Sociology

The complex nature of human interaction is characterized by people’s tendency to associate themselves with a particular social group. The concept of social groups and their role in the life of an individual is explored in the work of sociologist Henri Tajfel, the author of social identity theory (McLeod par. 1).

In-groups are groups or social categories an individual feels connected to and identifies with (Bernstein par. 1). Out-groups are those groups or social categories an individual distances from (Bernstein par. 1; Whitbourne, par. 1). The association between an individual and a particular group is based upon the judgment the individual makes about themselves and their position in the society (Robbins and Krueger 32). The association is achieved through the processes of social categorization, identification, and comparison (Ashforth and Mael). There are a variety of in-groups and out-groups based upon numerous differentiating factors. The following is a list of a few of my in-groups:

• white;
• lower-middle-class;
• geek;
• atheist etc.

My identification with these groups influences my behavior. As such, I behave in a way that is acceptable in a specific group (Tajfel 98). I use my preferences regarding in-groups as guiding principles to what others in my group like and what their behavior is likely to be. My in-groups affected my perception of the world the same way my values, views, and preferences affect the way I see the world.

The following is a list of a few of my out-groups:

• Asian;
• upper class;
• book lover;
• catholic etc.

The identification of these out-groups means that I might have a certain bias towards their members and see them as different from myself. I also might feel inclined to find negative aspects in the members of out-groups to elevate the status of my in-groups.

The part of social identity theory, in-groups and out-groups allow people to categorize themselves and others according to specific characteristics.

Works Cited

Asforth, Blake and Fred Mael. “Social Identity Theory and the Organization”. Academy of Management Review, 14.1 (1989): 20-39.

Tajfel, Henry. Exteriments in Intergroup Discrimination. 2016. Web.

Robbins, Jordan and Joachim Krueger. “Social Projection to Ingroups and Outgroups: A Review and Meta-Analysis”. Personality and Social Psychology Review, 9.1 (2005): 32-47. Web.

Whitbourne, Susan. In-groups, out-groups, and the psychology of crowds. 2016. Web.

McLeod, Saul. Social Identity Theory. 2016. Web.

Bernstein, Michael. Ingroups and Outgroups. 2016. Web.

The distribution of resources within the global community is unequal, and this situation causes the development of poverty around the world. Global poverty is the problem that is discussed in relation to the poor categories of people over the world in spite of the country’s status. However, it is important to note that the particular features of poverty in the capitalist and low-income countries are different. If the countries of the Third World suffer from the absolute poverty, the poverty in the developed countries can be defined as relative because the level of life of poor people in the developed countries is significantly higher in comparison with the incomes of the poor population in the Third World countries and their living conditions. The problem is in the fact that despite the character of poverty, it is a global problem that should be resolved at the global level with references to the efforts of international organizations and the world population.

Poverty is the social problem typical for all the world countries, and it is characterized by the lack of the necessary resources to have adequate nutrition, basic clothing, medical care, housing, and appropriate conditions for life. The concept of global poverty discusses the problem from the larger perspective, focusing on poverty as the global issue, which is characteristic for more than two billion people living in poverty in the countries of the Third World as well as in the developed countries (Schweickart, 2008). The issue of poverty is closely associated with such problems as malnutrition or famine, frequent severe diseases among the poor population, and overpopulation. Millions of people suffer from the lack of income and necessary resources, but the situation is different in the developed countries and developing countries where poverty is life-threatening.

The problem of global poverty directly fits into the field of sociology because it is one of the basic world social issues which need an effective solution. Sociologists are inclined to discuss the modern situation in relation to poverty from the point of globalization and its role in the issue’s development. Following the ideas of social stratification and global distribution of resources, it is necessary to pay attention to the fact that sociologists distinguish between absolute and relative poverty in order to accentuate the difference in the population’s incomes in developing and developed countries.

The ways to resolve the problem of global poverty are discussed by sociologists as depending on the problem’s causes and the idea of globalization. Such sociologists and theorists, as Peter Singer and Thomas Pogge, focus much on the causes of poverty in order to find the solutions for the issue (Caranti, 2010). That is why the concept of global poverty significantly depends on such factors as population growth, social stratification, cultural patterns followed in the developed and developing countries, and the lack of technology (Caranti, 2010). Thus, it is possible to use standpoint theory, conflict theory, and critical approach to examine and discuss the problem of world poverty.

Although the causes of global poverty are relatively determined, it is rather difficult to work out the most effective solution for the problem in order to preserve the world’s social balance. The problems in determining the causes of the problem are based on the impossibility to discuss the same factors as influential for the development of poverty in developing and developed countries. Thus, sociologists agree that the main cause of global poverty is the unequal distribution of sources among the population (Schweickart, 2008).

Nevertheless, it is important to concentrate on the other factors which cause this inequality. Discussing the case of the Third World countries, researchers focus on the question of climate which can cause the lack of water resources and malnutrition, cultural patterns, and traditions which affect the visions of the indigenous population and the lack of technologies in production and peculiarities of the social life (Schweickart, 2008). The issue of poverty in developed countries is based on political, economic, and social institutions. As a result, to resolve the problem of global poverty, it is important to use different approaches that are appropriate for the concrete country and territory.

Sociological research is extremely important for analyzing and resolving the problem of global poverty because it is useful to determine the causes and aspects of the issue for the concrete case. Furthermore, today sociologists focus on discussing the problem of world poverty in the context of globalization tendencies. Further research is necessary to examine the implications of the issue because researches have no single idea in relation to the point, and they are inclined to see globalization as the cause as well as the way to resolve the poverty problem. Significant economic interdependencies typical for the globalization process can help to support the economic balance over the world and eradicate poverty.

Nevertheless, it is important to predict all the consequences of the process for the further economic and social development of nations. The practical impact of the sociological research on the poverty issue is also associated with the question of responsibility. It is rather difficult to state who is responsible for overcoming the problem of global poverty. However, according to the findings of recent researches, it is possible to determine the aspects which are necessary to resolve the problem. Financial and material resources, along with expertise, are important factors to overcome severe poverty (McNeill, 2011). Thus, international organizations are discussed as institutions that can combine their efforts in the context of globalization and overcome world poverty. That is why the mission of many world organizations include such statements as the eradication of poverty and hunger in the Third World countries.

