Pollution

Plastic has been the common materials that is being used on a daily basis. Many objects that made from plastic that can be seen from everyday such as food containers, plastic bag, storage and so many things that even a human being cannot think of it. Plastic’s existence has only just for over a century but because of the versatility of the materials plastics has a significantly increase in their use into all varieties of everyday life. Furthermore, the physical characteristic of plastic itself that are high resistance, durable, cheap and lightweight makes it suitable for production of a wide range of products category (Derraik, 2002).

Basically plastics are synthetic organic polymers that are made from various chemical elements that mostly come from natural resources such as crude oil, gas and coal(Derraik, 2002). The raw materials of plastics were formed from ancient plants and animals hundreds of millions years ago. Therefore those raw materials are non-renewable resources that explained when those resources would not be replaced for a short period of time. As many people use plastic everyday, it will take a more time to break down and as a result the plastic debris litter everywhere and become plastic pollution.

As plastic is buoyant, it easily blows from garbage dumps or even flows through river that eventually moves through the sea. According to Australian Marine Conservation Society (2013b), when plastics are in the ocean, it will slowly breaks down in to smaller pieces and being eaten by animals that live at the bottom or even to the birds that flies and eat the floating plastic debris. Causes: Plastic pollution is the environmental problem that has been the issue that discussed by many people because of many causes occurred because of this problem.

First, many people or even businesses gain profit from using plastics because of its characteristics that is hard to be substituted with other materials. As mentioned before plastic is non-renewable resource and need a long period of time to break down, however people use plastic for mostly everything surrounds them. So it will make availability of the natural resources for raw materials of the plastics decreases significantly and can be resulted a scarcity of resources. Other causes that happened because of plastic pollution is the marine life being threaten of the big amount of plastic that dumps in the ocean.

In fact in Australia, AMCS found that 90% of marine debris on Sydney’s beaches is plastic, mostly bottles and straws. And also it emphasizes that Australians approximately buy 600 millions litres of bottled water a year and uses 10 million of plastic bags a day (2013b). Hence, large amounts of plastic are being produced each day and when it becomes litter, plastic can endanger the health of animals and sea life. Once the plastic debris are eaten, plastics are not provide proportionate nutrition through the ingestion of the plastic inside the animals’ body and will result irritation of stomach that lead to death (Moore, 2008).

High concentration of floating debris in the ocean brings potential threat to the marine life particularly to sea mammals and seabirds. As seabirds seek food from the ocean, when appears floating debris they might eat mistakenly or starvation that lead them to choke plastic and for certain period of time can endanger to the health of the birds (Edyvane K. S, 2004). According to AMCS, there are around one million seabirds and one hundred thousands marine mammals are killed every year because of plastics throughout the world.

They analysed it by checking what inside the animal’s body and found out that, numerous of plastic debris cannot be ingested that killed those unfortunate animals. Furthermore plastic debris such as medical waste, plastic diapers and sanitary waste sometimes also can be seen on the beach that might impact to a public health hazard (Moore, 2008). The reason that plastic debris all over the beaches is because lack of responsibility of visitor to appropriately throw the rubbish to the bin. Many of people think that plastic is easy to be carried but they are not aware about the impact of using plastic too much.

Solutions: There are many potential solutions for the plastic pollution. As plastic is non-renewable resources and damage to the environment during its production and disposal process as well, so the only best way to recover it is reduce the use and the production of plastics. Even though plastics cannot be replaced with any other substitute, however, it is possible to change the raw materials that can be recycled and break down. For instance, many plastic bags for supermarket already change to degradable plastic, which is more environmental friendly.

Another solution that are still being developed for reducing plastic pollution for marine life is Container Deposit Scheme that tackle and help take plastic off the plate for marine life (2013a). As can be seen actually there are a lot of bins provided in every corner of the street in Australia, but it still will not work because sometimes people do not care about to separate their rubbish into recycle or non-recycle. Therefore Container Deposit Scheme will be a non-profit and work independently of the beverage companies.

As many Australian buy innumerable bottles each day, it will increase the price of the drinks by 10 cent and whenever the container is returned to the convenient recycling depot, that amount of money will be refunded. However, if it is not returned, this deposit scheme will continue to recycle and help to clean up the litter including the marine pollution. Stakeholders: Basically, the key stakeholders for this problem to start reducing plastic use, as a human being we should do things differently first. Our attitude to litter rubbish everywhere is should be changed in order to save the environment.

So we should be aware of the impact of plastic use for a long time that can damage animals and also the environment. Australian government has already involved in solving this plastic pollution problem. Department of Resources, Energy and Tourism are the level of government that takes care of this specific problem(2013c). However they also need the involvement of citizen as well because the role of this department is help to give information to the citizen. In Australia, plastic products and packaging are required to marked with plastic identification code that place at the bottom to identify specifically what type of plastic is made from.

