stigma, teasing and social isolation, adjustment and self-esteem, opposite gender role models, sexual orientation, and strengths. Studies from 1981 to 1994, including 260 children reared by either heterosexual mothers or same-sex mothers after divorce, found no differences in intelligence, type or prevalence of psychiatric disorders, self-esteem, well-being, peer relationships, couple relationships, or parental stress”(MD, Chang, 2002). Some studies showed that single heterosexual parents’ children have more difficulties than children who have parents of the same sex,” Perrin says. “They did better in discipline, self-esteem, and had less psychosocial difficulties at home and at school” (MD, Chang, 2002). “Another study of 37 children of 27 divorced lesbian mothers and a similar number of children of heterosexual mothers found no differences in behavior, adjustment, gender identity, and peer relationships” (MD, Chang, 2002).

The effects of same-sex parenting seems to be equally or more effective than that of heterosexual house-holds. The one governing element in child rearing is a combination of love, discipline, and explanation of things not easily understood. There can, however, be a much darker side to the equation. Such as childhood rape; “although it is difficult to make accurate estimates of the true incidence of child sexual abuse, due to the majority of the cases going unreported, experts estimate that each year a half million children are sexually abused” (Feldman, 2009, pg 380). The short – and longer term consequences of child hood sexual abuse can be extremely damaging. Victims report fear, anxiety, depression, anger, and hostility. Long-term effects may include depression, self-destructive behavior such as drug and alcohol abuse, poor self-esteem, and feeling of isolation” (Feldman, 2009, pg 381). Children who experience same-sex sexual abuse can suffer identity issues when it comes time for them to identify their sexual orientation. Because of the trauma this behavior fosters confusion, and uncertainty about who they are sexually.

There are however those who triumph in the face of adversity; those who take negatives and make out of them their testimony and help others with the same or similar issues. Take for example the life of Mr. Donnie McClurkin; as a child Donnie was not raped once but twice by two different family members. Both family members were of the male gender. Throughout his life Donnie had to cope with the sexual trauma he had endured at such an early age; he became confused and could not understand why him (Boykin, 2002). Mr. McClurkin led a homosexual lifestyle for over 20 years until he completely gave his life over to his religion.

He is now married to a woman and has children. He no longer lives a homosexual lifestyle (Boykin, 2002) In this situation his choice to lead a homosexual lifestyle was fostered by sexual and mental trauma, this does not constitute factual standing that he was born a homosexual or even that he really “choose” to have these misunderstood feelings for the same sex. So how then do we conclude whether or not sexuality is a choice or an inborn attribute people come to this world with before they even completely understand the beauty of sexual orientation?

Living in a world where you are forced suppress who you really are to pacify the needs of others will always be a hindrance and in turn will keep you oppressed in your own body. Most homosexuals suffer from depression because they are hiding their true selves from the world for fear of being exiled so-to-speak by society. However in this day and age freedom to self expression has become more accepted though there are still others who have become like a recluse to their families because of their sexual preference. Is homosexuality really a sin?

First of all we have to establish what the word sin really means. According to the Bible; to sin is to transgress the law. Most people who are familiar with religion and its origin know that according to Hebrew Scriptures the law is what we call today the Old Testament, or more accurately referred to as the Torah. The Torah was given to Moses in it you will find the Ten Commandments (Exodus 34:28) Though in the United States of America church and state are deemed separate, the constitution adheres to those Ten Commandments in which speak nothing of homosexuality.

So, how then does homosexuality become a sin; would it be the same as saying a person afflicted with mental retardation is a sinner; they too did not ask to be that way. Being in your natural state means to be who you are; if you are a homosexual who pretends to be heterosexual to please society you are then in an unnatural state. If God makes no mistakes then why are homosexuals persecuted so harshly? Religion is a man made institution to allow for structure within a society; it has nothing to do with nature.

If one can not explain the beauty of God in mere mortal words how then can they determine what is natural and what is not. Life is an expression; so is love. Therefore if it is more natural for one to express their love with someone of the same sex, then who are we to judge? The line between “normal” and “abnormal” can be as thin as the line between love and hate. To be is to exist and to have your very existence held hostage by the insecurities of someone else’s existence is an injustice imposed by a society who finds great thrill in playing the role of God.

