Sociology

I’ve learned a lot from observing and working with the kids at YALLA’s soccer practice. Watching their behavior and development and being able to tie what I’ve seen into what I’ve been learning in class has helped my understanding of the material immensely. There were roughly 8 concepts from class that I was able to apply to volunteering at YALLA: Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory, Bronfenbrenner’s model, information processing theory, classical and operant conditioning (behaviorism), Piaget’s theory of cognitive development, resilience, emotional regulation, and Erikson’s theory of psychosocial development.

The first concept I applied to my volunteering service was Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory. This theory states that the social aspect of growth and learning is largely attributed to interacting with peers, caregivers, and other relevant authority figures. Scaffolding and the zone of proximal development state that there are certain things that children can learn and do on their own, but they require guided participation from more knowledgeable people (whether they’re adults or more advanced peers) on certain subjects and concepts.

During soccer practice, I observed Vygotsky’s sociocultural theory in action. From what I could see, the children understood most of the basics and the fundamentals of playing soccer. They knew for sure to kick the ball to their teammates instead of their opponents, and they knew for sure to aim towards the goal. But some of the warm-ups and drills were a little challenging for certain students, especially the younger, less experienced ones. That’s where the coaches would step in.

Coach Paulina or Coach Nawa would demonstrate and explain techniques for the kids to watch. They would sometimes pull a more advanced student aside to have him or her participate in the demonstration. An example was when Coach Nawa had one student help to show the other kids how to place herself between her opponent and the ball. She had the student behind her and she would use her body to block his access to the ball in front of her; after which, she set up the drill for the rest of the kids to pair up and try it themselves. They didn’t master it immediately, but Coach Nawa stepped in to demonstrate and work with the paired-up students wherever she could. Some students caught on more quickly than others and would offer assistance where necessary. And undoubtedly, some of the less skilled students were learning by example of just watching the more skilled students.

The second concept that I tied into soccer practice was Bronfenbrenner’s ecological theory, which states that children have several social layers that they interact with during their lifetime; some they interact with directly, some indirectly. The layers are known as the chronosystem, the macrosystem, the exosystem, the mesosystem, and the microsystem. The chronosystem relates to the changes in a child’s environment as time progresses.

The macrosystem is a broad category that holds values and laws that a child must learn in order to function properly in society (ie: cultural values, laws, and customs). The exosystem indirectly relates to a child; it generally holds adult community, adult society, and adult culture, all of which affect a child’s daily life in some way or another. The mesosystem consists of interactions that occur in a child’s microsystems, such as when their parents and teachers gather to discuss the child. And finally, the microsystem consists of the elements that a child has the most contact and exposure to, such as family, school, and other immediate environments.

I definitely saw some of the systems expose themselves in the children’s behavior. Some of the kids liked to act as little supervisors, pointing out mistakes that their peers made and giving them a hard time about it. That could be a result of what happens in their microsystems; they could be imitating close family members, such as parents or older siblings and reflecting it upon their own peers.

Generally, a lot of kids are hard on each other, which makes youth society pretty unforgiving. This could be a result of cultural and societal beliefs and pressures bestowed upon them under their macrosystems. This is not necessarily limited to pressures that children bestow on each other; it can apply to any pressures and expectations that adults (in general) have towards them, as well. Macrosystems have been implemented when Cristina has needed to speak with the parents, either about behavioral issues, attendance discrepancies, or missing sheets that needed to be signed off by the parents.

The third concept is information processing theory. This theory states that the human mind processed information in a manner that is similar to a computer; that is to say that computers constantly modify their code in order to take in and process new or additional information to store, whether for the short-term or the long-term. The human mind is similar in that we either take in brand new information or we learn something in addition to things we already know. Information starts out as sensory information and is processed into our immediate short-term memory when we need it for that moment, and it may go into long-term memory when we will need to use that information again in the future.

