Sociology

Introduction

The need for professionals to understand both law and ethics cannot be understated. Law is an indicator of belief systems, values and norms. Ethical factors for Public Relations combine the significance of law wielded together with ethics and other important components in an effort to address not only liabilities but also moral dilemmas in a profession (Wilcox &, Cameron, 2012).

Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility (CSR), which is an aspect of Public Relations in organizations, are overlapping concepts, in so far as professionalism goes, are increasingly being debated upon and have attracted arguments in academic discourse in recent times. The significance of Ethics and Corporate Social Responsibility in organizations and the relationship that they portend for organizational structure, corporate culture, public image and management cannot be overlooked.

This is especially because they are seen as important tenets that function to bring justice in organizations and therefore positive public outlook and professional practice (Price, 2007). Becker (2009) notes that the search for justice and broadened organizational performance in the work place in line with business and professional ethics are closely tied to public relations aligned significantly to corporate social responsibility.

Regardless of these needs, philosophers, other scholars and thinkers alike, have not authoritatively arrived at a consensus about what ethical standards entail. Thus drawing a distinction between ‘the right thing’ and ‘the wrong thing’’ for professionals at the work place remains, at best an uphill task and not a straightforward matter (Golan, 2008). Public Relations experts on the other hand, have tried to study the dynamics that these issues depict, with a view to bringing about organizational justice. This is more anchored on the fact that today, managers have been accused of overstepping their mandate, and unethical behavioral patterns have been cited in both managers and their juniors (Becker, 2009).

Further, today, Corporate Social Responsibility as an aspect of public relations and professionalism. Becker (2009) observes that being taken seriously by many organizations, especially because of globalization, competition and therefore a deliberate attempt to please and play meaningful roles in the lives of communities by organizations is the norm rather than the exception, requires sound relations for a professional.

In this quest, professionals have executed concerted efforts in demonstrating and attempting to respond to both ethical and legal standards, and also by virtue of paying attention and incorporating values that ensure an enhanced welfare of communities and the society at large to promote their public image (Wilcox &, Cameron, 2012).

Primary Responsibility of Business Organizations, and the Relationship between Ethics and Public Relations aspect like Corporate Social Responsibilities to Professionalism Practice

The responsibility that a business play in the society in which it is carried out has been subject to various kinds of debate. While it is reckoned that the primary responsibility of any business enterprises is to maximize the profits for the shareholders, others feel that a business should go far beyond just profit maximization to embrace issues such corporate social responsibilities to enhance public relations and image.

Zain (2008) gives a comparison of the divergent views of Milton Friedman and Archie Carroll concerning the responsibility of business in a society. According to Zain (2008), ‘’a firm’s primary responsibility is to maximize shareholder revenue and should overcome all hindrances in the environment to do so’’ (Zain 2008). This calls for not mistreating the employees of an organization even if the primary aim should be shareholder profit maximization.

Provided the firms operate within the regulations that are provided for by the pre-defined legislation, and having taken into account the interest of the shareholders, all the other supposed roles should automatically be fulfilled. Zain (2008) reckons that the government has the role of providing certain regulations in relation to the business activities to be undertaken as well as the mode of operations, and this is where the law comes in public relations endeavors.

The other set of responsibility that Zain (2008) considers fundamental in the operations of a business enterprise is ethical responsibility. She believes there should be some set of moral standards from which the management of an organization should draw its governing principles. In an attempt to maximize the profits of the shareholders, the employees of the organization may be forced to work extra hours.

Ethical considerations will see employees, in professional practice, receiving remuneration that is proportional to the amount of extra work done. Business management and professional practice need to employ ethics in ensuring the employees work under conducive environment. They need to have that sense of humane in handling the employees (Zain, 2008). Finally, the last set of a firm’s responsibility according to Carroll include carrying out other activities within or outside the firm, but under the firm’s directives, that has the main aim of improving the lives of the members of the society (Zain, 2008).

Business Ethics and Law in Organizations

In a normal social setting, ethics refers to the acceptable code of conduct upon which the behavior of an individual can be evaluated as acceptable or not acceptable, or as either right or wrong. However, Becker (2009) reckons that the means of setting up a universally acceptable code of conduct has had controversies with different philosophers coming up with various theories and plethora of literature in attempting to develop the standards (Becker, 2009).