Nature is beautiful. It brings with it the beauty of mystery and the excitement of being able to acquire knowledge thereof. It can not be explained by limiting its greatness to the confines of the human psyche and the ignorance of its grace. Nature determines what is natural. If it is born of nature that it is in the state it was intended to be; so again I ask who are we to judge? References Boykin, K. , (2002) Confessions of Donnie McClurkin. Retrieved May 23, 2009 from http://www. keithboykin. om/arch/2002/11/19/confessions_of. Feldman, R. S. , (2009) Understanding Psychology. Ninth Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill. McKenna W. , Kessler S. J. , Tiefer L. , Schober J. M. (2002). As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl. Archives of Sexual Behavior, 31(3), 301-306. Retrieved May 25, 2009, from Research Library database. (Document ID: 121961432). MD, Chang, L. , (2002). Study: Same-Sex Parents Raise Well-Adjusted Kids. Retrieved May 24, 2009 from WebMD Health News Archive. The Bible. King James Version.

Intentional human activities in and around Lake Victoria have led to numerous environmental problems thereby threatening the livelihood of communities around the lake and those who either depend on the lake directly or indirectly in East Africa. Lake Victoria according to Steeves (2004) also known as Lolwe is one of the African great lakes and is the second-largest freshwater lake in the entire world but the largest in Africa.

Lake Victoria was named by John Speke after Queen Victoria of the United Kingdom and it measures about 68800 square kilometers in surface area. The lake gets most of its waters from precipitation and rivers. Lake Victoria which occupies a shallow depression has an average depth of about 20 meters and a catchment area of 184 000 square kilometers. The lake supports the largest inland fisheries in Africa.

According to phoenix University Lake, Victoria used to harbor about 400 species of small colorful fish called cichlids. The cichlids played a remarkable role in the lake ecosystem. With remarkable eating habits, the cichlids graze on dead organic material, algae, other cichlid species, shrimp or insects. The fish species thrived in the ecosystem in Lake Victoria and provided the local communities and other human population in the region numbering millions with protein diet. Overdependence of the cichlids led to their depletion by more than half its population fifty years ago thereby altering the aquatic community of the lake. The disappearance has completely interfered with the food web, which has led to explosive increase in the population of algae, which is the cichlids main food.

The increase in the population has led to extinction of very many native fish species in Lake Victoria. This has been necessitated by the depletion of oxygen in the areas occupied by the algae (University of phoenix, 2009). When algae die their decomposition consume available oxygen and as a result, fish species that come nearby suffocate and die. This has reduced amount of oxygen available in the lake, which has a direct effect on the fish population that the lake can contain. The areas that were once rich in oxygen and precious cichlids fish species have become barren and the local fishermen hardly get fish in those areas these days. Human activity of fishing the cichlids have led to reduce fish catch today, which cannot feed the population in the region or economically support them. The action of fishing was justifiable and they did not intend to be responsible for status quo.

 Another factor that has contributed to the ecological imbalance of Lake Victoria is the introduction of Nile perch (University of phoenix, 2009). The introduction of Nile perch in Lake Victoria was done with an intention to boost the economy of the region as well as to uphold the living standard of the people in the region. The introduction was done with a very good intention for sure but the impact today is completely the opposite. When it was introduced, it really thrived to the extent that some thought it was a better option to introduce the species; little did they know that the situation would not last. Nile perch which is much larger and is a predator, feed on other smaller native fish, which are more delicious and valuable. The increase in the population of Nile perch in 1980s resulted in high rate of loss of the indigenous fish species whose loss completely destabilized the ecological balance of the lake. Numerous native fish species are extinct because of the introduction of Nile perch in Lake Victoria.