Selective attention is when we process only the relevant information in our surroundings, and filtering out everything that is irrelevant. Automatization is basically when an action or behavior has been performed so often that it requires little to no thought to perform, much like muscle memory. Metacognition is a child’s ability to mentally self-regulate in order to rationally pull together the information they’ve been gathering to solve problems they’re faced with. Knowledge base is a person’s knowledge that they’ve built and established up to this current point in time. Retrieval cues are usually sensory stimuli that help the human mind to dig up certain memories.

I’ve watched the kids process information, such as certain skills or techniques. They generally had a decent, solid knowledge base of the basic rules of soccer. They just have to touch up on the more complicated information. Some skills and techniques were processed by short-term memory initially, but were drilled enough to enter long-term memory. Some skills were performed so often, such as catching the ball and passing it, that they were automatized. The kids could perform those skills almost flawlessly so that they could focus on anticipating the moves of their opponents instead of focusing so heavily on their technique. But when the kids occasionally began drawing blanks on their next move, the coaches offered certain hints and key phrases that served as retrieval cues.

The kids would also use selective attention quite frequently. They didn’t focus on the chilling breeze, the sound of the cars rushing by, or a scream in the distance; they were able to drown all of that out and focus on the game. The most difficult concept of this theory for some of the kids was metacognition. The older, more skilled children were more well-able to mentally self-regulate, as they didn’t have to put AS MUCH thought into what they were doing. The slightly younger, less experienced/skilled kids in the older, competitive group were sometimes put on overload.

They had to try to process information quickly and it wasn’t always easy for them to pull information they had just barely learned and put said information into action in a competitive environment. But of course, they eventually get the hang of it. One warm-up that I watched Coach Nawa implement with the kids was fitness and reflex-based. It was similar to their normal rondos, except that they had to pass the ball quickly and run across to a new spot once they passed the ball. I thought that this was great, because it kind of forced the kids to think and pull information from their long-term memory more quickly than usual.

The fourth concept is the theory of behaviorism, which concerns classical and operant conditioning. Classical conditioning is the act of learning through pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus to evoke an unconditioned response. Over time, the neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus, and the unconditioned response becomes a conditioned response. Ideally, the conditioned stimulus by itself will eventually evoke as strong a reaction as the unconditioned stimulus due to association and anticipation.

Operant conditioning shapes behavior by using reinforcements and punishments. Reinforcements can be effective, either by adding in a pleasant stimulus (positive reinforcement) or by removing an unpleasant stimulus (negative reinforcement). Punishments can be effective, either by adding an unpleasant stimulus (positive punishment) or removing a pleasant stimulus (negative punishment). Under operant conditioning, behavior will either strengthen or it will cease, depending on the intent of the conditioning.

I don’t think I directly observed any classical conditioning in the kids. I did, however, see plenty of operant conditioning; mostly in the form of positive or negative punishment. The main problem with the older group of kids is behavioral issues. They have a better sense of focus than the younger group and they treat soccer more seriously.

Introduction

For the purpose of the analysis of Science & Technology Studies (STS) this case study identifies the article “Studying Obduracy in the City: Toward a Productive Fusion between Technology Studies and Urban Studies” by Anique Hommels. The author tries to provide better understanding of the dynamics presupposed with the urban life. It makes special points on scientific and technical factors which tend to keep the balance for the growth of the cities. However, the author focuses more on the fact of the city obduracy, as an inseparable element of the contemporary city life and construction.

Both technology and urban studies are outlined to be the ground for obduracy in the city. Moreover, the theoretical approach encounters quite many facts to prove the point of the author. One should keep it in mind that the article is aimed at promoting the overall analysis of the sociotechnical development and change in the city and how it appeals to the obduracy, as a social phenomenon. This is why the issue of obduracy is analyzed in the article in terms of urban and technology studies (Hommels, 2005). In this respect the study proposed and further deeply analyzed by Hommels (2005) requires counter investigation of the main points discussed in the article and applied to the sphere of critical analysis. Hence, the author of the article responds to the explanatory analysis of STS, as the obduracy appears not as often as applied to this field of study, to make the kind and the form of analysis to a broader point and further reflexivity.