So from the code itself, the government purposely encourages people to sort out the plastics materials type accordance to the recycle or non-recycle. In addition to the plastic debris in the ocean, Australian Marine Conservatory Society as the organization that influence by educate the public and equipping groups with suitable knowledge and skills to rescue sick and tangled marine animals because of plastic. They are responsible and have interest on marine life that endangered. Conclusion: As conclusion, plastic is spread all over the place because its physical characteristics that makes everybody tend to use for daily products.

However, plastic is non-renewable resources that harm environment for long period of time. It happens that on the beach, there is incalculable debris that spread all over the location. Hence, this problem can be solved, when people have initiative to change their attitudes towards plastic. They should be able to separate which are recyclable and non-recyclable. So it will reduce the amount of plastic debris and help to maintain the ecosystem in the ocean as well as keep the population of animals that are endangered because of plastic debris.

Definitions

Urbanisation: The process in which an increasing proportion of the population live in cities/urban areas. Urban growth: Increase in population size and/or physical size of the towns, cities and other larger urban settlements in a country or a region. Process whereby settlements grow in terms of population number and/or physical size Megacity: A giant metropolis with a population of at least 10 million Slums: A residential area that is physically and socially deteriorated and in which satisfactory family life is impossible. Squatters: Shelters with poor structural quality and developed without legal claims to the land and/or permission from the concerned authorities

Trends in urbanisation

General trends:

In 1950, there were two megacities with 10 million or more inhabitants. By 2005, this number has increased to 20 and it is projected that there will be 22 megacities by 2015. Developing countries will have 18 of the 22 megacities in 2015.

LEDCs vs MEDCs:

Since 1950, the most rapid growth in urbanisation has occurred in LEDCs (Less Economically Developed Countries) in South America, Africa and Asia. Between 1950 and 1990, the urban population in LEDCs has doubled. In China, the urban population grew from 192 million to 375 million in 16 years. However, this is not the case in MEDCs, which instead face the phenomenon of counter-urbanisation where people choose to move away from the bustling city to the quieter rural environment.

Positive impacts (Reasons for urbanisation)

Wage and employment differentials
Economic advancements are better in the city for migrants due to higher wages and increased number of working days. For example, In Dehli, rural migrants’ income increase by 150% compared to those in villages. Job opportunities in the city can also be found in the form of employment in informal sectors such as hawkers selling food by the sidewalks. This requires limited capital as money does not have to be spent on renting a workplace or a stall.

The cities provide a greater opportunity for rural migrants to climb the income ladder. The increased wealth will enhance the lives of the migrants and their families as money can be spent on proper food, water, healthcare and even education. If the money is invested well in their children, their families can be brought out of the cycle of poverty, increasing their standard of living in the long run.

Access to Amenities and Services

Due to the close proximity of people in the highly populated cities, it is easier and cheaper to provide amenities that are accessible and affordable to everyone. This is referred to as the economies of scale, hence allowing city dwellers to have better and cheaper access to water and electrical supply. This results in an improvement in their living standards and decreases one’s chance of contracting diseases related to the lack of proper water supply.

For example, water pipes and sewers can be constructed within densely populated areas more efficiently than laying long pipelines connecting houses in more dispersed rural settlements. The poor access to basic infrastructure has a disproportionate effect on rural women as they perform most of the domestic chores and often walk long distances to fetch water. The energy spent on getting water can be better channeled to economic activities in urban areas.

Future Prospects

People are willing to endure short-term difficulties in the hopes of better prospects of economic gain and improved welfare in the longer term, even if only for their children.

Economic growth

Cities are engines of economic growth as they are places where money, services, wealth and manpower are centralized. Cheap labour will attract foreign investors as production cost is low. Through trade and tourism, foreign money will flow into the country, boosting the economy. Urban-based economic activities account for more than 50% of the gross domestic product (GDP) In all countries. For example, Mumbai, the richest city in India, ha the highest GDP of any city in South, West and Central Asia.

Negative impacts (Challenges)

Urban unemployment and urban poverty

There is a huge economic income disparity, leaving a huge gap between the rich and the poor in the cities. This is because the rural migrants lack education and the skills required to get a good job. Hence, the inhabitants of the urban areas have better access to the various industries due to the higher levels of education they received, while rural migrants only earn a meager income. This is made worse by the lack of jobs due to the sudden increase in population and workforce in the city. Many rural migrants turn to the ‘informal sector’ as their source of income, where there is no need for them to pay taxes.

However, this results in a decrease in the government’s income, which can be used to build and improve infrastructure and provide better amenities and services to the people. For example, in Morocco, street vendors are a common sight as these mobile traders do not have to pay rent or municipal tax. However, these informal traders cause small retailers to lose out in the competition and has forced many small businesses in the area to close down.

Traffic congestion

The increased income means an increase in private ownership of cars as a form of luxury instead of taking public transportation. However, this leads to traffic congestions during peak hours due to insufficient roads in the transport network, leading to delays and frustrations. It is estimated that in Bangkok, a car spends an average of 44 days per year stuck in traffic. Apart from being a waste of time, it also causes environmental and noise pollution. This affects the quality of life for urban dwellers.