Global poverty is not an only economic problem, but it is also a significant social issue, which is rather difficult to resolve because it depends on a range of factors. Sociologists define poverty in many ways because poverty in developed and developing countries is associated with various notions. Nevertheless, if the causes of global poverty are actively discussed in the field of sociology from many perspectives and in relation to different theories, the question of overcoming the issue remains open because of its controversial character. Relative and absolute poverty requires different approaches to solve the problem. However, a lot of practical methods to overcome the issue are closely connected with the idea of globalization and the active role of international organizations in the process redistribution of resources in order to cope with such aspects of poverty as malnutrition, minimal housing, the lack of the necessary conditions to satisfy the basic needs, the extreme growth of population, the high rate of severe diseases and mortality.

References

Caranti, L. (2010). The causes of world poverty: Reflections on Thomas Pogge’s analysis. Theoria: A Journal of Social & Political Theory, 57(125), 36-53.

McNeill, D. (2011). Poverty, human rights, and global justice: The response-ability of multilateral organizations. Globalizations, 8(1), 97-111.

Schweickart, D. (2008). Global poverty: Alternative perspectives on what we should do – and why. Journal of Social Philosophy, 39(4), 471-491.

Introduction

In the early 20th century, women never had votes. Thus, they never had a political voice. In the same century, police raids in the US targeted gays. Law was clear that gays were not to engage even in uncomplicated activities such as group gatherings. Similar to women, they could not freely express themselves. Such class discriminations give rise to GBLT and women rights movements. This paper focuses on comparing the similarities and differences between women and GBLT movements on accounts of perceptions of the incapacity to execute certain societal roles, discrimination, and conservatism. The paper will also discuss the roles that the US’ social institutions play in enforcing constructed modes of class discrimination.

Comparison of evolution of women rights for equality to evolution of GBLT in US

In the early 20th century, women’s roles in the US were limited on the grounds of lesser capacity to execute certain social roles in comparison to their male counterparts (Rothenberg 34). For instance, women were perceived as being incapable of making familial and other decisions that influenced their own lives such as raising legal proceedings in courts for seeking divorce from abusive marriages. Their duties were also restricted in homes. Thus, they could not be involved paid labour. Therefore, women movements rose to fight for economic discrimination of women (Kozol 618). Accessibility to equal education opportunities for both girl and boy child was also highly impaired.

The conceptualisation of the dominance of males in the society, which prejudiced and discriminated women, gives rise to movements for fighting equal rights of women with men including suffrage rights in the early 1930’s. Perceptions of the incapacity and inferiority of women in the societies were often explored through traditional conservatism on the male dominance in societal roles. Therefore, women movements came up to break this ailing force of conservatism so that they could have an equal say and participation in economic activities with men. Similarly, perceptions of the incapacity of the same sex marriages to foster achievements of certain socially determined roles of families give rise to the emergence of the same sex marriages movements. The struggle continues to aim at gaining equal rights with religiously, politically, and socially protected marriage institutions (heterosexual marriages).

Indeed, there is an argument among the US people on whether gay and lesbian marriages are consistent with the purposes for which marriages are meant to achieve (Lorber 55). For instance, opponents who are also conservatisms and champions of discrimination of the same sex marriage argue that children perform and develop best when a mother (female) or a father (male) raises them. Therefore, same sex marriages are contrary to the achievements of utmost good interests of children. In opposition to this line of augment, same sex and GBLT movements arose to criticise such an extremist and conservatism perception simply aimed at eroding rights of GBLT’s.

Supporters of GBLT argue and defend their positions that no evidence shows that children raised in heterosexual marriages are developed psychologically better in relation to those raised in the gay or lesbian marriages. Wahls Zach develops this argument further through the movie Two Lesbians Had a Baby by giving the message that indeed same sex marriages have equal abilities and capacities to raise children compared heterosexual marriages. Therefore, discrimination of the same sex marriages on the accounts of the capacity to bring up children needs not to be the point of denying people engaging in same sex marriages equal rights with those engaging in heterosexual marriages.

Although same sex marriage movements and women right movements have similar reasons for their emergence, they are also different in some aspects. Women rights movements evolved in the US historic period when there was little flexibility in terms of the willingness to constitute legal frameworks seeking to protect universal human rights (Rothenberg 51). The struggle for women rights was often characterised by violence that was acerbated towards fighters for woman rights. In fact, topics on suffrage rights were risky to address in public forums in 1920s. On the other hand, the movements for same sex marriages and GBLTs have dominated the US in a period when there is political and social willingness to embrace and protect universal human rights through the enactment of changes in the constitution through various acts adopted both in the individual states and at national levels.

Another difference between the two movements is that, while the concerns of women movements were widespread across America, GBLT concerns have a different emphasis on different states. Katz contends with this line of argument when he asserts, “most people are a mixture of impulses if not practices…we have allowed our governors to divide the population in to two teams, one team is good, godly, and straight, the other is evil, sick, and viscous” (76). Amid this difference, it is arguable that the classification of Americans as straight and not straight creates avenues for discrimination and furthering of conservatism viewpoints that the society was created to follow certain acceptable norms. Therefore, any attempt to fight for recognition of what is termed as ‘not acceptable’ in the traditional social norms needs to be ignored. A similar position was held in 1920’s. However, as the society becomes more aware of the capability of women, legal provisions against discrimination of women are provided in the US constitution through the 19th amendment of the US constitution, which illegalises the denial of voting rights to women.

Roles played by the US societal institutions in enforcing constructed modes of class discrimination

Members of the society engage in interaction patterns, which are relatively stable in the effort to meet various needs that are necessary for survival of the society. Such patterns constitute social institutions. American social institutions comprise patterns of relations that are organised around family religion and political inclinations (Rothenberg 89). In such organisations, there exist regulations, which guide issues such as marriages and sexual mates who are acceptable among other things within the established societal domains. Often, a society is valid in the context of social classes and other demographic factors such as race, ethnicity, age, and sex among others.