Critical analysis

The STS author is quite explanatory to make a point of theoretical and practical implementations of the issue of obduracy in terms of current research. This provides a ground for further identification of the subject matter itself and its prerequisites, in particular. The author provides some features of the description, of course, to put an observer into the picture. It is based mainly on the elements of technology and urban studies perplexed into a wholeness of principles and justifications of different sort.  On the other side, the author uses description to provide a frame for thorough analysis of the basic claims. It is possible to suggest that technologies and the city are inseparable and have emerged as a result of the human progress in scientific and technological approaches. Thus, this STS study should be thought of as a trivial one.

Hommels (2005) highlights three heuristic models fitting the obduracy of technology and urban life, namely: frames, embeddedness, and persistent traditions. All basic elements of the discussion are explained in their characteristic features and cross-relational background. Hence, the explanation prevails over description in the study under investigation. It is critically to mention that the hypothesis maintained by Hommels (2005) stems from the technology as a part of the city and its integral constituent on the whole. In this respect it is evidenced on the example of persistent interactions between different groups of actors who are aimed at having more benefits involving different technologies.

The analyst in the study provides a fair assumption that the obduracy in technological life of the city is a product of frames in which people live and interact with each other (Hommels, 2005). A slight variation of obduracy may solely be concerned with the cultural and traditional aspects going on in the society, as a part of urban environment. To say more, the analyst attempts initially to apply some conceptual features in order to explain the role of the main actors and participants. It is all about concepts of mental model and technological frame (Hommels, 2005). However, the gist of the study faces its explanatory character due to the correlation analysis of the proposed models.

On the other hand, applying embeddedness, the analyst identifies the role of the participants in their tight interactions as a straightforward implication of obduracy in terms of the sociotechnical symbiosis (Hommels, 2005). It requires one to dwell on this model and reach out social equilibrium notwithstanding different misbalances in applying STS to various societal and political models appropriate to definite cities. Another point the analysts admits in the study is that the traditional connections are strong and full of stability for different groups of actors (Hommels, 2005).

There is no way for those who feel they can escape out of the net of different traditions and morale being in evidence within the society. Moreover, the analyst runs into the controversy which appeared in the course of the research. It considers differences (in frames) as opposed to similarities (persistent traditions) among social groups. Hence, the sticking point of the discussion as of actors and analyst role reached its apogee when providing explanatory analysis of the aforementioned three models proposed by Hommels (2005).

Sociological development of human relationships is fairly one of the most powerful factors underlining human behaviors and their aptness at launching as more technological approaches as possible. This standpoint is also critical when the author focuses more on the historical framework for STS and the issue of obduracy, as a result of suchlike application of scientific and technological innovations in the society. Thereupon, the author is impartial with respect to involving multifaceted theoretical approaches in order to identify the extent of technological obduracy. It is well evidenced when Hommels (2005) draws attention to the roles of human and non-human actors and the paramount place of social groups to be the main actors for the research.

Conversely, the idea of the analyst is supported by actor network theory (ANT) and social construction of technology (SCOT) which are discussed in their controversial applicability to the subject of obduracy in technologies and urban studies (Hommels, 2005). The voice of the author responds to a backside assumptive character, as though, she discovers the focal point of the overall issue for the first time. This implication serves as a complete suggestion to STS on the whole and obduracy in technologies, in particular.

In the continuum of mental models and technological progress appeared in the society earlier the author is more aimed at reshaping the picture of urban technology by dint of investigating the phenomenon of obduracy (Hommels, 2005). Owing to this very concern some analytics may suppose the author not impartial in her suggestions and overall analysis of the problem. It makes an alleged impediment in considering this study non-biased. However, once again, the main attention should be grabbed to the way the models applied in the study and the variability of approaches the author uses to point them out. In these issues there is no impartiality, as might be seen.