Business ethics, therefore, is a branch of ethics that attempts to harmonize the conflicting issues concerning the acceptable behaviors in a business environment. It is basically concerned with examining the various activities involved at different levels or channels of production and determines if they are morally or ethically upright or not, in areas of public relations. In a business setting, ethics will be applied in determining the rights and privileges of the employees, their roles in ensuring business confidentiality, the roles of the top management in keeping business privacy, determination of labor prices and the prices of the commodities/ products that the organization deals in, as well as sales promotion through advertisement and enhancing professionalism and public relations.

It will also enable the management to curb vices like harassment at work, biased recruitment, and selection of new employees, poor price evaluation, as well as establishing poor marketing strategies. It helps the professional practice in various conflict resolutions (Becker, 2009).

Conclusion

A business that hopes to survive in the current and future local and global market need not to rely only on some forms of government legislation, ethical considerations and professionalism to promote public relations. It needs to ensure high level of universal morality in its entire leadership and professionalism.

References

Becker, K 2009, Moral Leadership in Business, New York, Sage.

Golan, P 2005, Employee relations, London, Emerald Group Publishing.

Price, A. 2007, Human Resource Management in a Business Context, London, Thompson Learning.

Wilcox, D, Cameron,T 2012, Public Relations Strategies and Tactics, 10th Edition, Pearson Education, Upper Saddle River, N.J.

Zain, M 2008, Social Responsibility in Business: Friedman and Carroll’s Differing Views on Business Responsibility, New York: Sengage.

Introduction

Racism is the belief that a certain race is superior or inferior to another, based on ethnicity, color, or national origin. It has existed for many centuries and takes different forms that include discrimination, prejudice, and hatred toward an individual or group of individuals. In many societies, people associate racism with actions such as physical abuse, violence, discrimination, and segregation. However, it does not have to involve those behaviors because they can exist in other forms such as name-calling and stereotypical jokes. Racism is usually expressed through people’s actions and attitudes. The apartheid regime in South Africa and the Holocaust are historical examples of racism.

Forms of Racism

The major forms of racism include individual and institutional racism. Researchers argue that individual racism originates from institutional racism, which is the major cause of segregation, discrimination, and violence against members of certain ethnic groups (Daniels, 2014).

Individual Racism

Individual racism can be described as a person’s negative beliefs, assumptions, and behaviors toward another because of their racial affiliation. It originates from both conscious and unconscious personal prejudice that is expressed in behaviors such as avoidance, segregation, discrimination, derogatory language, and physical abuse (Daniels, 2014). Individual racism can be expressed both overtly and covertly. In certain cases, it is expressed openly in order to fulfill individual needs and desires. Researchers have shown that this form of racism originates from societal beliefs and is usually reinforced by institutional racism (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014).

The issue of individual racism is highly sensitive because of the freedom of speech that is protected under the United States’ constitution. Many people who utter racist comments and statements defend their actions by arguing that their ideas are personal opinions (Daniels, 2014). The privilege of freedom of speech has rendered the mitigation of individual racism difficult.

Systemic/Institutional Racism

Institutional racism is a form of discrimination that is carried out by governments, institutions, organizations, and other corporations that have influence over a large group of people. The term was created in the 1960s and is characterized by an institution’s failure to offer dignified and appropriate service to individuals because of their ethnic origin or color (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014). In large organizations, it is characterized by the exclusion or promotion of certain individuals based on their race. Unlike individual racism, institutional racism possesses the potential to negatively affect a large group of people.

Historians argue that racism is rampant in the United States because of the role played by institutions in the propagation of racist attitudes and beliefs (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014). They argue that the racist feelings that individual Americans harbor toward people of certain races are insufficient to sustain the level of racism that certain groups have been subjected to for centuries (Daniels, 2014). For example, slavery subjected African Americans to bondage for many years. The church worsened the situation because it supported segregation and opposed abolitionism.

Examples of Racism

Racism in Medicine

The United States health care system has been influenced by racial bias in the past as well as in contemporary society. This has led to the unfair treatment of members of a certain ethnic group. For example, the Tuskegee Study of 1932 was conducted by the Public Health Service in an effort to justify the federal government’s treatment programs for African Americans (Gray, 2013). The study did not involve the benefit of patient’s informed consent, and the researchers lied to the participants to compel them to take part in the study (Gray, 2013).” It went on for 40 years. The government also propagated racism by participating in the sterilization of African American women in North Carolina and Native American women in Puerto Rico (Gray, 2013).