In the US, social institutions play the role of enforcing rules for belonging in a given societal class. This role entails enabling people to come up with ample understanding of what one needs to do to become an active member of a given society. For this case to happen, people are taken through processes in various institutions in which they learn various social norms. Such institutions include families, media, education, and even religions. For the survival of societies, an order is required. For this reason, political and religious institutions exist. The reluctance of these institutions to change the norms defining how a society ought to live in accordance to evolutions of cultures and emerging styles of life of people introduces challenges of perceptions of disrespect of the rights of people practicing the newly evolved cultures and styles of life (Mohr 579).

Through the effort of the US societal institutions in enforcing constructed modes of class discrimination, substantive strides have been made in campaigning for the protection of rights of people having different ethnic, religious, class, and sexual orientations. For instance, through homosexual social constructions, results have been realised in “the development of a powerful gay liberation identity politics based on the ethnic group model” (Katz 76). Consequently, many men and women in the US have been freed from generational painful shame induced by different conservative socially induced norms. This situation has led to liberalisation of responses and altitudes of people towards different lifestyles of people to which one may not be inclined.

Although human rights social institutions in the US have the noble role of ensuring that the rights of all classes of people are protected irrespective of their racial class and gender classes among other social classes, significant challenges are still being experienced. For instance, the discrimination of the gay class of people rests on platforms that emphasise sex as the serving the role of procreation (Mohr 578). American social institutions that advocate for equal rights of all people irrespective of their sexual orientations hold that considering the purpose of marriage and sex as being essentially to facilitate procreation is wrong since it emphasises conservative models for class discriminations. Katz agrees with line of argument by further suggesting, “The creation of the new ‘Normal Sexual’ orientations had its counterpart in the invention of the late Victorial Sexual Pervert” (71). This argument means that the sole purpose of marriage has shifted to satisfaction as opposed to continuation of procreation and hence the notion held by American social institutions pushing for both legal acceptance of the same sex marriages.

Subjects of protection of human rights in some topics open various social institutions to points of contest in terms of applicability of the rights in the context of ethical and moral social norms on which the American tradition is built. For institutions to serve all people comprising the American diversity, both political and religious social institutions need to appreciate the fundamentals of protection of human rights as provided for in the American law. Hot topics such as homosexuality need to be taken as a form of culture (Katz 73). Since American social institutions unconditionally subscribe to the idea of the need to protect all cultures of the American people, considering same sex marriages as a form of culture implies that class-discriminated people on the grounds of engagement in traditionally unacceptable sexual inclinations would cease to ail some social institutions in the US. The institutions can serve people of different classes by appreciating that, in case an individual’s lifestyle does not harm another person, the person practicing it needs to have the right to do so without being compelled to subscribe to particular conditions.

Conclusion

Although there is a remarkable similarity in the evolution of women rights, same sex rights, and GBLT rights movements, it is also vital to address the evident differences among the movements. In overall, the paper has argued that the reasons for the emergence of the movements were based on perceptions of incapacity, conservatism, and discrimination of the segregated groups of people to execute certain societal roles. The American social institutions have a noble responsibility to fight for cognition of the rights of these movements.

Works Cited

Katz, Jonathan. The Invention of Heterosexuality. Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 2007. Print.

Kozol, Jonathan. “Still Separate, Still Unequal.” Harpers magazine 1 Sep.2005: 618-32. Print.

Lorber, Judith. Night to His Gay: The Social Construction of Gender. In: paradoxes of gender. New Jersey, NJ: Princeton, 1993. Print.

Mohr, Richard. Anti-Gay Stereotypes. New York, NY: Beacon Press, 2005. Print.

Rothenberg, Paula (Ed.). Race, Class, and Gender in the United States: an Integrated Study. Worth: New York, 2009. Print.

Two Lesbians had Baby. Dir. Wahls Zach. Video Education. 2011. DVD.

Human Rights

Development theory and human rights were not linked until the end of the twentieth century. People used to focus on development in economic, political, and cultural domains without taking into account human resources and human rights. It was acceptable to focus on society as something general without going into detail when it comes to individuals, especially those coming from most vulnerable groups. Nevertheless, people have acknowledged the importance of linking the two concepts.

First of all, it is necessary to define development theory and human rights to understand whether the two domains can be linked. Development theory focuses on desirable changes in society. These theories include such fields as economic development, human development, social development, cultural development, and so on. Human rights are indivisible rights of every human being in the world. These rights include the right to access essential resources (water, food, shelter), the right to practice any religion and adhere to any group, the right to access the benefits of the society (education, employment), and so on.

Admittedly, it is clear that human rights are relevant for development theory as they are aimed at development. It may seem that development theory is incomplete without attention to human rights, which can be regarded as a part of the social, economic, and political development of society. Amplification of human rights can be seen as certain evidence of the specific development of society.

Nevertheless, there are some limitations which make human rights less irrelevant for development theory. Thus, development theory is based on principles of relativism and context, while human rights are associated with absolute norms. It is often difficult to link such divergent discourses as development theory seeks numerous compromises while human rights are very straightforward. It can be difficult to apply such inflexible concepts to such a flexible theory.

For instance, in terms of development theory, it is acceptable to seek certain restrictions for the sake of the overall good or further development of society. Remarkably, human rights are often the object of sacrifice as it is acknowledged that the development of societies is often achieved through limitations or certain neglect of human rights.

Furthermore, human rights can be applicable to all countries. Likewise, development theory is also globally exploited. However, it is impossible to develop a global development theory with special attention to human rights. In different countries, people share quite different values. Obviously, development theory is based on (or is affected by) these values. Sometimes certain rights are irrelevant or difficult to understand and accept in some areas. Hence, development theory cannot focus on the amplification of human rights.

On balance, it is possible to note that human rights are sometimes irrelevant to development theory. This is due to a serious divergence between the two domains. One of the major differences is that development theory is based on the principle of flexibility and compromise, while human rights are straightforward. This inflexibility is manifested on both global and national levels. Thus, development theory is shaped by certain values existing in different areas. These values also shape people’s attitudes towards human rights, making some of them irrelevant. Nonetheless, it is also necessary to note that in many cases human rights (the vast majority of them) are relevant to development theory. More so, it is crucial to make sure that human rights are certain basis and aim of development theory.