The form of the analysis is based on the implications of networks and symmetry in sociological viewpoint. This is why the author admits the prior role of SCOT and ANT for making more emphasis on the implementation of obduracy or identifying obdurate features in a city full of technological innovations of time. Along with the large technical systems (LTS), the author prescribes this exclusive role of SCOT and ANT, as “relational theories of contemporary cities” (Hommels, 2005, p. 329). This idea embraces the interactions between relevant social groups taking notice of the “principle of generalized symmetry” (Hommels, 2005, p. 343). This makes the research relied on the networks of human relationships which symbolize direct ways and restrictions for further analysis.

In this way of thinking one should be accurate in bringing about the meaning of being used to “analyze the design and use of specific technological artifacts” (Hommels, 2005, p. 331). In this respect it would be rational to perceive the overall form of analysis in terms of the interactionist conception from the outset. However, further slighter observation of previous studies drives the author toward choosing technological frame and mental model to provide symmetry in highlighting the value of technological artifacts. Moreover, the gist of the research is more concerned with the philosophical interpretations of sociotechnical models implied and elaborated in contemporary cities. A deep insight is promoted to depict the building reality of the city with its inseparable (as was mentioned before) technological frame.

The author uses approaches being familiar in the inter-disciplinary study of STS. This argument flows out of the ideas of other authors who made STS more developed and organized into a separate discipline. The author uses constructivist theories of Joerges, Law, Latour, and Callon in order to prove the sense of obduracy and technologies for the society on the material (practical) level (Hommels, 2005). Implicitly, it manifests author’s aptness at using applicable approaches and theories in order to point out the feasibility and validity of such.

Once again, the author leads toward using ANT, LTS and SCOT approaches linked in their direct appeal toward technological obduracy and obdurate cities, particularly. These approaches take place in explaining and understanding all of three models outlined by the author. Hence, the research is done with respect to previously known and frequently used in STS approaches and theoretical backgrounds. Sociotechnical, architectural, philosophical, and scientific approaches are in evidence for the article under investigation. Hommels (2005) makes the following assumption on the applicability of approaches used in her study: “STS may thus have a wider applicability than hitherto assumed because STS concepts can also be fruitfully applied to larger artifacts such as cities” (344).

The author seeks for no enemies but allies in his assumptive research. It is shown in the fact that the author tries to leave the issue of obduracy in urban life open toward the rest of scholars sparking interest in this field of the scientific research. The main argument for the above mentioned statement is as follows:

Surely, I hope that other STS scholars will be encouraged to explore the city as a strategic research site. By the same token, I would be gratified if urban scholars have become convinced that STS concepts can be especially useful when analyzing processes of urban sociotechnical change – a topic that urban scholars have dealt with from their perspectives (Hommels, 2005, p. 344).

This gives grounds to state that the author does not want to outline a group of scholars sympathetic to her, nor she wants to blow the criticism on the opponents. Conducted in a general form, her hopes leave much place for further assumptions and methodological treatment useful for investigating obduracy in the city where technological frame has become a superstructure of the social life. Hence, Hommels’s article is suggesting the general public of observers and scholars at stake. It illuminates author’s huge concern growing out of the basic points outlined in the study. Thus, the value of the research covers broader groups of scholars in the field of STS.

In a broader point of view, the study requires more concerns as of historical and political frameworks maintained in different societies (Hommels, 2005). In this respect there is plenty to talk about the city structure and its parts in terms of life cycle and usefulness for human beings. In this case the author raises some assumptions on the capacity of social groups, as a result of economical and political reformation going hand in hand with the scientific and technological approaches. In a “sociotechnical ensemble” urban studies acquire the implication of urban policies which result in the embeddedness model of obduracy.

Looking at this matter from more sociological point of view, the author provides a concise criticism of historical aspects in measuring the continuum of the precursors reflecting the entire essence of an obdurate city life. Thereupon, Hommels (2005) remarks that “urban historians were among the first to acknowledge the importance of technology in the city” (Hommels, 2005, p. 324). The question is about the artifacts of technological implementation in the cities, i.e. roads, bridges, squares, underground, etc. It is thought of to be a never-ending start of higher inventions and renovations in urban life. Thus, obduracy in technologies has political and economic coloring in its subject matter.