Slavery

Slavery is one of the most prominent forms of racism in the history of the United States. Its imprint on race relations in the US is evident in contemporary society from the numerous derogatory remarks made against people of color. President Abraham Lincoln signed the Emancipation Proclamation in 1863 (Higginbotham, 2013). However, slaves in certain states such as Texas remained in slavery for 2 more years after the abolishment of slavery. The slaves were overworked, ill-treated, and oppressed by their owners (Higginbotham, 2013).

Racial profiling

Racial profiling is a highly controversial issue in American politics. Many Americans are targets of racial profiling by law enforcement officers because of their ethnic background (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014). Several cases of harassment at airports have been reported by people of Middle Eastern and South Asian descent (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014). African American and Latino youths are unfairly targeted by police officers in New York under the city’s “stop and frisk” program. In the state of Arizona, boycotts have been conducted to fight against the state’s anti-migration legislation that promoted the racial profiling of Hispanics.

Racism in Schools

According to the United States Department of Education, cases of student racial harassment are on the rise. For example, in 2017, the department’s Office for Civil Rights (OCR) received hundreds of complaints regarding racial harassment in various learning institutions (Swaak, 2018). The office revealed that there was a 25 percent increase from the number of cases reported in 2016 (Swaak, 2018).

The department has been criticized for its decision to scale back civil rights investigations at public institutions. The rise in harassment cases is a threat to cultural integration and cohesion. The Southern Poverty Law Center has reported that hate groups have increased in the US at an alarming rate (Swaak, 2018). These groups aim to propagate some variation of white supremacist beliefs. Other hate groups have been identified as Black Nationalist groups that aim to counter white supremacist groups (Swaak, 2018). In public schools, studies have shown that the minority are more likely to be suspended than the majority.

Effects on Society

Racism has devastating effects on society because it encourages moral, economic, and cultural degradation. Throughout the history of the world, numerous governments have ignored and violated the civil rights of their citizens, thus compromising their cultural and economic development (Lavalette & Penketh, 2014). In many countries, this was demonstrated through the creation of racial caste systems that denied certain groups of citizens their dignity and human rights (Love, 2017). In other countries, ethnic cleansing has created animosity between ethnic groups.

Racism causes cultural, moral, and economic suffering that derails the development of a country. The negative effects of racism influence many areas of life in communities, including peace, employment, justice, economic development, morality, and education. In the United States, the effects of a racial caste system referred to as Jim Crow negatively affected the cultural heritage of the US (Higginbotham, 2013).

It denied people of color their rights and promoted the belief that whites were superior to other races. The laws were oppressive because they regulated socialization, marriage, voting rights, entertainment, education, and sexual relations (Higginbotham, 2013). The racism that is existent in contemporary American society can be attributed to the effects of these laws. Other effects of racism include increased risk of mental illness, limited access to educational and employment opportunities by some groups, hatred, and violence toward some individuals, and breakdown of social cohesion.

Racism and the Law

The Civil Rights Act of 1964: Title VII (Equal Employment Opportunities), the Equal Credit Opportunity Act (ECOA), the Fair Housing Act, and the Fourteenth Amendment to the United States Constitution are examples of laws that were passed to fight discrimination and racism in its various forms (Love, 2017). However, the problem still persists in today’s society. Many experts have argued that laws are insufficient in mitigating racism. Change in attitude, embracement, and appreciation of cultural and ethnic diversity, and harmonious living are better approaches to the eradication of racism (Love, 2017).

Conclusion

Racism has been rampant in the United States since the colonial era. It can be defined as the belief and assumption that a certain race is superior or inferior to others. According to historians, racism against African Americans can be traced back to the slavery days and the influence of Jim Crow. The two main types of racism are individual and institutional racism. In the United States, racism has been reported in different areas, including medicine, education, government, and the justice system. African American and Latino young men are always victims of police brutality and discriminatory arrests. Studies have shown that African American men are more likely to be arrested on drug charges than white young men. The government has tried to mitigate the injustice that exists in the criminal justice system for many years. However, racism is still a challenge.

References

Daniels, K. C. (2014). Confronting racism in America as an United States Census Bureau enumerator. New York, NY: Xlibris Corporation.

Gray, F. D. (2013). The Tuskegee syphilis study: An insider’s account of the shocking medical experiment conducted by government doctors against African American men. Montgomery, AL: NewSouth Books.

Higginbotham, F. M. (2013). Ghosts of Jim Crow: Ending racism in post-colonial America. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Lavalette, M., & Penketh, L. (Eds.). (2014). Race, racism and social work. New York, NY: Policy Press.

Love, E. (2017).Islamophobia and Racism in America. New York, NY: New York University Press.

