Pregnancy

Every year in the United States, 25% of pregnancies are ended in abortion. This number may seem quite high, but it is actually on the decline and is much lower than several other countries. These numbers are extremely high for one main reason. That reason is a lack of education. When young women become pregnant they feel the only alternative to having the baby is abortion. This is wrong and that is why we must educate the public to bring the abortion numbers down. The abortion issue has two sides. Pro-lifers believe that a human life is created at conception. Pro-choicers believe life begins at birth.

Both groups have the common goal of minimizing the number of abortions, but have different ways of accomplishing that. For example, pro-lifers believe abortion should be illegal, while pro-choicers believe that it is the woman”s body as well as her choice. The other main differences lie in the definitions of several key terms. For example take the word pregnancy. Pro-lifers believe pregnancy starts at conception, while pro-choices believe it starts at the time of birth. To bring down the abortion rate, we need to focus on the factors causing the problems (Baird). I believe the main factor is a lack of education.

If we started to educate children earlier about pregnancy, we would see a drop in the number of pregnancies and abortions. While this technique may be long and expensive, it is the best remedy for the long run. There are several ways we can implement this technique. We could develop a program similar to D. A. R. E. , in which it is demanded for students to take classes. D. A. R. E. , which stands for Drug Abuse Resistance Education, has been especially successful. The purpose of the program is to inform children that popularity can be found in positive and nonviolent behavior.

The program also helps children feel a sense of belonging that stresses their values. D. A. R. E teaches children valuable lessons concerning drugs and alcohol abuse. The program helps the children to lead better, fuller, and more satisfying lives. Research done by the D. A. R. E. program showed that for every $1 spent on drug abuse prevention, communities can save $4 to $5 in costs for drug abuse treatment and counseling. It was also found that in the past two years, drug abuse has either stayed the same or declined. The program has seen this type of success since it started in 1983 (D. A. R. E. ). I believe a class like this concerning abortion and pregnancy would have similar success. The class would inform the children on the purposes of sex and pregnancy.

It would teach them the importance of sex and why you should wait for the right person. This would directly tie into abortion portion of the class. The class would tell why abortion is wrong and what alternatives there are to abortion. They would learn how contraceptive methods such as condoms are used to prevent pregnancy, while abortifacient techniques are used to end a pregnancy that has already begun (Prolife. rg).

Some other common forms of birth control the students would learn about are diaphragms, cervical caps, contraceptive pills, and emergency contraception pills or “the morning after pill. ” There are some other alternatives to education. One of them is making abortion illegal, but at this stage it is impossible. As the public continues to become more educated, the abortion rate will go down as will the opinion of abortion. At this stage there may be a possibility of making abortion illegal. But until we get to this stage, making abortion illegal is not an option.

There is hope though, because the public’s opinion of abortion has been changing. A CNN Poll in 1998 showed that only 31% of men and 32% of women were advocates of abortion. A similar poll was taken in 1980, which showed that 52% of the population believed in some form of abortion. Other than education, making it illegal would be the main goal. Obviously abortions would still happen, but now the number of pregnancies each year would dip under five percent. I also believe that more pregnancy clinics are needed. Pregnancy clinics help to spread the word to the public concerning pregnancy.

I believe simple things like free condoms are a start to remedy the problem (Religioustolerance. org). As mentioned earlier, education is the best way of dealing with the abortion rate. Education at a younger age helps to control pregnancy and it informs involved parties of the alternatives they have. Not only would the abortion rate and pregnancy rate drop, but so would the number of sexually transmitted diseases. Although every woman has the right to abortion, I believe that many women would change their decision if they knew of the alternatives.

Tiffany Kwong : Taking Sides, Unit 4 Response I’m answering question number2, as to why government agencies are getting more conservative regarding drinking during pregnancy. I personally believe the government wants to be stricter on the drinking-during-pregnancy matter because of the outcomes and effects towards the community. Pregnant mothers that drink during pregnancy are already at a small percentage of risk for a child with developmental-defects.

The more at-risk children, the more attention these children need in school, in the home environment, and in public. Specifically, the funding of schools is decreasing every year, and the more developmentally-impaired students are enrolled, the greater the need for teachers and supplies to help these children with defects caused by their mothers. If the government agency strengthens the alcohol ban for pregnant women, the lesser the risk for families and the community to fund these problems later on.

Mothers can decide to do whatever they want when they’re pregnant; it’s the matter of whether or not they want their child to be healthy, which I’m sure, every expecting mother wants. But, I believe pregnant women should not have the right to make informed decisions on their own. Doctors have medical degrees; they understand the causes and effects of alcohol, specific foods and certain activities pregnant women should stay away from.

Pregnant mothers should not make informed decisions on their own; rather, they should consult an expert and stay firm to the government and the doctor’s orders & recommendations. Even if “casual drinking” may seem to cause no harm, it’s better to not take the risk. This is an issue with the public, the government, the science, and the medical field. Expected mothers should take the time to consult a doctor, and make the best decisions for the health of their child.