In accordance to reflexivity outlined in the study, the analyst is socially realistic in discussing and analyzing previous and current STS studies. It claims for more appreciation on the part of scholarly-conscientious audience. Hommels (2005) in her article is externally oriented, as she moves toward multifaceted approaches in identifying the power of technological variable in the urban norms of living. On the other hand, it is all about focusing on “conceptualizations of the process that involve the negotiations and attempts at undoing the sociotechnical status quo in a city, changing the taken-for-grantedness of its reality, and making its obduracy flexible” (Hommels, 2005, p. 324).

Hereby, the author maintains an external viewpoint to make observers reflect the cornerstone “bricks” of the analysis provided in the article. The author centers her discussion on the complicated character of the models chosen for the research. In addition, Hommels (2005) puts it into the picture that the variety of the methods and approaches used in the research provide ambiguity in considering obduracy in the cities both valid and non-valid to be further imposed into scholar researches of different authors afterwards. This implication drives one toward points on reflexivity, as being common for the urban and technological studies in their reference to STS. Such an inter-disciplinary ensemble runs the gamut of scientific discoveries.

Reference

• Hommels, A. (2005). Studying Obduracy in the City: Toward a Productive Fusion between Technology Studies and. Science, Technology, & Human Values , 30 (3), 323-351.

The working environment can be very enjoyable and satisfying during and at the end of it all. While working, however, individuals have to grapple with different social aspects at the work setting. These social bombardments at work can affirmatively or negatively contribute tremendously to the meaning and experience that one has at work. This paper will explore some of the experiences that working individuals go through by way of analyzing the work experiences of a gentleman from Shanghai and an elderly lady from Hong Kong aged 27 and 56 years respectively. It will also go father to compare the working lives of the duo in the light of sociological concepts and themes associated with work. Sociological Reflections of Work Experience: Harry Braverman defines work as a goal oriented activity having a product or an outcome. The working environment in the contemporary world is characterized by a steady and progressive advancement in computer technology, non-unionization, and low salaries and wages. As interviewed the Shanghai gentleman and the Hong Kong lady,  noted that both of them complained about low wages on the one hand but agreed that technological advancement improved the efficiency and quality of their work. In other instances, work sociology involves the application of bureaucracy. In Economy and Society, Weber posits that a bureaucratic authorial structure is characterized by ordering of duties, a commanding structure and a systematic provision of a means to execute those duties. He continues to note that bureaucracy, an authoritative entity, comprises of jurisdictional competency; office hierarchy, a management that follows general rules and that relies on written documents; has a tenured position for officials, and expert training.

Thus, Weber provides an assurance that bureaucracy is fully rooted in the contemporary world. This kind of leadership is evident in the work experiences of both my subjects; both worked under the supervision of a boss whom they described as “strict, super careful and detail conscious.” The elderly lady also mentioned that her first job entailed being a “junior secretary to an executive chef.” She further mentions that she was a “secretary to a personnel manager.” The duo, therefore, experienced the power and dominance that came with a bureaucratic system. Moreover, both of them had some academic competency with skills (Leadership, Communication and Problem solving) that enabled them to perform at their various jobs. Moreover, a consideration of both surveys elicits the issue of gender segregation. This type of inequality has been a major player in the sociology of work since time immemorial. However, a paradigm shift has been observed with gender imbalances taking a nosedive over the years especially with regards to paid work. Blau, Brinton and Grusky say that the trends in the market work as far as gender is concerned is convergent even though the progress is not continuous. They also note that changes in gender are asymmetrical since the number of women participating in the paid work (“male” frontiers) has skyrocketed and thus weakening the patriarchy that has defined work settings for decades; on the flip side, the number of men joining the unpaid household work is insignificant relative to the aforementioned.