Development Practice

Human rights based approach is now employed in development practice. It is possible to state that development agents have formed their principles based on human rights based approach. Hence, international organizations postulate major human rights and develop their programs and practices on the basis of thee HR. At present, people are trying to achieve change and make sure human rights are enjoyed by as many people as possible.

The UN postulates the necessity to amplify human rights worldwide. The organization is aimed at launching development practices which would bring the change to the society. The change is also associated with attention to such issues as equality, inclusion and justice. Numerous international organizations try to draw attention to (and diminish) gender inequality, discrimination of certain groups (indigenous people, the poor, minorities and so on), poor governance which leads to disproportionate distribution of resources. It is necessary to note that development practices involve solutions to the issues mentioned above.

It is possible to identify eight major development goals in terms of human rights based approach. First, international organizations are trying to diminish extreme poverty as well as hunger in the world. They are trying to enable all people to access universal primary education. International organizations are also working on promotion of gender equality.

Reduction of child mortality and improving maternal health are other goals. International organizations also aim at reducing such diseases as malaria, HIV/AIDS and other dangerous disorders. Of course, environmental sustainability is also associated with manifestation of human rights as it is a basic right of a human to live in a healthy environment. Finally, international organizations collaborate with each other and governments to develop global partnership in the world.

Notably, there can be limitations to the use of human rights based approach in development practice. These limitations are regional and are often associated with poor governance. As has been mentioned above, international institutions focus on amplification of human rights and use human rights based approach while working on development practices. Nonetheless, governments or ruling elites are often reluctant to employ HR based approach as it requires additional investment. Clearly, corrupted governments focus on accumulation of wealth rather than real development of the country.

Luckily, international law is also based on human rights based approach and governments are often forced to follow assigned development practice. Thus, such organizations as the UN, World Bank, World Health Organization and others force governments to ensure people’s access to essential food, water, shelter as well as sanitation. Development practices existent in the world also involve attention to people’s access to major drugs. Clearly, development practices employed by international organizations also include attention to education and social security of people.

To sum up, it is possible to note that human rights based approach is relevant to development practice even though there are certain limitations. One of major limitations is corruption in different governments which are reluctant to utilize human rights based approach as ruling elites are focused on personal enrichment. However, this approach is likely to be applicable worldwide in the nearest future as globalization is inevitable and more and more countries are bound to comply with international law. Notably, people have achieved significant results during recent years and this success is likely to continue as more and more countries understand benefits of the human rights based approach.

Executive summary

Cross-cultural communication is an aspect that has increasingly developed with the rising activities that are conducted across different cultures. It is a form of communication that involves people from different cultural backgrounds. This report centres on a critical incident that involved a host of others from a different cultural setup and me. There was no common language we would use and attempts to communicate both orally and non-verbally came with challenges.

The report analyses challenges that come with intercultural communication, as well as a discussion of conclusions that can be drawn from such obstacles. The paper further illustrates different theories that propound different arguments regarding inter-cultural communication. Possible recommendations are also given, which can help improve cross-cultural communication.

Introduction

Communication is the act of giving and receiving information, either verbally or non-verbally from one party to another. When the receiver of a message provides the necessary feedback, the communication process is complete. Verbal communication entails sending information or a given message orally via a common language understood by both parties involved in the communication. The main parties in communication include the sender and receiver.

On the other hand, nonverbal communication is communication achieved through signs or body movements. Communication can either be intentional or unintentional. Therefore, the objective of communication is meant to create an understanding between two involved parties.

On the other hand, the term “culture” is used in respect of varied knowledge, shared beliefs, and practices of a given society. These practices constitute the day to day lifestyle of a given community and its member’s interaction. It should be noted that culture is an aspect that is passed on from one generation to another. One such aspect of culture is the language or mode of communication (Muijs, 2007).

With the advent of globalisation, intercultural interaction has become inevitable. This way, there are numerous activities that involve different groups of people from across the world. For instance, people engage in aspects such as international trade, which cuts across borders. In turn, this has led to the rise and need for cross-cultural communication, which involves communication across one’s culture.

Effective intercultural communication is emerging as a big determinant of success in organisations and even governments. Cross-cultural communication is essentially concerned with how people from different cultural settings get to communicate with each other. Aspects such as behaviour, way of socialisation, working, and eating become important when people with different cultural backgrounds come to work together in the same organisation. This makes the study of cross-cultural communication important since it has some impacts on the performance of an organisation (Rumsey, 2007).

The necessity for intercultural communication came with the onset of the Cold War between the Eastern and Western countries trying to promote either capitalism or socialism. In this case, either country would train their nationals on the language and culture of targeted areas. This was done for the respective countries to have business openings in the target area. This was meant to enable countries to increase their influence. For instance, the United States enacted the 1946 Foreign Service Act through which the government trained its citizens to prepare them to take posts outside their country (Stoughton and Sivertson, 2005).

Intercultural communication is not only concerned with the study of language as it may be perceived. However, it also encompasses other aspects too. These aspects include culture, psychology, and other underlying factors of communication as a whole. This study enables us to understand why there are varying communication means and why certain behaviours are exhibited by various cultural groups. It helps in understanding the diversity of people.

Thus, the paper promotes working and living harmoniously regardless of differing backgrounds. Understanding cultural diversity is essential since it promotes the management of cultural diversity. The two aspects are critical in modern-day organisations. In this case, organisations that embrace cultural diversity are set to achieve great success. Thus, people from different cultural backgrounds are able to learn from one another for the good of the organisation.

Therefore, the management of such an organisation should be ready to face the challenges that come with diversity. In the management of cultural diversity, the concept of communication is very critical. Therefore, the management should embrace skills that enhance the management of cultural diversity (Mehta, Anderson, Dubinsky, Polsa & Mazur, 2010).

Research process

The research process involved an in-depth analysis of a critical incident that occurred. I had just arrived in New Zealand. During this time, I was totally unable to speak English. My host initially tried to communicate in English, but that verbal means of communication proved futile. This made my host turn to non-verbal communication as a means through which we could communicate. This included the use of body language, which was a bit better than verbal communication.