The ethics of abortion is one of the most controversial topic that has been continually argued over years and probably many years to come. The main controversy is the question of legalization of abortion, which ties into ethical issues, emotions, and political issues or laws. Before I discuss the many sides to abortion, it is critical to define the term. The Webster’s Dictionary defines abortion as the termination of a pregnancy after, accompanied by, resulting in, or closely followed by the death of the fetus. Despite the liberal attitudes toward abortion, it still remains an important political issue.

Even in societies where abortion has been legalized, many actions are being raised by the anti-abortionists. These anti-abortionists believe in “pro-life” and their religious perspectives are responsible in their arguments against abortion. They believe that “it is equally as heinous intentionally to kill a human being in existence at fertilization, as to kill a larger pre-born child. ” On the other hand, there are reasons for legalization of abortion. Most people agree with the concept of reproductive freedom—the fundamental right of every individual to decide freely and responsibly when and whether to have a child.

Human life is defined as “any living entity that has DNA from the species homo sapiens. This includes an ovum, spermatozoon, zygote, embryo, fetus, newborn. It also includes an infant, child, adult, elder. It also includes a breast cancer cell and a hair follicle and a skin scraping. Some forms of human life have little or no value; others are the most valuable and precious form of life in the known universe”. Because an unborn fetus is considered to have a human life, abortion should not be legalized.

It is a definitely a crime to kill a living and breathing fetus even though the embryo may not take the form of a human structure. If abortion is permitted, the dignity of human will be destroyed. In the medical field, the doctors prescribe the baby before 15 days after conception as dividing cells. But after this short period, abortion is prohibited from the principal of identifying. This is because the fertilization process contains many cell divisions by zygote progressing into a human being. Many people assert the right that women do not have a baby because they have the right to choose.

But it is neglecting the right of the baby who has his or her own life. Just because an unborn fetus is not capable to express his or her feelings, is it morally right to end its life? Considering moral issues, abortion is definitely equally termed a murder. However, I do understand the other point of view for legalizing abortion. The exception to abortion is considered when the mother bearing the child has illnesses or diseases that can be transmitted to the baby genetically. Also, financial issues are often being raised by the parents whom are not able to support another family in the house.

In this case, abortion may be permitted because it is rather better to not be alive than be living under such poor conditions. Furthermore, abortion is considered as a rightful act when the women get pregnant from rape. Some people may generally think that a crippled person is pessimistic about the world. But in fact, they thank their parents who gave life to them. The life as a handicapped person could be better than not experiencing life at all. If it’s not by the force of other one, people must take the responsibility for their behavior.

Every action you make comes in consequences and therefore, it is important to choose birth controls if pregnancy is not wanted. If the reason that causing abortion is merely a problem of foster, it is never permitted. We must keep in mind that life is most precious thing in the world. It is estimated that the number of aborted babies is almost 4000 in a month. Vast majority of abortions are done for convenience, by women who simply want to terminate an unwanted pregnancy. But abortion is a murder. So, now is the time for us to think about the abortion again and to search for the best solution. In any circumstances, the life must be admired.

Work Cited

http://www.religioustolerance.org/abortion.htm

http://abortion-alternatives.adoption.com/

http://www.friesian.com/abortion.htm

The topic of women having abortions can be an intense subject. This subject has always been a debate because the people of society cannot agree on weather “abortions” are right or wrong. In this paper I will give multiple reasons why abortions should be legal for women to have. Abortions are legal and should remain legal because women should have the right to decide what happens with their bodies; some women that become pregnant are not ready emotionally or financially to be mothers; and abortions is the best answer for an unwanted pregnancy.

It’s a woman choice I agree abortions should be legal because not all women can afford to take care of a child or give them the necessities they need. I also believe this choice should be up to women. This is the same with any medical procedure, if a person was to have a tumor while pregnant and it was life threatening, what you will choose to do save the baby or the woman. This is where abortions come in. People need not to look at this like a disease and start treating abortions like any other medical procedure.

According to the Washington Post NBC/WSJ polls find that, on the 40 anniversary of the Supreme Court’s Roe v. Wade decision, 70 percent of Americans want the landmark abortions rights ruling to stay (Weiner, 2013). Indeed, as we learned from study there are more people who agree to keep this order in place for woman. This alone says it is a safe procedure if done right by experienced physician. Keeping abortions legal is the right choice because this is something that helps women have a choice on what to do with unwanted or unsafe pregnancies.

While abortions can offer ways to help women with any kind of issues they may go through while pregnant, another important information women need to know is be safe and observe the physicians to ensure they are well qualified physicians. Pros of an abortion There are plenty of pros when it comes to this topic. Abortions are not as negative as everyone might want to think. Abortions are done in the case of women being raped; there are very few women that really want to keep their child in cases like this. Is abortion such a terrible thing in this situation? I do not think so.

Doing research on this topic there are pros to legal abortions, study show A woman’s right to choose abortion is a fundamental right” recognized by the U. S Supreme Court. The landmark abortion case Roe v. Wade was decided on January 22, 1973, and remains the law of the land (ProCon. org, 2013). Certainly, there are people that do not agree with abortions and never will, but one person’s opinions should not affect other decisions. Although people say abortions are wrong and it’s killing another human being, it’s also important to remember why abortions are necessary.