The Hong Kong lady attests to this notable change of what has been considered a norm in the working arena. Right from her aspirations of being a manager and the need to improve the financial status of their family, it is noticeable that she has been inclined to venture into paid work. She later on worked as junior secretary, a human resource professional and then settled for a fulltime job working for 9 hours a day. According to economists, the rise in women participation in the paid work is attributable to an increase in opportunity cost allowing one to be a homemaker. The decline seen in men’s wages as was noted by the gentleman from Shanghai who claimed that he is not worth what he was being paid, has necessitated the need for a second paycheck in the household. Hence, the Hong Kong lady got into employment to supplement what her father and husband earned. Gender biasness can be seen in the case of the Shanghai gentleman who claimed that one of the ladies he worked with at the Consultancy firm received the same pay package as his even though he invested more effort at work. He claims that perhaps it was because the lady was beautiful. Dignity at work and Division of Labor Furthermore, “Working with dignity is a foundation for a fully realized life. Despite many denials of dignity faced daily in the workplace, people still strive to do their best, to take pride in their work, and to defend themselves against indignities from employers, and sometimes from coworkers”.

Dignity at work has been sought by many an employee and more often than not contributes to the wellbeing of an employee and boosts the overall effectiveness of the employee. Most persons prefer to work were their efforts are recognized and valued either by the employer or other Hong Kong lady for instance , mentioned that at one poil as a clerk and received a meager sand lady mentioned that she like the job since she understood it and was thus liked by the boss.  This understanding and the appreciation reciprocated by her employer uplifted her dignity thus enabling her dignity was at low ebb when perhaps she lacked some hard skills in handling her job at some point in her job life. As the worst as the best experience. she says that she “completed the task through teamwork and was praised by her boss.” The Shanghai by the work. He also says that his first job was not worth the pay he received because his bonuses remained the same even after flexing time and putting extra effort . manes division of labor is a sociological concept necessary for solidarity. Durkhelm; In ohio a tv. Durkheim observed that the division of labor contributed to social cohesion at work. Weber and Karl Max on the other hand , thought that a capitalistic society was responsible for the social tension that was being experienced during the industrial revolution. In order to reinforce social norms ahematite functions once practiced by organizations The Hong Kong lady mentioned that change praised by her boss because of completing some assignment through team effort . Such teamwork i couraged in most institutions since it enhances solidarity and fosters integration of the various cialties existing in an organization ; the efforts of the employees are converged towards a common goal and vision.

According to Lisa J. McIntyre, C.W. Mill’s article “The Promise” was arguably the most famous paper published by a modern sociologist to this day. The core concept of this paper is to explain the concept and relevance of the sociological imagination. According to C.W. Mills, the key to using a sociological imagination is to overlook individual behaviors in order to pan out and see the larger social contexts within a society. C.W. Mills explains that, “The sociological imagination allows its possessor to understand the larger historical scene in terms of its meaning for the inner life and the external career of a variety of individuals” (C.W. Mills, 2014, 3). It is implied that through this technique of observation greater sociological comprehension can be achieved. C.W. Mills explains in his paper that the sociological imagination can provide great insights by maintaining focus on both history and biography and their relationship within society (C.W. Mills, 2014, 3).

In order to accurately apply a sociological imagination, Mills states that three kinds of questions must be posed when approaching a sociological issue. Firstly, the structure of a society as a whole as well as its essential components and how they differ from other varieties of social order must be analyzed. Secondly, he states that one must look not only at where the society stands in a historical sense but also at how and why it is changing in addition to how it differs from other periods. Thirdly, Mills states that the varieties of men and woman that currently prevail in the society must be looked into in addition to the ways in which they are selected and/or repressed (C.W. Mills, 2014, 3). These three questions are helpful in successfully viewing issues on a societal level in broad context that provides distance from individual behaviors.

One important point on viewing society with a sociological imagination that C.W. Mills brings to light is that although individuals can make their own choices, those choices are often constricted by societal factors and their social milieu (C.W. Mills, 2014, 1). One example that Mills uses to illustrate this point is marriage. When examining divorce from an individual level, the individuals may be blamed for their own independent issues. However, when viewed from a societal level high divorce rates can indicate more of a structural issue resulting in the divorce (C.W. Mills, 2014, 5). Another example provided by Mills that illustrates the application of the sociological imagination in viewing an issue on a societal level is war. When considered from the point of view of an individual soldier the issue may be to survive and provide for his or her family, but when viewed from a societal and historical standpoint the structural issues of war emerge to show economic and political factors at play and their impacts (C.W. Mills, 2014, 5).