Swaak, T. (2018). “Racism in schools: Harassment claims rise as education department scales back civil rights investigations.” Newsweek. Web.

Introduction

The human rights concept is a difficult one to define. Almost all problems attach themselves to the issue of human rights (Clapham, 2007). This research paper investigates the origin and development of modern human rights ideas. It discusses how various definitions of human rights by scholars, philosophers, political figures, and societies have evolved over time. The discussion also includes challenges encountered in arriving at a universal definition of human rights.

Methodology

The research paper sources materials from scholarly articles. Information regarding the history of human rights and how it has changed over time is drawn from these articles and discussed in the findings section.

Findings

Varying definitions and their evolutions over time

People have different perspectives on human rights. Some exhibit a lot of passion whenever the topic springs up. Others, such as lawyers and advocates, equate human rights to the art and make references to both national and international law (Clapham, 2007). Human rights are considered to override all other laws. They serve to defend victims. This purpose creates two parties who demand a favorable judgment.

People from all walks of life conceptualize different meanings of human culture. There are those who come to the defense of victims of inhumane treatment. In equal measure, the Council of Europe defends criminals and terrorists on the premise that their human rights are also valid (COE, 2014). Early proponents and opponents of human rights conceived rightful treatment. However, the same people are seen to be delusional about the practical existence of the human rights concept. However, in the UK, there are reservations that change with time (TNA, 2014).

The Human rights concept, according to William Edmundson, is a narrow category of interests that suit particular individuals or groups of people (Clapham, 2007). For instance, religions, most notably Christianity, outlaws the killing of a human being. A recent case of the United Kingdom and terrorists portrays a contradiction in the application of the aforementioned rule. A section of the people demands that the country ought to launch an offensive against perpetrators of terror through attacks. Others hold that terrorists have rights too and that authorities should detain them within the country at the expense of taxpayers’ money. In the UK today, legislators have more powers over human rights (TNA, 2014). In countries such as America, the constitution is supreme.

Challenges in Creating Definitions

Religion, culture, and politics give principles that define Human rights. However, there exist multiple religions, cultures, and political systems throughout the world. Each of these quarters defines human rights to reflect their background (COE, 2014). For instance, Christianity prohibits murder or revenge while Islam supports beheading when people commit grave crimes. However, all religions intend to protect human dignity as seen from ancient codes. These differences come as a consequence of human application.

As mentioned above, the folly of human beings poses great obstacles in defining human rights. People seek to satisfy their selfish interests at the expense of other members of society. Today, in the UK, the crown has the power to intervene on matters regarding the rights of citizens (TNA, 2014). Jeremy Bentham once said that the notion of equality does not exist and that seeking natural rights often leads to anarchy (Clapham, 2007). Many other scholars and philosophers will refute this as egocentric.

The western world has a rather problematic definition of human rights. The Magna Carter (2015), an agreement between King John and English barons, poses to protect the rights of all parties. In reality, it only represents a political solution working in the interests of property owners (Clapham, 2007).

Conclusion

All people have a right to live in a dignified manner (COE, 2014). The human rights concept almost guarantees dignified living. It is, however, important to note that the history of human rights has seen the term portray conflicting definitions. Selfish interests coupled with a multiplicity of culture, religion, and political ideologies pose challenges to a definition that is agreeable to everyone.

References

Clapham, A. (2007). Human rights: A very short introduction. US: Oxford University Press.

COE. (2014). European Convention on Human Rights. Web.

TNA. (2014). Human Rights Act 1998. Web.

African Americans

Discussing racial questions and the issue of racial discrimination, people are inclined to associate these problems with ‘black’ and ‘white’ races. This association is a result of significant historical and social processes. Thus, African Americans constitute one of the oldest and largest minority groups in the USA. The representatives of this ethnic minority experienced any kind of discrimination within American society during a long period.

Definite contemporary racial issues can be regulated with the help of the government’s actions, but there are a lot of indirect demonstrations of the racial discrimination developed among the representatives of different races. Despite the government’s attempts to regulate the racial question, the problem of race and racial discrimination about African Americans is still urgent in the USA.

The racial question has a significant historical background. People are always inclined to compare and contrast themselves with each other. Significant differences in the physical appearances and certain intentions of the authorities can result in discussing the ‘other’ people as backward or ‘lower sort’ persons. The first African Americans came to the country as slaves, and the problem is in the fact the consequences of slavery are still present within the American society.