In cases abortions are not done for malicious intent, but in some cases they are done to save the life of women. Cons of abortions Where there are pros there are cons to any subject or topic. On the topic should abortions be legal, many say there are some cons that others do not believe. With this topic people will never be 100 percent comfortable. The only con I believe is getting the procedure done wrong by an unprofessional doctor that will lead to death and not by an experience doctor, nurse, or physicians to ensure your health.

For example, study says” women should use contraceptives not abortion, to avoid unwanted pregnancies. A center for Disease Control and prevention study show that 19-25% of women who received abortions in 2006 had previously had one or more abortions. If abortions were not available, women would use preventable measures (ProCon. org, 2013). Having a negative attitude about abortions will lead to not looking at the positive sides of having a abortion. Seeing these kinds of negative impact puts a negative influence on others and confuses others about what is right for them and their body.

After reading study, I have to say I disagree, just because woman have abortions and they are available does not mean all woman abuse the system. For example if a woman is raped she should have used protection to prevent her from getting pregnant. That does not make sense. Whose to say why women have abortions, society just follow the number of abortions and studies which can be misleading at times. What’s the risk of abortions? I personally believe in abortions but I also know there are health risks when having abortions. Currently in the United States over the years there have been a number of abortions happening.

There is risk at everything we do, like including abortions. To avoid such risks according to study” currently in the United States, a patch work of state regulations determines who can provide abortions with several states specifically prohibiting non-physician clinicians from performing the procedure (News RX, 2013). Indeed, having educated nurses and other health physician handling patients that has had or is contemplating an abortion is the safest thing to do to ensure all women are cared for correctly while having this procedure.

If people don’t take abortions seriously then people can have false information about this issue. This will lead to unsafe conditions do to abortions. Increasing the types of health care professionals who can provide early aspiration abortions care is one way to reduce this health care disparity (News RX, 3013). While there are risks to having an abortions the rate of abortions has fell 29% between 1990-2005 from 27. 4 to 19. 4 this is not counting the level cut from 2005-2008 (ProCon. org, 2013). With this being said the rate of abortions are continuing to fall which is a positive thing.

Abortions help saves lives According to (Planned Parenthood) legal abortions protect women’s health. For tens of thousands of women with heart disease, kidney disease, severe hypertension, sickle cell anemia and severe diabetes, and other illnesses that can be life threathing, the availability of legal abortions has helped avert serious medical complications that would have resulted from childbirth (Planned Parenthood, 2006). Reasons why abortion should be legal If abortions were not legal, than women would have no options for an unwanted child.

Let’s talk about unwanted children. For one every child wants to be wanted, and loved by someone. If women are forced to carry unwanted pregnancies to term, the outcome would be society has unloved, unwanted children having abandonments issues. This is another problem of its own. Again this is why I personally believe abortions should be legal. What abortion does is help some women who are not ready to be mothers financially and or emotionally. We all know that women have abortions for many different reasons even if society disagrees on this issue of abortion.

Also abortions are a way to keep some of our children from having to grow up financially and emotionally deprived. Everyone looks at abortions as if it’s an easy task,” don’t want the child go have an abortions”. For some it’s not that easy and the reasoning behind having an abortion is not that easy either. It’s important not to judge someone for their actions and to not really know the reason as to why some women have made this choice. Reasons As I said before women have abortions for many different reasons.

One may be because it wasn’t planned, “what some would call an accidental pregnancy”. Another reason could be in the case of rape. Majority of women would not want to be reminded of that kind of experience so abortion should be an option. Another reason is what if the baby had a birth defect that caused harm for the baby and the mother. Again abortion should be an option or even in the case of incest. I don’t think any women would want to keep a baby by someone from their own family they have known them their whole lives and that has raised them as a child.

You have to be a very strong woman to go through these things, and there are plenty in our world. Having a child and being a parent are two different things if you look at it. Being a parent is someone who is going to guide you, nurture you, and loves you unconditionally, who provides and protects you. Now having a child any woman can do that. But for some they do not want or cannot do for their child/children. Having a child is a major responsibility financially, psychologically, and morally. Raising a child demands time, patients, effort, a sane mind and can’t forget money.

Introduction

Methyl quicksilver is ranked in the top 10 groups of chemicals listed as environmental job globally and is important associated for public wellness issues^{8, 10}. Published literature suggests that methyl quicksilver has negative effects on encephalon development and the ingestion of this compound by pregnant adult female may finally take to important neurological defects in neonates¹³.

The purpose of this study is to discourse the neurological inauspicious effects of methyl quicksilver on new-borns based on major epidemiological and carnal surveies and cipher the effects of altering dietetic methyl quicksilver exposure from fish ingestion in a France. In peculiar an direction to pregnant adult females to non devour tuna is expected to cut down the sum of MeHg consumption and consequence in IQ additions for the person and the society.

Hazard Identification

We will analyze Mercury. Mercury exists in different signifiers, either in elements ( or metals ) as inorganic signifier ( occupational exposure ) ; and organic signifier such as methyl quicksilver ( dietetic exposure )¹.