Environmental degradation

The increase in private car ownership and other human activities result in air pollution and other forms of environmental degradation such as dumping of chemical waste in waterways. More than 80% of sewage in developing countries is discharged untreated, polluting rivers, lakes and coastal areas. This makes water unfit for drinking and also upsets the ecosystem. Fumes from exhaust pipes cause the air to be filled with harmful particles that negatively affect the health of urban dwellers, especially those with respiratory difficulties such as asthma.

This is a prominent problem in Beijing, where the smog in the air is so thick that it is a cause of worry for the citizens. Smoking causes lead pollution in the air, which has adverse effects on other’s health. The air in New Mexico causes lead levels in babies to be so high that it impairs their brain development. This affects the social wellbeing of the citizens.

Housing

Rapid urbanisation has led to the development of squatter settlements and an informal sector to the economy. By 2050, it is estimated that the world’s population will be 9 billion, of which 3.5 million will be living in slums and squatter settlements. There is a huge demand for housing due to the great increase in urban population. This pushes up the price of housing. Poor rural migrants who are unable to afford proper housing are forced to live in slums or squatters.

1. These settlements lack proper sanitation, drainage and disposal systems (dumping ground). The houses are closely packed in a disorderly fashion, and often overcrowded with people. This makes the spread of communicable diseases such as tuberculosis quick and easy, giving rise to a high likelihood of health problems, especially given the unsanitary conditions. 2. There is an inadequate access to clean water and lack of a proper sewage system, allowing water-borne diseases such as cholera and typhoid to be spread easily. (2 million children are killed yearly by water contaminated by sewage.)

3. There might be a high incidence of fire breakouts as the close proximity of the houses make it easy for the fire to spread. Furthermore, the disorderly arrangement of houses makes it difficult for slum residents to escape easily from the fire. 4. Lack of basic amenities and services such as electricity means the need to use oil lamps and kerosene for lighting. This also increases the chance of a fire. 5. Makeshift shelters are built using low quality building materials such as cardboards, planks, etc. that might be flammable. This encourages a fire breakout, and also means that a fire can cause the residents to lose all their possessions. 6. The lack of a proper drainage system might lead to flooding, especially for slum settlements build on water-retention areas.

Solutions

HOUSING:

1. (Overcrowding) Curb the flow of rural-urban migration to ensure that the government can cope with the pace and provide the necessary infrastructure required a. Improve living conditions in rural areas such that there will not be a need for rural dwellers to move to the city. b. Indonesian migrants to Jakarta are required to obtain residence cards to prove that they have a job and accommodation in the city before permission is granted to them to leave the rural areas. 2. (Slums) Improving living conditions of squatter settlements a. “For a Better Calcutta” in India: The Central Metropolitan Development Authority (CDMA) launched this £250 million programme to make slums more bearable and the city liveable by installing sanitation and sewers, drinking water and streetlights, health care and education. a.i. 150 000 street lighting points provided

a.ii. Provision of 90 litres of water per capita per day. More than 20 000 water tap points and connections have been provided a.iii. Revamp and Renovation of drainage and sewage systems: 45 000 permanent sanitary latrines (1 per 35 people) a.iv. Construction of 600m of paved roads and pathways

a.v. Gardens, parks and playgrounds on 60 sites are under construction.

Provision of subsidized housing and relocation

a. Cingapura project, Sao Paulo, Brazil

a.i. Brazil aims to replace slums with low-rise blocks of flats. They aim to resettle 92 000 families from 243 slum sites a.ii. Residents pay for the house over a p of 20 years at a low interest rate. 4. Self-Help Schemes

a. In Nairobi, Kenya Africa, the World back gives financial support to the squatters. Building lots are provided and laid out with water, drains, roads lighting and occasionally clinics and schools. Squatters are given modest loans for building materials and are expected to build their own homes on prepared sites. 5. With these interventions, slum and squatter dwellers of urban areas are experiencing an improvement in the living environment.

TRAFFIC:
1. Restrictions

a. Curbing vehicle growth by increasing the cost of private car to discourage car ownership. a.i. For example, in SG, potential car owners must pay to bid for a Certificate of Entitlement (COE) b. Reducing congestion by limiting the number of cars on the road. b.i. In Singapore, ERP gantries are set up on frequently congested roads to collect additional road tax during peak hours. b.ii. Beijing restricts certain cars with certain numbers from going on the roads on weekdays 2. Encourage the use of public transport by improving and subsidizing public transport to make it accessible and affordable.

Macroconcepts

Urbanisation is an inevitable process for a country on its way to development. No country has achieved high-income status without first urbanizing, and nearly all countries become at least 50% urbanized before fully reaching middle-income status. Urbanization plays an important role in economic, political and cultural development, and also provides better access to education, employment and healthcare, hence improving the social wellbeing of the people.