Although modern African Americans assimilated significantly and their cultural identity is more correlated with the American one than with the African roots, the issue of race is still influential. The differences in skin color and associated stereotypes based on the slavery background are the causes for the further development of racial discrimination within the country.

African Americans are discriminated in social life because of their skin color and developed stereotypes according to the role of ‘blacks’ in society. Thus, the race is always a significant factor for the black-skinned persons. Some people can state that the issue of racial discrimination is not observed today. However, the historical facts support the idea that racial discrimination of the African Americans was not ceased with abolishing slavery, and the right movements of the second half of the 20th century accentuate the fact that the problem remains to be urgent for a long period.

Moreover, the current debates on the affirmative action can be also discussed as evidence to support the statement that racial discrimination exists in the modern American society. The question of racial discrimination can be discussed from different perspectives, and various priorities can be determined, but definite social tensions and active discussions in the media provide evidence that the problem is not resolved.

Thus, the race is still a significant factor which can influence the development of the persons’ social relations and determine the aspects of their life. Despite the fact the USA is the multinational country for which the process of immigration and its results in forming definite minority groups is typical, the issues of race and ethnicity are not resolved successfully. When the government tries to operate racial issues with the help of such programs as affirmative action directly, indirect discrimination about the African Americans which based on prejudice can be regarded as a controversial issue. It is also possible to state that the development of the racial question affected the African Americans’ low social positions.

Latino Americans

The number of immigrants from the countries of Latin America constantly grows, and the current tendency supports the idea that immigration will be even more intensive in the future. If several years ago the active immigration to the USA was predominately from Mexico, today the situation changes, and many Latinos from different regions of the Latin America come to the USA in search of a better life. Being the minority group in a multinational country, Latino Americans are challenged by the developed prejudice associated with the immigration processes and by definite ethnic questions connected with the notions of ethnicity in the general and the ethnical identity of Latinos.

The large wave of immigrants from the Latin America could be observed during the second half of the 20th century. Today, the immigration of Latinos to the USA is also intensive. That is why, the majority of immigrants face the problem of prejudice directed toward their ethnic roots and intentions. Some persons who discuss the migration process associated with the Latin Americans from the radically negative perspective state that immigrants are the real threat to the national identity of the Americans and the social and economic stability of the country. The main arguments are based on the illegal status of the majority of immigrants from the Latin America.

However, the real situation is rather opposite because taking the current social positions, Latinos cannot influence the progress of American society significantly and break its economic stability. Latinos in American society suffers from a kind of prejudice influenced by the public attitude to the immigration processes. Thus, the prejudice is in the fact the Latin Americans are often discussed as the threat for preserving the basics of the American national identity and social stability.

However, the Latin Americans are inclined to suffer from the other conflicts related to their ethnicity and identity along with experiencing the developed prejudice which is rather typical for the representatives of the ‘white’ majority. The problem of ethnicity is based on the fact that the race and ethnic group of many Latinos cannot be easily determined with references to physical appearance. Many Latinos are inclined to discuss themselves as ‘black’ and ‘white’ or ‘rather black’ and ‘rather white’. Furthermore, the problem of ethnicity is closely associated with the tendency to preserve cultural identity or develop the bi-cultural identity.

Despite the fact a lot of Latin Americans identify themselves as the representatives of the large or pan-ethnic Latino group, some Latinos try to preserve their cultural and ethnic identity as a kind of resisting the assimilation processes. The concentration of Latinos on their ethnic background and preserving identity can be also discussed as the reason for the ‘white’ Americans to see the threat in the emigration from Latin America.

The progress of the Latinos’ minority group in the USA is closely associated with the migration processes, especially with illegal work migrations. That is why, the prejudice against the Latin Americans is based on the stereotypes regarding the immigrants. The intensity of immigration is discussed as threatening, and as a result, many Latinos are discriminated against. Furthermore, the Latin Americans are inclined to assimilate within the US society only partially, preserving the aspects of their ethnical identity and characteristic features of their cultural identity.

The documentary studied for the commentary is White Like Me: Race, Racism & White Privilege in America (Wise, Alexander and Ogletree) released in 2013. The documentary’s focus is on the prevalence of racial inequality and bias in the United States. It provides a historical, social, and psychological understanding as to why this discrimination is present among people and for what reason.

The documentary is based on the work of the famous anti-racist educator and social activist, Tim Wise, who explores the various facets of racial discrimination, inequality, and bias in the US from the point of view of a white American. He points out that whites and privileged whites have assumed the non-existence of racialism in present day America and live in this complicity. According to them, the America has entered a post-racial society.