Mercury, a natural component in H2O, dirt and air, is considered by WHO as one of the top 10 groups of chemicals of major public wellness concern^1.Methyl Mercury chiefly targets the nervous system during its early development¹. That is why fetuss and immature kids are largely vulnerable to Methyl Mercury’s inauspicious wellness effects. Methyl Mercury is oxidised in the encephalon and causes chronic diseases^2,3,4,5.

Specifically, in the Faroe Islands, people consume whale meat at really high rates. The population was found to be extremely contaminated and the research workers associated europsychological shortages at 7 old ages of age Developmental delays with the MeHg exposures⁶.

The Faroe Islands and New Zealand surveies provide grounds of a negative association between MeHg in seafood consumed by pregnant adult females and the neurodevelopmental capablenesss of the siblings at the age of 4 and 6-7 old ages old. Even in low concentrations of methyl quicksilver, the effects are little but still there^6,8

The Seychelles survey did non observe any important associations between developmental trials and MeHg exposure. The survey measured concentration of hair quicksilver in pregnant female parents and so evaluated the development capablenesss of kids at 6.5, 19, 29 and 66 months of age⁷. From the survey there is no grounds about the association of MeHg exposure and DDST-R where was showed in pilot survey⁷.

The New Zealand survey associated exposure to Methyl quicksilver with mental development of kids at the age of 4 and 6-7 old ages old⁸. The survey shoes a high exposure group consisted of 200 kids ( average exposure = 9?g/g ) at the age of 6 to 7 old ages old, lower mental capablenesss were observed as opposed to the Control group with lower exposure rates..

Several bureaus around the universe examined the grounds sing MeHg toxicity. A comprehensive list of proposed ( full name ) RfDs is presented in table 1 ( adapted from WHO ) . The Joint FAO/WHO Expert Committee on Food Additives ( JECFA ) recommends that a steady-state day-to-day consumption of MeHg lower than 1.5 ?g/kg organic structure weight/day would non ensue in toxic concentrations of the compound in maternal blood.

Table I:

Exposure appraisal

Assorted epidemiological surveies were conducted in which research workers assed the degree of exposure of the female parents of the kids. Noteworthy attending is given in the survey in the Faroe Islands⁶, in Seychelles⁷and in New Zealand⁸. The population in Faroe Islands was found to be extremely contaminated of approximately 2 milligrams methyl mercury/kg⁶.

The surveies we examined^6,7,8and the study for WHO¹, suggest that the population is chiefly exposed through seafood ingestion. Island populations such as the population of Faroe Islands and New Zealand is expected to be characterized by high fish ingestion and later to high methyl quicksilver exposure, . Typical degrees of fish ingestion vary between 1?g/kg/day and 9?g/kg/day ( Faroe ) and sometimes higher ( 10?g/kg/day in New Zealand ) .

For the range of this work, the population of involvement is pregnant adult females in France. In order to gauge the exposure to MeHg from fish ingestion a brief literature reappraisal was performed and several surveies that reported pregnant adult females MeHg intake from fish in France and neighbouring states were identified.

The fish ingestion in France is non every bit high as island states and it is estimated that an mean Gallic adult female consumes about three helpings of fish/seafood per hebdomad¹⁴. Sing Gallic pregnant adult females, published literature provides some grounds about their exposure to MeHg from dietetic beginnings. This grounds is based on modelled dietetic exposure based on fish ingestion and mean MeHg degrees in fish. Pouzaud et al reported a average consumption of 0.67ug Hg/kg biological warfare /week¹⁵while Crepet et Al reported a average consumption of 0.4767ug Hg/kg biological warfare /week but for adult females of childbearing age¹⁴. Similar surveies across Europe have besides reported MeHg consumptions for pregnant adult females or adult females of childbearing age and are all presented in Table I1.

The exposure of the population of involvement is expected to be modifiable as ingestion of different sorts of fish may ensue in different consumption of MeHg. This is based on the concentration of MeHg that is bioaccumaulated otherwise in different species. A non-exhaustive literature hunt has provided some declarative degrees of MeHg in of import comestible fish species in France or the Mediterranean ( Table III ) .

Table I1:

Table Three:

Dose-Response Analysis

The relationship between IQ degrees in neonates and MeHg degrees in maternal hair used in this work is borrowed from the work by Rice et Al¹⁶which is based the information provided by the major epidemiological surveies that were conducted in the island populations of Faroe, Seycheles and New Zealand that examined the IQ alteration in neonates^6,7,8based on a figure of neurodevelopment trials Cohen et Al²¹and Axelrad et Al¹⁸besides synthesized the consequences of the three island surveies utilizing adept opinion and Bayesian analysis severally and their resulting estimations are reflected in the hair quicksilver to IQ coefficient that Rice et Al have used. This coefficient can be translated as the ensuing addition in IQ points in kids from a lessening of 1ug/gr of maternal hair MeHg concentration.