Even though urbanisation brings about both advantages and disadvantages, many of the urban problems are results of poor management and planning and the absence of coherent urban policies. For example, in Africa, urban areas are economically stagnant or in recession, hence local authorities do not have the money or expertise to provide services such as access to water, housing, education and healthcare. This results in the formation of slums. (70% of Africa’s urban population live in slums) Hence, urbanisation itself is not a problem, and should be encouraged. However, it has to be accompanied with proper planning and regulation.

The removal of snow in the towns, cities, and villages of Broome County of New York is a social service that the county owes it inhabitants. It is such services that justify the taxes the people of Broome county pay. Towards achieving the aim of a cleaner, safer and healthier Broome county, several agencies have been set-up to oversee the snow removal services in the county. This service is particularly the responsibility of the Broome county Environmental Management Council (EMC). The EMC was established in 1971 by the Broome County Legislature to preserve, protect, and enhance the local environment.

The county’s highway division maintains and preserves the highway in the county and thus removes the snow that lies on the highway in the Broome County. The aim of the highway division is aptly captured in its webpage as thus:” The Highway Division is responsible for the administration, operation and maintenance of highway bridge and capital projects; this includes road widening and straightening, resurfacing and patching of existing county roads to ensure that maintenance is at required engineering standards and safety levels.

Emphasis is also placed on snow and ice control. The department also assists other local municipalities with specialized equipment and expertise. ” Broome County Parks and Recreation is in charge of maintaining and preserving the recreational facilities in the county for the good of the inhabitants of the county. This means it also removes snow from these parks. Division of public waste seeks to manage all the public waste in the county. Snow is handled as one of the solid wastes handled by this division. These solid waste are either disposed or recycled.

Department of Public Works is the chief overseer of the divisions mentioned above. However we need to, from this research establish who has the responsibility of removing snow and how best the snow should be removed and will tis method be cost effective. We will with this research seek to ensure that the method adopted will be the most effective, efficient and cost effective. We want to by this research find the most effective way of snow removal: the best way to remove snow without creating hazard or environmental issues.

How snow removal will be more efficient so that the snow will be removed promptly. Cost effective so that it will save the county some money so that other pressing needs of the county will be met without straining the resources of the county. The challenge here is to make the snow removal more effective, efficient and cost tolerant.

Development activities may be recorded in various sectors in any given country especially in agriculture, transportation and manufacturing depending on how these sectors bring economic benefits to a country it’s easy to determine the Gross Domestic Product. Using Algeria as an example, industrial revolution and human trafficking are the two major factors that help determine the country’s economic level. It’s worth noting that, Algeria highly depends on agriculture and human labor for its development.

For this reason, the government has developed several developmental theories to cope with any problems that may affect the major sectors in the country. Industrial revolution Since the early 19th century, Algeria has had significant changes in transport, manufacturing and agricultural sectors. These changes can best be said to be as a result of industrial revolution, which has brought new tools and machines to the country’s economic sector. In addition, industrial revolution has resulted to new forms of mechanization such as textile industry and introduction of iron making techniques.

The tools and machines brought about by industrial revolution have made production to be more efficient and reliable. This is because tools tend to make work easier and reduce production cost. The reason behind reduced production cost is the ability industrial revolution has on reducing human labor on the number of employees in any given production industry. However, industrial revolution has several shortcomings that a country should take note of. Agricultural sector is negatively affected by industrial revolution when pollution issues arise.

In most cases, industries tend to cause air, water and land pollutions. Vegetation provides economic advantage and basic food to a nation, pollution caused by industrial revolution tends to damage them hence resulting to an unhealthy nation. Other limitations caused by industrial revolution are unemployment and reduced social activities. In Algeria for example, iron melting has resulted in increased weapons and arms in the country. Researchers such as John Clapham have blamed industrial revolution for change in social activity and increased crime.

Unemployment on the other hand has led to increase in the gap between the poor and the rich. Unemployment refers to the microeconomic phenomenon where by people are willing to work but not currently working, this groups of people in clued those with out work, those currently available to work and those seeking work that that particular moment. Unemployment is segmented in terms of age, sex, education, duration of unemployment and kind of work that an individual is seeking. In the United States specifically the common types of unemployment are the frictional structural and cyclically types (G. den Broeder P 132).

Industrial revolution is also leads to minimum wages in some of the jobs or occupation, research has shown that the amount of salary or wages that employees are paid in some sectors especially the blue collar jobs the payment is too low compared to the amount of job or task performed, the solution to this according to the governmental human rights acts the incorporation of the setting of minimum wage had been suggested as the answer, this has not proven to work since minimum wage set was too low compared to the daily expenses and the expected standards of living of the workers.

As a solution to the major problems caused by industrial revolution the government has formulated several developmental theories. A good example is starting up social programs which ensure the citizens are aware of the importance of unity and peace. The assumption behind these theories is that individuals are socially stable, availability of arms and weapons will not affect peace in a country greatly. Another strategy developed by the government to suppress unemployment caused by industrial revolution is reduced tax burden.