Mills states that an instrumental point in using a sociological imagination is that in order to “understand the changes of many personal milieux we are required to look beyond them” (C.W. Mills, 2014, 5). He stresses that in order to be conscious of social structures and comprehend them with sensibility one must be able to pick up on the interconnections of massive amounts of milieux (C.W. Mills, 2014, 5). It is in this awareness that the key to the sociological imagination and the enlightenment it can provide is held.

In Article #2, “How History and Sociology Can Help Today’s Families” by Stephanie Coontz, the relations between men and women in addition to parents and children are analyzed (McIntyre, 2014, 7). Coontz dives right into using a sociological imagination by stating that, “a historical perspective can help us place our personal relationships into a larger social context” (Stephanie Coontz, 1997, 5). Coontz explains that although seeing the bigger picture when it comes to family dilemmas will not solve the underlying issues, it can help ease the negative emotions that occur within a family by illuminating that the issues occurring are commonalities in society (Stephanie Coontz, 1997, 5).

Coontz purposely analyzes her subjects from a historical and social context to provide structural commonalities in their relationships and the issues that accompany them. Through applying her sociological imagination Stephanie Coontz is able to notice that the common adolescent sense of being in a state of societal limbo is most likely a result of childhood being prolonged by factors such as “dependence on parents and segregation from adult activities (Stephanie Coontz, 1997, 9). By putting this in a historical perspective, Coontz is able to successfully provide narratives on commonly addressed adolescent issues.

Additionally, in Article #4, “Adolescent Humor During Peer Interaction” by Stephanie Coontz and Donna Eder as well as Article #5, “Miscounting Race: Explaining Whites’ Misperceptions of Racial Group Size” by Charles A. Gallagher, social topics such as Adolescent Humor and Racial Group Size estimations are tackled with a sociological imagination. In Article #4 Coontz and Eder focus on adolescent humor during peer interaction. Although the study was conducted in a fashion that views adolescents from a variety of socioeconomic backgrounds, the study seemed to apply a sociological imagination slightly less based upon its methods (Coontz and Eder, 1984, 29). Due largely to the fact that the study was preformed at a single middle school, historical context was largely unable to be applied where it was incorporated in the other articles.

In Article #5, Charles A. Gallagher very effectively uses a sociological imagination to try and answer why whites overestimate the population percentage of minorities. In this article three main narratives are provided to account for the overestimation. Through effectively using a sociological imagination Gallagher states that “exposure to racial minorities in the media, perceptions that blacks make collective demands for racial justice, and the belief that demographic changes had made whites a minority” are responsible for the overestimations (Gallagher, 2003, 39). It becomes clear that the profound insights made in Article 2, 4, and 5 are achieved as a direct result of their author’s use of a sociological imagination.

Deeper comprehension and insights of the issues examined in these articles become possible by the use of a sociological imagination. These authors’ analyses demonstrate their sociological perspectives by analyzing issues and asking what the particular society’s structure is as whole and its fundamental components, where the society sits in a historical context, and what varieties of individuals prevail in the society and why.

Mills tries to bring to the light that the things that each passes through can be grouped to be a social issue because almost every individual in the universe is affected by the same in one way or the other. For example in the occurrence of a war the economists will be concerned, family structures changed, living conditions get tough for everyone in the war zone despite the profession or age or the income. Mills tries to explain that through the use of pain learning is experienced. He goes ahead to bring out the link between biography, history, and traditions thus clearly illustrating the impact of the society on an individual or the group and vice versa. The questions Mills suggest that we use aimed at helping us understand and also illustrate the interrelation between human and society.