Since maternal hair MeHg degrees were used as the biomarker of exposure in the above mentioned surveies and such information is non available for the population of involvement, an ‘intake to blood coefficient’ and a ‘blood to hair’ coefficient are used that can use on the already known for Gallic pregnant adult females MeHg consumption estimations. These parametric quantities were besides foremost reported by Rice et Al¹⁶and were based on physiologically based pharmacokinetic modeling that has been either performed by Rice et Al or have been described antecedently.^{19, 20}

Hazard Characterisation – Decision

All computations have been performed utilizing Analytica 4.5. A complete list of variables and their values that were included in the Analytica theoretical account are presented in table IV. Figure 1 nowadayss an overview of the theoretical account. The basic premises that influence the theoretical account are:

1. A control option of “Do non eat Tuna ( when pregnant ) ” will ensue in 50 % decrease in the consumption of MeHg. This premise is based on the high degrees of MeHg in assorted tuna species compared to other fish species. The precise degree of 50 % is non evidence-based.
2. There is no rectification for the possibility of a neurotoxicity threshold. It is assumed that neurotoxicity due to foetal exposure to MeHg is without a threshold

Overall this study concludes the ensuing IQ additions for the Gallic society is expected to be lognormally distributed with a median of 98 IQ points. Considerable uncertainness characterizes this consequence. The minimal IQ points addition could be every bit low as 4600 and every bit high as 790000.

In this work, the possible inauspicious effects from cut downing the sum of fish consumed and the subsequent decrease of ?-3 fatty acids has non been evaluated

Figure 1: Illustration of Analytica Model

Table Four: Main Variables used in the Analytica theoretical account

Mentions

1. WHO. ( 2006 ) . Exposure to Mercury: A major public wellness concern. Preventing Disease through Healthy Environments, 4. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/j.ecoenv.2011.12.007
2. Kanai, Y. et Al ( 2003 ) : Functional belongingss of multispecific amino acid transporters and their deductions to transpoter-mediated toxicity. Journal of Toxicological Sciences. 28 ( 1 ) : 1-17
3. Kerper et Al ( 1992 ) , Methylmercury conveyance across the blood-brain barrier by an amino acid bearer. American Journal of Physiology Regulatory Integrative and Comparative Physiology. 262 ( 5 ) : 761-765.
4. Mottet et Al, ( 1985 ) , Health hazards from additions in methylmercury exposure, , Environ Health Perspect. Nov ; 63:133-40.
5. Sakamoto et Al ( 2004 ) , Maternal and foetal quicksilver and n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids as a hazard and benefit of fish ingestion to fetus, Environ Sci Technol. Jul 15 ; 38 ( 14 ) :3860-3.
6. Grandjean et Al ( 1997 ) , Cognitive shortage in 7-year-old kids with antenatal exposure to methylmercury, , Neurotoxicol Teratol. Nov-Dec ; 19 ( 6 ) :417-28.
7. Myers, G. J. , Davidson, P. W. , Shamlaye, C. F. , Axtell, C. D. , Cernichiari, E. , Choisy, O. , … Clarkson, T. W. ( 1997 ) . Effectss of antenatal methylmercury exposure from a high fish diet on developmental mileposts in the Seychelles Child Development Study. Neurotoxicology, 18 ( 3 ) , 819–829.
8. Kjellstrom et Al ( 1986 ) , Physical and mental development of kids with antenatal exposure to mercury from fish. Phase 2: Interviews and psychological trials at age 6. Report 3642, National Swedish Environmental Protection Board
9. Castoldi, A. F. , Onishchenko, N. , Johansson, C. , Coccini, T. , Roda, E. , Vahter, M. , … Manzo, L. ( 2008 ) . Neurodevelopmental toxicity of methylmercury: Laboratory animate being informations and their part to human hazard appraisal. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 51 ( 2 ) , 215–229. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2008.03.005
10. Stern, A. H. , & A ; Smith, A. E. ( 2003 ) . An appraisal of the cord blood: Maternal blood methylmercury ratio: Deductions for hazard appraisal. Environmental Health Perspectives, 111 ( 12 ) , 1465–1470. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1289/ehp.6187
11. Gilbert, S. G. , & A ; Grant-Webster, K. S. ( 1995 ) . Neurobehavioral effects of developmental methylmercury exposure. In Environmental Health Perspectives ( Vol. 103, pp. 135–142 ) . hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1289/ehp.95103s6135
12. Grandjean, P. , & A ; Herz, K. T. ( 2011 ) . Methylmercury and encephalon development: Impreciseness and underestimate of developmental neurotoxicity in worlds. Mount Sinai Journal of Medicine, 78 ( 1 ) , 107–118. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1002/msj.20228
13. UNEP DTIE Chemicals Branch, & A ; WHO Department of Food Safety, Z. and F. D. ( 2008 ) . GUIDANCE FOR IDENTIFYING POPULATIONS AT RISK FROM MERCURY EXPOSURE. Exposure.
14. Crepet, A. , Tressou, J. , Verger, P. , & A ; Leblanc, J. C. ( 2005 ) . Management options to cut down exposure to methyl quicksilver through the ingestion of fish and piscary merchandises by the Gallic population. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 42 ( 2 ) , 179–189. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2005.03.006
15. Pouzaud, F. , Ibbou, A. , Blanchemanche, S. , Grandjean, P. , Krempf, M. , Philippe, H.-J. , & A ; Verger, P. ( 2010 ) . Use of advanced bunch analysis to qualify fish ingestion forms and methylmercury dietetic exposures from fish and other sea nutrients among pregnant adult females. Journal of Exposure Science & A ; Environmental Epidemiology, 20 ( 1 ) , 54–68. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1038/jes.2009.2
16. Rice, G. E. , Hammitt, J. K. , & A ; Evans, J. S. ( 2010 ) . A probabilistic word picture of the wellness benefits of cut downing methyl quicksilver consumption in the United States. Environmental Science and Technology, 44 ( 13 ) , 5216–5224. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1021/es903359u
17. Verger, P. , Houdart, S. , Marette, S. , Roosen, J. , & A ; Blanchemanche, S. ( 2007 ) . Impact of a risk-benefit advisory on fish ingestion and dietetic exposure to methylmercury in France. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 48 ( 3 ) , 259–269. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/j.yrtph.2007.04.005
18. Axelrad, D. a. , Bellinger, D. C. , Ryan, L. M. , & A ; Woodruff, T. J. ( 2007 ) . Dose-response relationship of antenatal quicksilver exposure and IQ: An integrative analysis of epidemiologic informations. Environmental Health Perspectives, 115 ( 4 ) , 609–615. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1289/ehp.9303
19. Allen, B. C. , Hack, C. E. , & A ; Clewell, H. J. ( 2007 ) . Use of Markov concatenation Monte Carlo analysis with a physiologically-based pharmacokinetic theoretical account of methylmercury to gauge exposures in U.S. adult females of childbearing age. Hazard Analysis, 27 ( 4 ) , 947–959. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1111/j.1539-6924.2007.00934.x
20. Clewell, H. J. , Crump, K. S. , Gentry, P. R. , & A ; Shipp, A. M. ( 2000 ) . Site-specific mention dosage for methylmercury for fish-eating populations. Fuel Processing Technology, 65, 43–54. hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/S0378-3820 ( 99 ) 00075-2
21. Cohen, J. T. , Bellinger, D. C. , & A ; Shaywitz, B. a. ( 2005 ) . A quantitative analysis of antenatal methyl quicksilver exposure and cognitive development. American Journal of Preventive Medicine, 29 ( 4 ) . hypertext transfer protocol: //doi.org/10.1016/j.amepre.2005.06.00