Human trafficking Human trafficking refers to harboring, transporting or recruiting people with the aim of slavery. It is quite common in many underdeveloped countries like Algeria where developmental sectors determine the countries economic and social stability. Human trafficking tends to bring about deception and fraud. This is because it’s mostly caused by abuse of power. Campaigns against human trafficking have highly been established since the activity does not comply with human rights in most countries.

There are several forms of human trafficking; sexual harassment, forced labor and exploitation and servitude are the most common forms of human trafficking. In Algeria for example, children can be recruited as soldiers, the act tends to weaken the population. The fact that human trafficking brings about social mistrust, the citizens finds it hard to follow the set rules and regulations as they believe the government is dictatorship oriented.

Since human trafficking is quite common in Algeria, Smith McGregor analyzed several causes related to its increase. The most common causes are unemployment, government corruption, regional imbalances, political instability, armed conflicts and structured crimes. Clearly, most of these causes can only be controlled if the government at hand can come in. To begin with, the government should find it their duty to provide security to the public by disarming all the unauthorized persons.

For the government to succeed in providing security and peace in the society, proper leadership strategies should be implemented. It is essential to eradicate human trafficking in our country as it affects stability of social and economic sectors. In regions where human trafficking is highly witnessed, essential rife activities are not considered. A good example is low educational levels resulting to high levels of illiteracy. Human trafficking also results to low developmental growth since human labor in that specific country is unavailable.

When this happens, it becomes quite difficult to develop agricultural and manufacturing sectors. Human trafficking results to poor health in a society therefore it tends to be quite difficult for any developmental activities to be carried out effectively. The government and several other non governmental organizations have developed developmental theories to cope with human trafficking effects and besides eradicate it. Stating well defined international laws is one major theory developed by the government to reduce power extravagance.

The Algerian government has ensured that legal courts do not oversee crimes related to violation of human rights. A counsel has also been developed based on the country’s’ laws to cope with cases related to human trafficking. In conclusion, industrial revolution and human trafficking are the major developmental problems in Algeria and they are associated with most of the financial and social problems in the country. However, in the recent past the government has developed several developmental theories to eradicate the problems.

References

Russell Brown, Lester. Eco-Economy, James & James / Earthscan.ISBN 1-85383-904- (2005)

Eric Hobsbawm, The Age of Revolution: Europe 1789–1848, Weidenfeld & Nicolson Ltd. ISBN 0-349-10484-0

Hudson, Pat. The Industrial Revolution, Oxford University Press US. ISBN 0-7131-6531-6 1998

Deane, Phyllis. The First Industrial Revolution, Cambridge University Press 1998

Introduction

Definition and Description

Transport is a primary factor in environmental, social and economic development due to its association with aspects of accessibility levels, goods and people’s mobility. An investigation into the development of transport necessitates implementing a regular systematic efficient plan, which will look to improve the whole transportation system for the long term. Sustainable transport is strictly needed to change the quality of life for the better. Consequently, sustainable transport is considered to be founded upon a set of interrelated instructions which aims to improve people’s mobility based on the criteria of safety, social equality, minimum land use, recycling materials and lower impacts on the environment.

Versions

Green Highway Vision

The Highway Agency (HA) suggested the version 2030 project in 2003. The main objective of this project is to enhance the mobility of goods and people in the UK over thirty years and to predict, estimate and meet what the mobility needs in the future by considering three scenarios: global economy, sustainable lifestyle, and control and plan. Twelve visions have been proposed from this process, each depending on the aforementioned scenarios with a particular vision behind each one. The Green Highway is one of these visions and indicates to an interactive future with progressed sustainable principles such as: constructing sustainable roads and operating maintenance through using resources efficiently; “Green” materials application; high use of waste product recycling; and the re-assessing of highway design codes, considering the implications of climate change. In addition to this, noise-impact reduction and keeping biodiversity are taken into account through using eco-environment designs.

Mobility Vision

The second is vision 2050 which was proposed by the World Business Council for Sustainable Development in 2010. This vision imagines the sustainable future in a wider scope and attributes a longer period to make governance and business sustainable. This will be achieved by following a pathway which requires essential changes in lifestyle and policy. This pathway is supported by nine elements that link the present and the sustainable future in 2050. For instance, Mobility vision aims to improve the access provision universally for the insurance of safety and low impact mobility in order to make the best sustainable economy. In this context, to make reductions of the high volume of transportation and the information and communication technologies (ICT) it will use. Vehicle efficiency has improved through using sophisticated new technology and the alternative energy source, such as electricity, resulting in a significant decrease in the adverse impacts on the environment. Moreover, the intelligent transportation system (ITS) provides active enforcement and comprehensive mobility management which leads to safety improvement.