Notably, the two means of communication came with challenges since I was in a new cultural setting. At one point, while I was communication with my host using the non-verbal means, I pretended that I understood what she was saying by putting on a smile and laughing. However, the situation was not calling for a smile since she was telling me of someone who had died. She became furious all because of my mistaken belief that I knew what the signs she was using meant.

I too experienced another aspect of cultural behaviour while with my host. She refused all the time I did offer to help her in her work. She also gave me straight answers like “no” when I asked for something. The priority of her consideration, when planning to go for a holiday was amusing. She was more concerned with the places we would visit rather than who will accompany us. This report is premised on the experience I had with my host. Thus, there is a limitation, especially about getting the opportunity to analyse other people’s experiences.

Findings and discussion

Several inferences on cross-cultural communication can be drawn from this incident, as highlighted in this paper.

Inadequacy of oral communication

First of all, it portrays a verbal communication as inadequate and a hindrance in cross-cultural communication that needs to be improved. It is one area that is necessary for enhancing the delivery of effective inter-cultural messages. When put into use, verbal communication may incorporate non-verbal cues to relay the meaning of the message. In this critical incident, my oral communication was poor and not supplemented with non-verbal elements of communication. There was no complimentary of oral and non-verbal communication.

Misinterpretation of non-verbal means of communication

Nonverbal communication employs the use of body movements to send a message. For instance, it can be affected by eye contact or facial expression. Eye contact can lay different messages when used in different cultural settings. In one of the cultures, it can be taken as a sign of admiration and confidence. However, in others, it may portray dishonesty, disrespectful, and negative in general. The same applies to facial expression. In the given incident, my facial expression accompanied by laughing when my host was telling me about a sorrowful matter was a clear way of showing how easy misinterpretation can result in a misunderstanding.

Theories of intercultural communication

There have been different arguments regarding intercultural communication, some of which are embodied in the following theories.

Cross-cultural adaptation theory

This is one of the theories explaining inter-cultural communication. According to this theory, as people change residence from one cultural setting to another, they adapt to the host environment. Such movement may be driven by various factors such as searching for new opportunities, adventures, studies and the military as a matter of duty. This theory is based on the fact that humans tend to struggle to find stability in an adversarial setting.

The theory holds that such adaptive changes may come as a matter of an individual’s strong will to learn and adapt to the host environment. This makes it necessary for the visitor to learn the communication system and culture of the host setting (Gudykunst, 2005). In my given incident, I had to learn to accept some of the practices of my host. However, I found some of the practices somehow weird such as the mode of responding with a straight “no” for an answer which in my culture would be deemed rude.

This theory is also prevalent in psychology, where its study of human behaviour is explored. Under the study, aspects like cross-cultural communication are examined. The outcome of such research is well-founded arguments and practices that can be employed and see the success of an organisation (Glăveanu, 2010).

Coordinated management of meaning theory

This theory is based on the fact that people develop meaning out of exchanging information during communication or socially relating. The social realities that come out during interaction lead the other party to think of a way to handle that reality. It is the party who has learnt some reality to decide what action will be apt in that scenario. The response may be deceitful one or a positive one depending on how that party has conceived it in his or her mind. The theory uses constitutive and regulative rules. While the former helps the communicator interpret the message, the latter determines the response of the communicator (Kashima, Kashima & Bain, 2010).

In the critical incident, which I stated earlier, my host’s reaction to my smiling when she was telling me of someone who had died can be argued to have been guided by this theory. When I realised she was acting rather unusual, I too changed by stopping to laugh.

Intercultural communication competence theory

This theory is concerned with competent cross-cultural communication. Therefore, this theory labels one who can affirm the identities of other people’s culture a competent communicator. This is an individual who can communicate in various cultural setups with ease. Aspects such as proficiency of that person in the host culture’s language; the ability to know when to use polite terms and as a better understanding of non-verbal communication are used to assess if a person is a competent communicator (Wiseman, 2003). Intercultural communication competence is said to be effective when the communicator overcomes the tendency to think that the host culture’s shortcomings are natural and that his own cultural aspects are the correct and complete ones.

For instance, in my critical incident, when my host would give me a “no” for a response whenever I asked to use something in the household, I would perceive it as negative. I was greatly influenced by my home setting where a plain “no” for a response is tagged as negative. The same applied to when my host was concentrating on which places we should visit over the holidays. Instead of concentrating on those who were to accompany us as it is done in my culture, she focussed on places where we were to visit. The inter-cultural competence theory is to the effect that a competent communicator should be able to overcome issues like these.

Language socialisation theory

This theory takes into account the process of language socialisation in cross-cultural settings. The theory acknowledges that a person experiences both primary language socialisation when young and continues to experience secondary language socialisation as he or she grows up. The secondary language socialisation comes as one grows and interacts with other people with different cultural backgrounds like in schools, workplace, or change of residential areas.

Barab and Plucker (2012) asserted that the second language socialisation is a process of intercultural language socialisation since language learning amounts to a study of a new culture. In this case, language is acquired through a process of intercultural interaction in a given social or political arena. Thus, it views interactive routines as important tenets of language socialisation and inter-cultural communication at large. The theory holds that the social-cultural settings such as the home, workplace, school and community among others do contribute to a large extent secondary language development (Watson-Gegeo & Nielson 2003).

In my critical incident, arguments of this theory can be illustrated. I was in a new cultural setting, and the host language to me was a secondary language. This can be explained by the language socialisation theory. Such inter-cultural interaction is what leads to the development of intercultural communication. This is necessary to enable effective communication between different cultural groups.

Conclusion

Inter-cultural communication has emerged as a crucial aspect that cannot be overlooked in the current setting of any organisation and even governments. Inter-cultural communication concerns itself with communication between one cultural setup and another. It has developed as a result of issues like globalisation and inter-cultural trading, change of workplace, and studying in a different cultural setup, among other reasons, as discussed in this report.