Pregnancy is a time when a woman’s body will go through numerous adaptations in order to accommodate the fetus. During these physiological adaptations, the organs such as the spleen and liver and systems such as the endocrine and circulatory systems will be affected. A woman can experience minor disorders that are most likely the result of hormonal changes on the smooth muscle and connective tissues. This paper endeavors to describe some of the minor disorders in pregnancy, in particular, heartburn (reflux oesophagitis), constipation, hemorrhoids, dermatoses, and epistaxis.

The major physiological reason for heartburn (reflux oesophagitis) in pregnancy is due to the relaxation of the LES(lower esophageal sphincter) and the decreased tone and mobility of the smooth muscles, which is caused from increased progesterone. As the fetus increases in size, pressure in the abdomen compounds, decreasing the angle of the gastroesophageal junction. This allows for oesophageal regurgitation, less time for the stomach to empty, and reverse peristalsis (Blackburn 2007; Stables & Rankin 2010).

The main symptoms of heartburn are a “burning sensation” in the chest or back of the throat. Other symptoms may include eructation, difficulty in swallowing, and an acid or metal taste in the mouth. In terms of advice, there are some standard measures that can alleviate symptoms. These include examining the woman’s diet and eliminating foods that might aggravate, eating smaller portions, and more frequently, sleeping in upright positions and avoidance of eating closer to bedtime (Law et al. 2010; Vazquez 2010).

Constipation is known to affect more than 40% of women during their pregnancy (Derbyshire, Davies & Detmar 2007). In looking at the physiological reason for constipation, increasing levels of progesterone affect bowel motility and reduces the peristaltic movement of the gastrointestinal tract. This is turn then increases the time food is passed through the gut causing increases in the electrolyte and subsequent absorption of water in the large intestine. Motilin a hormone that assists feces to pass through the colon is also decreased by the levels of progesterone (Derbyshire, Davies & Detmar 2007).

Constipation could also be the result of hyperemesis gravidarum (pernicious vomiting in pregnancy), or ingestion of prescribed iron tablets for anemia (Tiran 2003). A diet rich in fiber and increasing fluid intake can help to ease some of the associated problems with constipation. Laxatives should only be used when dietary changes do not assist. In addition, women should be advised that ignoring signs for defecation will compound symptoms (Jewell & Young 1996; Vazquez 2010). The levels of fiber and fluid consumed should be noted by healthcare professionals when attending to women (Derbyshire, Davies & Detmar 2007).