Vision Two

These visions relate to walking and cycling in the UK in 2030. It aims to introduce cycling and walking as an eco-friendly mode for getting rid of the current negative transportation impacts by considering three sustainable visions. This also looks at the future through the concept of social building, by concentrating on five locations in the UK to imagine these impacts on a typical city. For example, a car-free, public transport oriented future encourages the use of mass transport, walking and cycling, meaning a lower volume of cars which is the main mode currently used. The significant factors that share in this vision are exploitation sophisticated technology for cars design, electric cycles, improving walking path and bicycle lanes, and small electric modes for freightage goods. These will make a city have improved sociability, a high level of safety, reduce pollution and noise due to transport, and generate high accessibility.

Discussion

Addressing Sustainability Dimensions

Green Highway Vision

Undoubtedly, there are three important dimensions that should be concurrently taken into consideration within implementing any sustainable future transport system: environment, social, and economic. The Green Highway vision considered the creation of sustainable environments through reducing noise nuisance, keeping biodiversity, recycling and using resources effectively. However there are other environmental aspects, such as land use and air pollution, which are not presented and impact on health more than noise. The social sustainable is presented in this vision but without clarifying how it will improve the transport sector and reduce its impacts on environment or cause an improvement in the community (Colantonio, 2007). Furthermore, the life quality enhancement results from the social sustainability (Polese and Stren, 2005). Moreover the lifestyle scenario encourages local communities to work together to achieve sustainability for life and to enhance life quality through improved technologies and lifestyle dependence that will reduce energy use and reliance on cars. The people’s tendency to choose sustainable areas to work and live is encouraged by taking land use plan into consideration (HA, 2003). Also the concept of road construction and maintenance operations with new advanced technique are viewed without indicating to its economic dimension. As well as these processes of road infrastructure, enhancements will promote the economy through revenues from tolls and taxes (Marks, 2002).

Mobility Vision

Comprehensively depending on the exploitation of advanced technology is the main principle of the mobility vision practicability. The environmental sustainable dimension is favourably addressed in this vision through implementing different measures, such as: reducing environment impacts; road congestion; accidents in terms of (number and cost). This will lead to a decrease in greenhouse gases and improving traffic by applying Intelligent Transportation System (ITS). Furthermore, the economic sustainable dimension is directly addressed through a concern with active transport accessibility which can enhance people’s mobility. This also includes goods freightage, inventing new vehicles, efficient alternative fuels, such as biofuels, high-efficient fuel aircraft, providing interactive transport infrastructure and new transportation means. Overall, this vision vastly considers most economic aspects. However, because of the high cost of biofuel production due to its dependence on feedstock, such as sugarcane, ethanol can be better for use in a commercial viability (Kojima and Johnson, 2006). However, new transport costs are considered as an important target in the transport sustainability, but it is not obviously addressed (Schwaab and Thielmann, 2001).

The social sustainable dimension is also addressed in this vision: through the provision of equal mobility for all; safer road networks and decreasing accident numbers close to zero (zero vision); cooperation between transportation companies with other relevant agencies; incorporation of the socio-economic environment with “integration transport system” (ITS) (WBCSD, 2009). However, the usefulness of non-motorised modes, such as cycling and walking, that improve social community and the environment are not mentioned (Tight et al., 2011). The poor class contribution is also not addressed in this vision, which is considered a key element in the social sustainability dimension.

The vision addressed the environmental sustainable dimension through the efforts to reduce noise and greenhouse gases. This was achieved through the use of sophisticated transportation technology such as alternative electrical energy vehicles and “superior aerodynamic” vehicle quality improvement. However, the addressing of biodiversity and land use impacts are neglected. Nevertheless, the manufacture process of electric cars can also impact adversely on the environment due to the fact that the battery is constructed from harmful materials and uses fossil fuels for its power (Anair and Mahmassani, 2012). According to Calle et al. (2012) the use of biofuels can impact negatively on the environment because it increases greenhouse emissions in other ways, such as non-carbon aircraft emissions and the feedstock production process. Furthermore, this could lead to a potential increase in the price of foodstuffs due to this process using a greater amount of land to produce biojetfuel (Tietenberg, 2000).

Vision Two

This vision for walking and cycling concentrated on urban areas. The economic dimension is clearly addressed so that it considers the enhancement of mobility through improving mass transport, increasing freightage transport efficiency, and constructing separate routes for both bicycles and pedestrians. This also includes supporting and encouraging commercial markets to provide pedestrian electronic tools, and electric-powered bikes and vans. Despite the benefit to human’s health and fitness, walking and cycling causes a significant reduction in travel and congestion costs which leads to an increase in productivity by reducing wastage time. Additionally, a massive reduction in road accident costs can be noticed by allocating dedicated routes for pedestrian and bicycles, based on a reduction in conflict points between bicycles, pedestrians and cars; each conflict point is responsible of the occurrence of a crash in any time and, thus, economic improvement (BCBC, 2009).