Mills also differentiates the private troubles from public issues goes further to show that the private troubles result to public issues. The example he uses is unemployment which is personal trouble, but when many unemployed people are in an area, it becomes a public issue requiring a social solution. His arguments have strength in the aspect that apart from supporting each point by factual points, he illustrates through real-life examples. The real-life examples have made the argument stronger and to that effect ensured that it is relevant to the modern day society, for example, the instance on change in governance affecting the functioning of a country as a whole has been witnessed everywhere in the universe including the trend in Africa of removing the presidents who have overstayed in power or the change in the united states from the 2 leadership of Barack Obama to Donald Trump, in both situations the shift in leadership has resulted in a change in the country.

The other strength is the use of questions which keep readers busy and enlighten their mind as they try to answer the questions. The questions open a conversation between the writer and the reader which makes The Promise of sociology an exciting article to read. Mills also employs the strategy of appropriate timing by correctly timing the article since its relevance cannot be outdated. Mills begins the text by giving a promise to the readers on how to study the society and their world which he fulfills. His writing strategy also contributes to a reader keenly getting all his arguments since apart from the above mentioned he uses humor that making the text enjoyable to read.

Mill’s arguments have weakness of predicting the future because by doing so he does not get the predictions right which leads to doubt in his points. An example is each man living from one generation to another in future which may sound a reality since everyone desires something useful but with a continued increase in mortality rate, some people leave in a short period not to witness other generations apart from theirs. Mills third question also is not valid because rarely do people talk about the kind of people to prevail in future but how they as individuals will prevail in future.

The articles the promise and how to think like sociologists have one thing in common whereby they use regular flow to illustrate and bring out the main point. They expound on the point by using examples which remain relevant up to date. Both articles agree that for someone to understand the lives of individuals you have to understand the history of the society and vice versa. Both articles also focus on social groups and mainly focus on the effects and causes of changes in social life patterns. The two articles, however, have a 3 difference in the perspective that the promise of sociology uses only questions which are left to the reader to ask and answer but how to think like a sociologist contains questions and answers well illustrated. The other difference is that how to think like a sociologist majorly uses examples of how the answers to the questions asked should be answered to transfer the knowledge to the learners, but the promise of sociology mainly uses real-life examples.

I strongly agree with Mill’s ideas about the promise of sociology. The text has convinced and helped me understand how in individuals and groups interact in the society through clear explanations. It has also been used to illustrate the inequalities that may be there and how to overcome them in the best way possible and that what sociology holds. Mills has as well used both own arguments, human nature arguments and social arguments to paint a clear picture to the reader which makes me agree with him. Each argument that Mills brings out he has substantial evidence to support the claim which makes the article more convincing. The article also is in line with his other work showing consistency. The text relevance till to date has also impacted my decision since the current situation is part of what Mills predicted.

Charles Wright Mills was born on August 28, 1916 in Texas. He attained a degree in sociology at the University of Texas. He went ahead to achieve a masters in philosophy from the same university in 1939 where he had published two sociology journals while still a student. These are journals are namely; American sociology Review and American journal of Sociology. He wanted people to understand the role of sociologists and take control of their lives by exercising sociological imagination.

Sociological Imagination

According to Mills, Sociological imagination enables an individual to grasp the meaning of history in relationship their lives and their careers. It is a quality of mind that makes people to understand biography and history and their relationship in the society (Mills, 2000). He wanted people to understand that sociology is not limited to the sociology academics but everyone should attempt to use it. He argues that sociology connects ones biography and institutions context (History). Since people interact with families and friends, this localized group represents the society and the sociologist refers them to as social institutions. To exercise sociological imagination to understand how social institutions conditions your life such that you take control of your life instead of accepting what is happening as dictated by circumstances is very empowering. (Gerth, 1964).

Using Ones Sociological Imagination

When Studying social structures, social change and social action which form basis of sociology you should ask yourself how we got to the state we are in and try to imagine where we would be if we had a different history and conditions. In conclusion, According to mills guidelines to intellectual workmanships in sociological imagination is the desire to view world from the perspective of others.