Several theories have come up with various arguments that try to explain the origin and how intercultural communication has evolved. Such include the cross-cultural adaptation theory, coordinated management of meaning theory, intercultural communication competence theory and Language socialisation theory. Inter-cultural communication entails both verbal and non-verbal communication means across different cultural setups. There are a number of challenges that come as a result of intercultural communication barriers as illustrated from the critical incident given in the report. Such challenges can be overcome by putting in consideration a number of factors like development of a positive attitude towards new cultural behaviours.

Recommendations

Understand and appreciate the aspect of cultural diversity

This is vital because a person sending a message, and the receiver do not have to be from the same culture. However, despite coming from different cultural backgrounds, effective communication is necessary for the organisation (Rubenfeld and Clément, 2012). If the parties communicating do appreciate their cultural diversity, some offensive behaviours to another culture will be taken lightly by the other party. In this case, it will lead to minimal disagreements and conflicts in an organisation. This is necessary for the effective functioning of the organisation. This will, in turn, promote effective cross-cultural communication (Guillot, 2012).

Promoting the development of awareness of individual cultures

This is another important aspect that needs to be encouraged. Increased awareness of another person’s culture will significantly help one in choosing the manner of handling the other person. This depends on if the parties that are meeting for a social or office function. It will be particularly detrimental if the parties communicating for business purpose and a misunderstanding arises due to unawareness of each other’s culture. It is true that the difference in the cultural background of the parties communicating can be a hindrance to communication. Thus, an organisation should educate its staff on the cultural expectations of a new area in which they want to enter (Poór, Vološin, Engle, Machová, and Karoliny, 2012).

Exercising tolerance of other cultures

In a cross-cultural communication set up, it is paramount for the parties being tolerant of each other. This is critical to enhance effective communication. This is important because some practices may be offensive to another. This is especially in the case where the subject matter may appear normal in one culture and not in the other. Therefore, cultural relativism is highly encouraged. For instance, the slowness of working or grasping of things should be tolerated if the trainee comes from a culture that embraces the sluggish way of doing things. This way, the trainee will feel appreciated within the organisation (Campbell, 2012).

Seeking assistance where necessary

This is important since it will help one to know more about the new culture thus avoiding unnecessary conflicts. It is important to seek the services of a translator if need be. It will save time and the strain of getting to understand each other. When assistance is sought, it can help to clarify a simple matter and thus avoid unnecessary conflicts (Campbell, 2012).

Being simple

When communicating with a party from a different cultural setup, use simple terms and words. Avoid complex phrases that may make the other party more confused. This will help make communication effective. It should be noted that people from different cultures do not have a comprehensive knowledge of the new language. Therefore, using complex terminologies will easily lead to miscommunication between the parties from two different cultural settings.

Avoid ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the belief that one’s culture is better than another one’s culture. This makes the one who feels dominant to look down upon the other whom he or she perceives to be inferior. This can be a great hindrance to inter-cultural communication. In this case, one party may not pay close attention to the other from a different culture. However, appreciating other people’s culture is critical in understanding one another. Therefore, if ethnocentricism is avoided, it may lead to improved inter-cultural communication (Agboka, 2012).

References

Agboka, G. (2012). Liberating Intercultural Technical Communication from “Large Culture” Ideologies: Constructing Culture Discursively, Journal of Technical Writing & Communication, 42 (2): 159-181.

Barab, S.A. and Plucker, J.A. (2012). Smart People or Smart Contexts? Cognition, Ability, and Talent Development in an Age of Situated Approaches to Knowing and Learning. Educational Psychologist, 37(3): 165-182.

Campbell, N. (2012). Promoting Intercultural Contact on Campus: A Project to Connect and Engage International and Host Students. Journal of Studies in International Education, 16(3): 205-227.

Glăveanu, V-P. (2010). Principles for a Cultural Psychology of Creativity. Culture & Psychology, 16(2): 147-163.

Gudykunst, W. B. (2005). Theorizing about intercultural communication. Thousand Oaks, Calif: Sage.

Guillot, M-N. (2012). Cross-cultural communication at a theoretical and methodological crossroads: cultural and media interfaces. Language & Intercultural Communication, 12(4): 277-283.

Kashima, Y., Kashima, E.S. & Bain, P. (2010). Communication and essentialism: Grounding the Shared Reality of a Social Category. Social Cognition, 28(3): 306-328.

Mehta, R., Anderson, R.E., Dubinsky, A.J., Polsa, P. & Mazur, J. (2010). Managing International Distribution Channel Partners: A Cross-Cultural Approach. Journal of Marketing Channels, 17(2): 89-117.

Muijs, D. (2007). Leadership in full-service extended schools: communicating across cultures. School Leadership & Management, 27(4): 347-362.

Poór, J., Vološin, M., Engle, A., Machová, R. and Karoliny, M. (2012). Human Resource Management Under Changes at Foreign Subsidiaries in Slovakia in light of Regional Comparison, Scientific Papers of the University of Pardubice. Series D, Faculty of Economics & Administration, 18(24): 137-151.

Rubenfeld, S. and Clément, R. (2012). Intercultural Conflict and Mediation: An Intergroup Perspective. Language Learning, 62(4): 1205-1230

Rumsey, D. (2007). Intercultural Communication and Globalization. Web.

Stoughton, E.H. and Sivertson, C. (2005). Communicating across cultures: discursive challenges and racial identity formation in narratives of middle school students, Race, Ethnicity & Education, 8(3): 277-295.

Watson-Gegeo, K. A. & Nielson, S. (2003). Language socialization in SLA. In C. J. Doughty & M. Long (Eds.), The handbook of second language acquisition (pp. 155-177). Oxford: Blackwell.

Wiseman, R. L. (2003). Intercultural communication competence. In W. B. Gudykunst (Ed.), Cross-cultural and intercultural communication, (167–190). Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.

It may be necessary to utilize a guideline to identify if the conflict of interests is present in a particular situation. The first goal is to determine all parties that are involved. The next step is to evaluate duties that one may owe to his or her clients. Personal interests and associated risks also should be reviewed. It is necessary to identify how an employee could have taken advantage of the position to gain profits.