Social sustainability is vastly addressed in this vision. These will be achieved by applying the equality principle, social consolidation enhancement, public health promotion, and providing high social insurance within that future city which is espoused by this vision. However, it provides the typical social environment inclusion of required needs such as a higher socialised, better communicated, polite and cooperative people which is associated with highest safety levels and health quality. This also suggests roads which have lower car use, dedicate more space for children, and supply all required facilities for walking and cycling. In addition to this is the use of advanced technology in traffic systems, such as automatic vehicle speed reduction system (Tight et al., 2011).

This vision addresses the environment dimension by making a reduction in air pollution which leads to a reduction in CO2 emission as well as less transportation noise due to low car use and a greater dependence on walking and cycling. This also includes less land use, the use of eco-friendly cars and imposing strong car use restrictions. As well as this, the walking and cycling and other non-motorized modes are defined as environmental modes due to their compatibility with clean air and that they generate no noise pollution (COUNCIL, 2007).

Transport problems Area

Developing Countries

According to Gwilliam (2003), developing countries differ from developed countries with respect to of transportation. These differences are characterised by faster population growth, fast urban growth, car ownership, traffic congestion, environmental problems, and road accident and security issues. Movement problems added to the lack of road network quality and traffic management make it very difficult to compare and examine. The Green Highway and Vision Two for walking and cycling were placed to the UK situation to address the majority of the above-mentioned issues with a high efficiency, although it cannot be applied in the developing countries with the same efficiency. However, the “holistic approach [to] improving overall transport” has appeared as a global vision and can address the mobility of urban areas in developing countries. In this vision, the cities are categorized to four kinds, for instance, for addressing finance issues it suggests the participating of both private and public sectors.

Climate Change

The greenhouse emissions which are from transportation sectors are estimated about 24% globally, and it will increase 2.1% annually (Wright and Fulton, 2005). The CO2 emission was separately estimated to be about 22% in 2012 and was recognized as a main cause of climate change (IEA, 2012). However, addressing climate change can be seen in all three visions in different approaches, but vision two is the more effective because of its preference of the non-motorised modes such as walking, cycling and using eco-friendly mass transportation modes. The Green Highway vision aims to adopt the highway design code with the impacts of climate change instead of carbon cutting. Furthermore, the Mobility vision tends to reduce future greenhouse gas emission depending on the technology use with the presence of all transport modes.

Equity, social impacts and inclusion

The equity is considered to be a significant aspect due to its extensive influence by any transportation planning decision. However, it can be more effectively addressed through vision two, rather than other visions, because it is focused on increasing the concept of social sustainability (BCDC, 2009). Moreover, public transport accessibility, cycling and walking is crucial to make society more active, but in the mobility vision the economic improvement is taken into consideration depending on the sophisticated transportation mode technology. In addition to this, the equity improvement can be achieved by providing equal mobility.

Resource use, waste and global pollution

Resource use is a potential option in vision two through low car use as well as greater dependence on walking and cycling. In turn this makes a significant reduction in the consumption and use of resources, such as car manufacturing or backup materials, and this leads to the reduction of waste resulting from scrap. However, the Green Highway vision addresses this issue through the high efficiency resources consumption and full attention to recycling concept application. Moreover, the Mobility vision encourages aircrafts and vehicles markets to depend on alternative fuel and observe that this may lead to an increase in resource consumption, such as compound materials which are used in the aircraft manufacturing. However, the potential for recycling carbon fibre has been was found (Job, 2010). Conversely, other modes need mass use of resources as well as the technological advancement, and ultimately, global pollution is inevitable.

Biodiversity

The Green Highway vision concerns the addressing of biodiversity conservation through constructing of wild movement green bridges and tunnels, and water ponds. However, the Mobility vision has an adverse impact on biodiversity due to its dependence on using the largest land area to provide biojetfuel as an alternative future energy (Kojima and Johnson, 2006). Furthermore, biodiversity has not been influenced by the vision two for concentration on improving road network infrastructure in urban areas.

Energy Security

According to DECC (2012), the transport sector contributed about 38% of total energy consumption in 2011. The Green Highway vision can impact positively in the reduction of energy consumption to some extent through focusing on road infrastructure improvement and implementing recycling materials interns to reduce energy consumption by implementing recycling and minimizing the road distance. However, in the Mobility vision, the energy security is addressed efficiently by introducing alternative fuels such as biofuel to replace fossil fuel which leads to energy security effectively (Kojima and Johnson, 2006). In the scope of foodstuffs and climate change, decreasing it seems not compatible and the increasing desire and the biofuel’s wide spread will pose a risk to food security and climate change (Field et al., 2008). Additionally, in vision two the focus on walking and cycling as well as lower car use plays a significant role in energy security; moreover, the aircraft and electric bicycle manufacturing require energy.

Safety

Safety is an issue that is directly related to public life. However, this issue has not been considered in the Green Highway vision. Nevertheless, the safety is addressed in vision two through the use of alternative biofuels which are characterised by low carbon emission as well as zero vision which address safety through reducing the accidents number to close to zero. Furthermore, safety is addressed more efficiently through the use of technology that reduces vehicle speed automatically and allocates segregated lanes for pedestrians and cyclists.