Hemorrhoids occurs in pregnancy in 25 – 35% of women and in some populations, it can reach 85% (Staroselsky et al. 2008). Hemorrhoids occur due to progesterone causing vasodilation in the anorectal area. In some cases, there is a direct relationship between constipation and the formation of hemorrhoids. The main symptoms are itching, burning, swelling around the anus, and bleeding. Pain with bowel movements and bleeding are often the first signs of hemorrhoids. As there is a close relationship between constipation and hemorrhoids, the advice given to women with regards to treatment would be similar to constipation.

In (Staroselsky et al. 2008) it is stated that topical treatments and the use of laxatives can reduce symptoms. The integumentary system is no different from any of the other systems affected by physiological changes in pregnancy. There are a number of skin irritations that can cause discomfort to a woman during her pregnancy, but these do not harm the fetus. Melanocyte-stimulating hormone is increased by progesterone and estrogen levels. Chloasma or “pregnancy mask” is one of the conditions to arise from hormone increases (Stables & Rankin 2010).

Hyperpigmentation is the most common skin alteration in pregnancy. About 90% of women will develop linea nigra which is found running from the xiphoid process to the pubis. A common dermatoses found in pregnancy is a condition called PUPP (pruritic urticarial papules and plaques) The development of PUPP in pregnancy is 1 in 160 (Sachdeva 2008). This usually occurs in the primagravida in the third trimester and in rare cases in the first and second. In (Brzoza et al. 2007; Roth 2009) the reasons for PUPP are unclear but suggestions are made that maternal weight gain in primiparous women is the cause.

Interestingly statistics show that 2. 9% of twin pregnancies and 14% of triplet pregnancies develop PUPP. It is thought, that abdominal distension, hormonal, autoimmune, and change in partners (implication of paternal antigens) could attribute to the condition. Conditions such as Pemphigoid gestationis (PG), Intrahepatic cholestasis of pregnancy (ICP), and Atopic eruption of pregnancy ( AEP) require the monitoring from dermatologists, obstetricians, midwives, and other relevant healthcare practitioners as they do pose high risks to mother and baby (Brzoza et al. 007; Sachdeva 2008). With PUPP the main symptoms women complain of are an intense itching usually around the abdomen and in some cases breasts, upper thighs, and arms. In the case of PUPP’s, the application of topical steroids, emollient creams and ointments may be applied and in severe cases, oral treatments may be sought (Roth 2009). Epistaxis (nosebleeds) is considered a minor disorder but in one study has proven to be life-threatening. Oestrogen rises, which causes hyperactivity of the parasympathetic nervous system which in turn causes nasal congestion.

One of the other reasons is systemic blood pressure increases in pregnancy. Complications from nosebleeds is rare, but if not monitored could lead to hemorrhage (Hardy, Connolly & Weir 2008). In this study, a woman presented at 26 weeks with epistaxis but 48 hours later continued to bleed and surgery was the outcome. There is also evidence that chronic rhinosinusitis can lead to epistaxis. One study 44% of women between the ages of 26-30 and presenting in the third trimester appeared to have the highest incidence of epistaxis.

It must be noted that though this study was conducted in a third world country where nourishment, hygiene, and education are an issue, there are potential risks of epistaxis in pregnancy. (Purushothaman 2010) Maternal morbidity in pregnancy is very well researched and evidence-based, but the impacts that minor disorders have on a woman’s family or her emotional state is not well documented. However, there is one such Australian study stating the impact on women. In (Gartland et al. 2010) showed that 68% experienced multiple disorders which had a cumulative effect and therefore greater impact.

What is interesting in the study was that women aged between 18-24, had a poor perception of health, socio-economic, and education issues. In comparison to those older women who had stable relationships, well educated, and better perception of health. The study demonstrated that a woman’s support network, access to professional advice, and education can greatly impact her wellbeing and those around her. This assignment has explained the physiology and reasons for minor disorders in pregnancy. It is important that midwives and relevant healthcare professionals monitor women so as to prevent further complications to mother and child.

The health and wellbeing of a mother and her unborn child is always the utmost priority of healthcare professionals.