Possible risks also should be analyzed. It would be reasonable to assess if such actions would be beneficial for an individual and if the situation is problematic for the company. Conflicts of interest related to engineering are frequently associated with certain knowledge or data, and it is imperative to determine if an employee had access to such information (Moaveni 138). It is also important to assess the scope of the issue and what harm has been caused or may potentially be caused (Whitbeck 41). Moreover, it is paramount to identify if the client was aware of the conflict of interest and if he or she agreed to continue professional relationships (Sweet and Schneier 183).

It is necessary to understand that there are three types of such situations, and each one has its unique aspects. The first one is the real conflict of interest and the second one suggests that a particular risk is present. The last section contains instances when some situations can be perceived as problematic (Speight and Foote 77). Furthermore, the primary objective of the process of identification is to determine the level of severity of the situation and if a conflict is present.

A worker that has acted unreasonably because of the conflict of interest may be viewed as legally responsible for the damage that has been caused. The first objective is to analyze the situation. It is important to determine if pieces of evidence would prove that their actions were caused by the conflict of interest. Legal liability is possible if it is evident that they had a personal benefit and tried to influence a particular decision.

Moreover, one has to breach his or her duties because of the conflict of interests to be deemed responsible. It is important to understand that one may deny that his or her actions were caused by personal reasons, and it may not be an easy task to prove that actions were improper. It is not reasonable to seek compensation only because there is a chance that one could have various interests. It is not possible to avoid such situations in some cases. It would be beneficial to take disciplinary action once the issue has been identified in the form of an oral or written warning to highlight problematic areas.

Also, such situations should be described in the policies of the company (Plummer 137). Suspension may also be considered if an employee is not able to perform required tasks because of conflicts. It is imperative to develop a particular strategy that would be utilized to ensure that the process is successful. Also, it is necessary to make an appropriate distinction between the actual situation and potential risks (Harris et al. 104). Overall, the most attention should be devoted to the analysis of the situation to identify if the claim is reasonable from the legal perspective.

Works Cited

Harris, Charles E., Michael S. Pritchard, Michael J. Rabins, Ray James, and Elaine Englehardt. Engineering Ethics: Concepts and Cases. 4th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2013. Print.

Moaveni, Saaed. Engineering Fundamentals: An Introduction to Engineering. 5th ed. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2015. Print.

Plummer, Frederick. Project Engineering: The Essential Toolbox for Young Engineers. Oxford, UK: Butterworth-Heinemann, 2011. Print.

Speight, James G., and Russell Foote. Ethics in Science and Engineering. Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, 2011. Print.

Sweet, Justin, and Marc M. Schneier. Legal Aspects of Architecture, Engineering and the Construction Process. Boston, MA: Cengage Learning, 2012. Print.

Whitbeck, Caroline. Ethics in Engineering Practice and Research. Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press, 2011. Print.

Imagine a situation in which an important person in your life of the opposite gender has a conflict with you and you with them. From what you have learned about interpersonal communication; discuss the ways in which you would try to resolve the situation

The application of interpersonal communication skills varies in accordance with the communicating parties involved and the situational context at which its application is required. Another important factor to put into consideration during interpersonal communication is the principal objective for initiating communication with another person. In this particular context, the object is conflict resolution with a communication partner of the opposite gender who is deemed significant (Adler and Protocor II, 2011).

Resolving the conflict with a person of the opposite gender requires the deployment of effective interpersonal skills in order to aid in the resolution of the underlying conflict between the involved parties. The following section outlines the interpersonal communication strategies that I will apply with the principal objective of conflict resolution with a person of the opposite gender.

The most effective strategy for resolving conflicts with important people of the opposite gender is collaboration, which reveals a high degree of concern for both parties in a conflict. This approach involves a win-win strategy whereby the interests of every conflicting party are put into consideration by working together to arrive at the solution of the conflict. This requires the identification of each party’s problems and needs that are resulting in the conflict, describing your own needs and problems, taking into account the needs of the other party. This requires the deployment of effective interpersonal skills in such a case (Adler and Protocor II, 2011).

A fundamental conflict resolution requirement is effective communication. Interpersonal communication is termed effective if the messages of the communicating parties are passed across in a manner that the underlying objective behind engaging in communication is not impaired. One such strategy of ensuring that interpersonal communication is effective in conflict resolution with a person of the opposite gender is through having an understanding of the self.

A personality profile of the self is essential in evaluating the most effective communication strategy, in the sense that it provides a framework for evaluating the causation factors of the existing conflict with another person. It is evident that personality factors affect people’s communication. For example, personal traits such as argumentative, shyness, and self-control have a significant impact on the way we connect with others.

As such, a person should be able to identify key personality profile features that serve as a hindrance to effective communication that is open and provides room for opinions from a communication partner. In the situation involving conflict with a person of the opposite gender, facilitating an open-minded communication strategy is an effective strategy in conflict resolution. This means that I will access my personality profiles that significantly hinder positive communication, for instance, shyness and being over argumentative when communicating, resulting in less room for opinions from the other partner (Adler and Protocor II, 2011).

Apart from identifying the key personality factors that hinder my effective communication abilities, I will access my personality for my significant strengths in effective communication and focus on their enhancement during effective communication strategies.

Communication strengths such as flexibility and effective decision-making skills are key strategies in conflict resolutions of any sort. In communication situations with people of the opposite gender, it is of ultimate importance to analyze the self, if one was born of that opposite gender. This serves to establish one’s identity, which plays a vital role during conflict resolution with individuals of the opposite gender. This because our sense of identity determines the ways in which we communicate with people of the opposite gender (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).

Another important strategy when deploying interpersonal communication in conflict resolution with people of the opposite gender is to have an understanding of the principal cause of the conflict at hand with the other person. This plays an important role in establishing effective communication strategies in order to address the conflict at hand. With this regard, the cause of the conflict can either be from oneself, the opposite gender person, or due to external influence.

Depending on the source of causation factor for the conflict, one can be able to determine the plan of approach to solve the conflict with the other person of the opposite gender who is deemed important. For example, if the principal cause of the conflict is within oneself, then one can adjust some elements of the self to address the conflict at hand. If the principal cause of the conflict is from the other person, it is vital to adjust one’s personality to have room for dialogue with the other person.