Landscape and heritage

The Green Highway vision damages landscape and heritage because of their adversely influence on the transportation infrastructure improvement process (Seiler, 2001). Though, in the Mobility vision the largest land use is to provide the requiring energy and may adversely impact the landscape. However, in vision two, improving the transportation infrastructure is based on the existing reality; therefore it does not impact on the landscape.

Noise

The Green Highway vision addresses noise through the use of noise barriers and a defeatist road surface. However, the Mobility vision addresses noise reduction through the use electric vehicles, hybrid vehicles and aircraft with superior aerodynamics deployment. Furthermore, vision two contributes to the reduction of noise through low car use, walking and cycling and using electric modes.

Air pollution

The Green Highway vision addresses air pollution to some degree, but not directly. However, the Mobility vision addresses this issue interactively through low carbon emission from transportation, using electric vehicles, hybrids, eco-friendly ships and aircrafts. In addition to this, it is significantly addressed by vision two through low car use, depending on walking and cycling.

Severance and pedestrian issues

The Green Highway vision does not address severance and pedestrian safety. However, there is full attention given to public safety in the Mobility vision through pollution reduction and low carbon mobility. Moreover, vision two addresses this issue more effectively through improving pedestrian and cyclist’s mobility by allocating separate lanes for their movement and low car use.

Sewage is created by residential, institutional, and commercial and industrial establishments and includes household waste liquid from toilets, baths, showers, kitchens, sinks and so forth that is disposed of via sewers. In many areas, sewage also includes liquid waste from industry and commerce. The separation and draining of household waste into grey water and black water is becoming more common in the developed world, with grey water being permitted to be used for watering plants or recycled for flushing toilets.Most sewage also includes some surface water from roofs or hard-standing areas and may include stormwater runoff.

Sewerage systems capable of handling stormwater are known as combined systems or combined sewers. Such systems are usually avoided since they complicate and thereby reduce the efficiency of sewage treatment plants owing to their seasonality. The variability in flow also leads to often larger than necessary, and subsequently more expensive, treatment facilities.In addition, heavy storms that contribute more flows than the treatment plant can handle may overwhelm the sewage treatment system, causing a spill or overflow. Modern sewer developments tend to be provided with separate storm drain systems for rainwater. As rainfall travels over roofs and the ground, it may pick up various contaminants including soil particles and other sediment, heavy metals, organic compounds, animal waste, and oil and grease.Some jurisdictions require stormwater to receive some level of treatment before being discharged directly into waterways.

Examples of treatment processes used for stormwater include retention basins, wetlands, buried vaults with various kinds of media filters, and vortex separators (to remove coarse solids). Sanitary sewers are typically much smaller than storm sewers, and they are not designed to transport stormwater. In areas with basements, backups of raw sewage can occur if excessive stormwater is allowed into a sanitary sewer system.

Freedom Of Indian Press Freedom of Press In India DESPITE BEING the largest Democracy in the World, the Indian Press has never been accorded a free status. A survey of civil and political liberties carried out by Freedom House listed the Indian press as being “partly free”. What is of concern here is that it figured even below countries like Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, Comoros, Ecuador and

El Salvador. Ever since, the time of Hickey, the administration has recognized the potential of the Indian Press to be severely anti-establishment. To check the growth of the Indian press without seeming overtly restrictive, the British Government enacted several legislation that were successful in restricting the Indian Press. This restriction has carried on to the present times.

A major reason to doubt India’s freedom of the press stems from the times of the Emergency when constitutional safeguards meant to protect freedom of speech and expression were set aside. Even today the Official Secrets Act allows the Government to ban publication of articles dealing with sensitive security issues. However, journalists feel that in practice this is occasionally used to limit criticism of government actions, particularly in Punjab and Kashmir. The Government controls even the issual of subsidized newsprint to newspapers.

The mass media in India works in the absence of an absorptive infrastructure and hence widespread illiteracy and a limited audience weaken the media’s efficiency. It has been alleged that the most important limitation to the media’s efficiency in India is its inclination towards being a “uni-directional transmitory mechanism”, i. e. , a center to periphery type of direction that is unable to represent particularistic interests. The situation is however not so dismal.

By looking at the role played by the press especially the electronic media, in the recent years, in reporting extreme situations like that of the Gujarat earthquake or other such situations, one notices the crucial role the press plays in bringing to the forefront the concerns of the affected populations. Despite the fact that press freedom in India is not totally without hindrances in some form or the other, an active judiciary works consistently to safeguard the provisions of the Constitution and this was seen during the Emergency of 1975-77.

The judiciary is independent of the government in ordinary cases, although the system suffers from overload and is often inaccessible to the poor. India has a large and conscious private press and although it has not always been successful in providing “early warnings” to the authorities, it has definitely succeeded in extracting political accountability from the government, an achievement that rightly needs to be acknowledged.