 Some other unintentional human activities that have led to environmental problems in and around Lake Victoria include agriculture, deforestation and use of fertilizers (University of phoenix, 2009). The local communities used to cut down trees to obtain firewood to dry the large Nile perch as well as to have more land under agricultural practices to grow more food crops that could feed the rapidly increasing human population in the region. What followed is soil erosion that swept over the deforested and cultivated lands thereby carrying soil particles and fertilizers into the lake. The soil particles and fertilizers increase the turbidity of the lake, which then affected water stratification, and penetration of light energy, which is very essential to the general ecosystem of the lake. Apart from causing turbidity, fertilizers poisoned fish. Most of the activities associated with the introduction of Nile perch were not intentional but they have led to extinction of many species of fish as well as reduction of fish population in the Lake Victoria.

The contribution of scientific activities in saving the situation in the Lake Victoria region has been very significant. Firstly, there has been intensive research in the lake region and its environs, which have made available facts that, explain the situation on the ground (Bruton, 2006). All the above-explained information has been ascertained and action has been taken by governments of the three nations bordering the lake. Laws and policy have been put in place to ensure sustainable fishing in the lake (Scherer, 2009). This has been achieved by controlling fishing periods in that fishing activities are banned during the breeding seasons of fish in Lake Victoria. Fishing activities have also been banned in the breeding cites of cichlids and other fish species. In addition, the three governments have imposed laws that require a standard fishing nets that do not catch small fish like cichlids and fingerlings. All these efforts have had great effect that has enable the population of cichlids and other native fish species to recover considerably.

There has also been serious campaign on informing the local communities on the sustainable fishing and other environmental practices that has reduce negative impact on the lake. The forestation campaign has also been intensified to prevent further turbidity in the lake. Research has also been done on the effect of the effluent from factories being directed into the lake and a ban has been put imposed to prevent further pollution of the lake by industrial waste and sewage. These have been realized due to the effort of scientists.

 Application of scientific methods could have saved the environmental problem that is prevalent in Lake Victoria and its environment. Before the introduction of the Nile perch, if the application of science would have guided the fishing in the lake, the population of cichlids could have not reduced at such a risky rate. Besides, if science would have been involved before the introduction of the Nile perch into Lake Victoria, the side effects of the practice would have been established and the introduction prevented in advance.

References

1. Bruton, M. (2006). The conservation of the fishes of Lake Victoria, Africa: an ecological perspective, 27(3). South Africa: Springer Netherlands
2. Steeves, G. (2004). Lake Victoria-A brief history. Retrieved 14 May 2010 from http://www.hillcountrycichlidclub.com/articles/Lake%20Victoria%20History.pdf
3. University of phoenix. 2009. Environment. Retrieved 14 May 2010 from  https://ecampus.phoenix.edu/classroom/ic/classroom.aspx
4. Scherer, D. (2009). Environmental Ethics. Retrieved 14 May 2010 fromhttps://ecampus.phoenix.edu/classroom/ic/classroom.aspx

SOIL LAB: The Wealth Beneath Your Feet Purpose: To determine potential growth based on tests of physical characteristics such as pH, fertility and consistency. Pre-Lab: TO start off our investigation, we had to gather soil. Our group decided to get it from below a tree, right next to the trunk. In terms on fertility, we rated our soil to be a 4 (1 being the least fertile, 10 being the most). We rated it rather high because it was in a place where it had not been tampered with making it better than others.

Also, it was quite dark and matched up very well with diagrams online of fertile soil. (http://www. enchantedlearning. com/geology/soil/) TEST ONE: Collection of Soil and Observation of Soil Profile The first layer (O) we observed is the top layer, a layer of organic soil. It is made up of humus and leaf sediment. Below that (A) comes the topsoil. This is where seeds sprout and other plants roots grow. This layer is also made up of humus, but here are other mineral particles as well. Next is the eluviation layer (E).

This layer contains mostly sand and silt. It is the eluviation layer because of the process that takes place here where minerals are lost as well as clay because of water dripping through the soil. The subsoil layer is next (B). This layer is made up of clay and mineral substances, it receives from the eater being dripped during the form the eluviation process eluviation process. ,Regoliath (C) lies beneath and is mostly just broken up bedrock. Lastly is the actual bedrock layer (R), essentially just unweathered rock.