External influences on the onset of conflict between people of the opposite gender who have significant relations can be solved through the identification of the external influence and then establishing effective communication strategies to address the issue at hand. It is important to accept that relationships are dynamic and affected by factors such as culture; this implies that communication in relationships involving people of the opposite gender is subjective to such dynamics, as such this could be a possibility causing conflicts between people of opposite gender in a relationship.

Taking into account such communication dynamics is an important conflict resolution strategy since it can help in identifying the root cause of the conflict, which is a milestone in attempting to resolve a conflict with an important person of the opposite gender (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).

It is also important to put into consideration the opinions of the partners when developing an effective conflict resolution strategy. This plays an integral role in facilitating dialogue. The next phase involves negotiating for a solution, taking into account the needs and problems of each of the conflicting collaborate, after which the proposed solution is put into action as an implementation strategy.

In conclusion, resolving a conflict with an important person of the opposite gender requires the deployment of effective communication skills, analysis of the self, and the personality profile in order to ascertain the barriers and strengths of one’s effective interpersonal communication (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).

List ten new things you have learned about your personal commutation style, five positive, and five negative. For the five areas, you hope to improve, describe what you need to do to become a better communicator. For the five areas in which you feel successful, describe what is working for you and why

Interpersonal communication skills can be positive or negative depending on their effectiveness in fostering interpersonal communication. It is important to have knowledge of one’s positive and negative interpersonal communication skills in order to deploy appropriate improvement strategies to develop interpersonal communication skills (Adler & Protocor II, 2011). The following section outlines my positive communication skills and the appropriate strategies required to make me an effective communicator. In addition, it outlines the positive traits of my personal interpersonal skills, and how the positive traits are working, and the reasons why they contribute to effective communication.

Negative traits of interpersonal communication

1. Inability to overcome psychological barriers associated with effective interpersonal communication. This barrier is inclusive of such characters as being shy and embarrassed. Prejudging someone leads to someone having a certain altitude that affects the information that the other person is providing. In order to overcome this barrier, it is wise to ensure that the altitude a person may have towards the party involved in the communication process is kept apart to avoid any hindrance to the communication process (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).
2. Cultural barriers also can be a barrier to communication. It is notable that different societies have different ways of applying gestures especially physical ones. Some communities do not accept touching when communicating especially when it comes to people of the opposite sex. Dealing with such people when one has no problem with using physical gestures may raise concerns and even hinder communication as touching is suggestive of what the communicator may be intending to say. Overcoming this barrier therefore calls for people to be in knowledge of the culture of the people who they are communicating to avoid barriers relating to gestures (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).
3. Increased emotional attachments to issues: emotions serve as barriers to effective interpersonal communication. This is due to the fact that maintaining emotions in a communication context bars limits one’s thinking capacities and the way one responds to communication contexts. Increased emotions can also hinder effective interpersonal emotions due to mistrust and suspicion of the other communicating partner. In order to overcome emotions in interpersonal communications, it is vital to avoid increased levels of perceptions and the way we relate to certain situations in life. Psychological intervention is also an important strategy in the regulation of one’s emotions during communication contexts (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).
4. Interruptions during interpersonal communication; this is due to the increasing need to play a key role during interpersonal communication. Increased interruptions and interludes result in to lack of attention during interpersonal communication, therefore, impairing effective communication during interpersonal communication. In order to overcome interruptions and interludes during interpersonal communication, it is vital for a person to maintain his/her attention in cases involving interpersonal communication. Increased attention can make the whole communication process to become interesting and worthwhile (Adler & Protocor II, 2011).
5. The constant referral to myself; impairs effective interpersonal communication since it entails upholding personal opinions during communication. This hinders the use of appropriate communication statements because we are constantly speaking on behalf of our personal ideologies. In order to overcome this negative trait of interpersonal communication, it is important to hold diverse perceptions and take into account the views and opinions of others during interpersonal communication.

Positive traits of interpersonal communication

1. Possession of a diverse range of behaviors; is a key requirement for effective communication, in the sense that it facilitates the choice of actions that are appropriate in a particular communication context. A large communication repertoire implies that one can formulate his language in a manner that fits the context without offending other parties during communication. For example, one can determine the types of jokes to use depending on the other communicating person. In addition, having a diverse range of behaviors implies that one can fit in any communication scenario and a person can choose the most effective communication strategy according to the nature of interpersonal relationships. For instance, one can command, use jokes to pass a message, and decide to keep quiet in situations whereby utterances may result in unwanted consequences.
2. Self-monitoring abilities help in understanding oneself during communication ordeals. This is achieved by paying attention to one’s behavior when communicating in order to determine if the communication methodology suits the context. Self-monitoring is important for fostering effective communication because it forms the basis for evaluating the levels of effectiveness during communication. It entails accessing the relevance of one’s behavior during cases of interpersonal communication. In addition, exercising self-monitoring fosters the ability for one to control his/her participation during interpersonal communication.
3. The ability to exercise open-mindedness; helps in fostering effective interpersonal communication with people from different backgrounds in terms of culture, ideologies, and opinions. Open-mindedness in interpersonal communication provides a framework for two-way interpersonal communication and plays a vital role during cases of conflict resolution. Taking into account the opinions and views of other people during interpersonal communication increases one’s interpersonal communication skills.
4. Ability to choose the most appropriate behavior during interpersonal communication: this helps in making an appropriate choice from a wide range of alternatives pertaining to the most effective interpersonal skills and behavior that will work effectively in a particular context. Appropriate communication behavior is determined by the communication context and purpose, time and place, and personal goals during communication, and knowledge of the other communication party.
5. Increased commitment to benefit from interpersonal communication; commitment is a significant requirement for effective interpersonal communication. Having concern for the other person plays a significant role in ensuring information exchange during interpersonal communication. This means that a person is bound to deploy effective communication if he/she is committed to the success of interpersonal communication and having a concern for the other person. In addition, concern for the other person implies that their views and opinions are put into consideration during interpersonal communication.

Reference

Adler, R., & Protocor II, R. (2011). Looking Out, Looking in. Boston, MA: Wadswort: Cengage Learing.