References

1. Blackburn, S. T. 2007, Maternal, fetal & neonatal physiology: a clinical perspective, 3rd edn, Saunders Elsevier, St. Louis, Mo. Brzoza, Z. , Kasperska-Zajac, A. , Oles, E. & Rogala, B. 2007, ‘Pruritic urticarial papules and plaques of pregnancy’, Journal of Midwifery & Women’s Health, vol. 52, no. 1, pp. 44-8.
2. Derbyshire, E. J. , Davies, J. ; Detmar, P. 2007, ‘Changes in Bowel Function: Pregnancy and the Puerperium’, Digestive Diseases and Sciences, vol. 2, no. 2, p. 324.
3. Gartland, D. , Brown, S. , Donath, S. ; Perlen, S. 2010, ‘Women’s health in early pregnancy: Findings from an Australian nulliparous cohort study’, Australian and New Zealand Journal of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, vol. 50, no. 5, pp. 413-8.
4. Hardy, J. J. , Connolly, C. M. ; Weir, C. J. 2008, ‘Epistaxis in pregnancy – not to be sniffed at! ‘, International Journal of Obstetric Anesthesia, vol. 17, no. 1, pp. 94-5. Jewell, D. ; Young, G. 1996, Interventions for treating constipation in pregnancy, John Wiley ; Sons, Ltd.
5. Law, R. , Maltepe, C. , Bozzo, P. ; Einarson, A. 2010, ‘Treatment of heartburn and acid reflux associated with nausea and vomiting during pregnancy’, Can Fam Physician, vol. 56, no. 2, pp. 143-4.
6. Purushothaman, L. P. a. P. K. 2010, ‘Analysis of Epistaxis in Pregnancy’, European Journal of Scientific Research, vol. 40, no. 3, pp. 387-96.
7. Roth, M. -M. 2009, ‘Specific Pregnancy Dermatoses’, Dermatology Nursing, vol. 21, no. 2, pp. 70-81.
8. Sachdeva, S. 2008, ‘The dermatoses of pregnancy. (Review Article)’, Indian Journal of Dermatology, vol. 3, no. 3, p. 103.
9. Stables, D. ; Rankin, J. 2010, Physiology in childbearing : with anatomy and related biosciences, 3rd edn, Bailliere Tindall, Edinburgh.
10. Staroselsky, A. , Nava-Ocampo, A. A. , Vohra, S. ; Koren, G. 2008, ‘Hemorrhoids in pregnancy’, Can Fam Physician, vol. 54, no. 2, pp. 189-90.
11. Tiran, D. 2003, ‘Product focus. Self help for constipation and haemorrhoids in pregnancy’, British Journal of Midwifery, vol. 11, no. 9, pp. 579-81.
12. Vazquez, J. C. 2010, ‘Constipation, haemorrhoids, and heartburn in pregnancy’, Clinical Evidence.

Around 12% of all pregnancies occur to women who continue to smoke throughout their pregnancy.

Two thirds of those involved in maternal smoking during pregnancy are Caucasian.

More than 500,000 infants each year are exposed to cigarette smoke in utero.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy has been heavily linked to many infant and toddler health issues.

Health issues are also apparent in women who do not smoke during pregnancy, but are regularly exposed to smoke during their pregnancy.  This applies most to those who live with a smoker, or those who work in smoking environments.

It is a known fact that maternal smoking during pregnancy produces more premature births and babies with lower birth weights.

Maternal smoking during pregnancy has also been associated with babies who have colic.

It has been found that tobacco smoke raises levels of motilin in the blood and intestines when maternal smoking during pregnancy is apparant. These raised levels causes contractions of the stomach and intestines to increase.

The increased levels of motilin can cause colic in infants, which can cause the infants pain and discomfort for months.

Studies show that infants who had colic at 3 months of age had more sleep difficulties and temper tantrums at 3 years of age in comparison with those children without colic.

Studies show that maternal smoking during pregnancy leads to more rebellious and aggressive infants and toddlers, helping to link smoking during pregnancy to behavior in infants and toddlers.

Mothers who smoked during pregnancy also reported more negative behavior from their infants and toddlers than mothers who did not smoke during pregnancy.

Studies show that maternal smoking during pregnancy can have behavioral affects on the infant well into adulthood.

Question

Does maternal smoking during pregnancy affect the personality (behavior, mood) of an infant and continue to have an affect into toddler hood?

Hypothesis

It is suspected that maternal smoking during pregnancy does indeed have an affect on the personality (behavior, mood) of an infant and continues to have an affect into toddler hood.

Conducting a study on the behavior of infants born to mothers who smoked during their pregnancy, and continuing the study through their toddler years can provide adequate research for this question.

This study would need to monitor the child in his or her normal environment as well as in typical social environments.

The child’s behavior would then be compared to the behavior of children of the same age and developmental stage that were born to mothers who did not smoke during the pregnancy.

By collecting all of the data and analyzing it, there may be a pattern of behavior differences between the children who were born to smoking mothers and those who were born to non-smoking mothers.

Problems

It may be difficult to pinpoint aggressive or negative behavior from children on the sole fact that their mother smoked during their pregnancy.

It will be difficult to factor in behavioral and discipline techniques used by guardians of these children.

It may be difficult to get mothers to admit they smoked during their pregnancy, as they may be embarrassed of their lack of attention to the health issues that may have been affected.

It may be impossible to set a standard and determine what is normal rebellious behavior for an infant and toddler and what is abnormal behavior.

Sources

• Hitti, Miranda. “Tobacco Smoke May Increase Colic”. 4 October, 2004.
• http://my.webmd.com/content/article/94/103060.htm. Acquired on 22 June 2005.
• “Infant Deaths Tied to Premature Births”. New York Times. 1 March, 1995.
• http://www.stat.berkeley.edu/users/statlabs/papers/sample.pdf.  Acquired on 22 June
• 2005.
• “Prenatal Smoking Data Book: Smoking and Reproductive Outcomes”.  www.cdc.com.
• Acquired on 22 June 2005.
• Schonfeld, Amy Rothman PhD.  “Dreading the ‘Terrible Twos’? Don’t Smoke, Mothers
• Warned”.  13 April, 2000. http://my.webmd.com/content/article/23/1728_56585.htm.
• Acquired on 22 June 2005.