However, Wise points out that this is a misconception. He presents a fascinating exploration of the welfare program in the US given to the middle class and argues that the failure of the country to establish racial equality was through the systematic preference towards the white middle class. This has led to the presence of perpetual racial discrimination and inequality. The documentary shows how inequality based on race has been systematically included within the structure of the society and shapes individual attitude, behavior, politics, and government policies.

The social issue that is discussed in the documentary is racial inequality and bias prevalent in the US. The specific social issue that is addressed in the documentary is the redundancy of the adoption of color blindness ideology in the US and the prevalent assumption among white Americans that the inequality present in American society has been inverted towards the privileged whites.

I agree to the point of view presented in the documentary. The reason being most whites has taken advantage of the social security and the welfare programs established in the US. The aim was to help the poor Americans. Initially, these poor Americans were whites. However, due to the systematic structural discrimination in policy-making and laws, colored people have gained little from the shinning development of America. The first constitution mentioned that white people and only white people could become permanent citizens of USA, enshrining the privilege only to white people of the US.

The social programs such as job insurance assistance were not given to agricultural workers and domestic help workers who were mostly black. The housing assistance, national house insurance mortgage, for 30 years of the program almost barred the colored people from the program. The GI Bill provided to returning veterans. However, the GI Bill did not extend to black veterans. The white privileges are structurally imbibed within the system of the country. Both material and psychological discrimination has shown that the present belief of reverse discrimination against the whites is completely unfounded.

The documentary brings forth a historical perspective of racial inequality and bias in the US. It demonstrates that white Americans live in a complacency of color blindness. The documentary explores the issue of reverse discrimination that has evolved in the present day American society. White middle class American feel discriminated against due to their belief that the so-called minority and marginalized ethnic communities are reaping the benefits of the welfare schemes that are deducted from the taxpayers (Badger).

According to the proponents of reverse discrimination, ethnically based scholarships should be cancelled in order to ensure equality. However, the documentary shows that this assumption is completely baseless as one-quarter is given to colored people while 99.75% of the scholarship goes to the white students. The feeling among white people is creeping in showing a clear racial subtext due to the perceived benefits given to the colored Americans.

One reason that the documentary cites as the possible factor affecting this reverse discrimination sentiment is xenophobia. Whites are obsessed to take their country back due to the fear of rising heterogeneity in American society. Mostly whites believe that people of color are the recipients of the welfare benefits. The reason is the media representation in coverage of poverty is mostly of colored Americans and not for white poor. Before mid-60s, media coverage of the poor was mostly whites, but the coverage was humanizing and sympathetic (O’Connell 723). Thus, the welfare schemes garnered public support. However, this changed when poor were related to black people who were demonstrated as undesirable and undeserving.

The tendency in America has been towards being color blind and go beyond the issue of racism. Color blindness as an ideology is closing the eyes towards the inequality prevalent in the US. The implicit or unconscious racial bias, which is defined as the random ideas or thoughts, those come to one’s mind when they see people of color (Bonilla-Silva 71). Research shows that people usually associate the happy thoughts more to whites and Hispanics instead of blacks, which affect their behavior (Andrews 834).

Most white Americans associate negative words and phrases to blacks. Sociologists believe that people have been constructed through cultural discourses to act and behave the way white Americans do. It is not simply differences between two groups but the difference grew within the culture. The answer is to be color conscious and not color blind. To see how this consciousness and recognition of the difference would help establish equality. Awareness of racial inequality has affected whites will help to understand how anti-racism work in the country.

Works Cited

Andrews, George Reid. “Racial Inequality in Brazil and the United States, 1990-2010.” Journal of Social History 47(4) (2014): 829-854. Print.

Badger, Emily. “What the U.S. economy would look like if racial inequality didn’t exist.” 28 October 2014. The Washington Post. Web. 3 March 2015.

Bonilla-Silva, Eduardo. Racism without racists: Color-blind racism and the persistence of racial inequality in the United States. Oxford: Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, 2006. Print.

O’Connell, Heather A. “The impact of slavery on racial inequality in poverty in the contemporary US south.” Social Forces 90(3) (2012): 713-734. Print.

White Like Me: Race, Racism & White Privilege in America. Dir. Scott Morris. Perf. Tim Wise, et al. 2013. Web.

Racial segregation in the United States is the separation of the white population from other ethnic groups (mainly Afro-Americans and Indians). It occurred by means of a variety of social barriers: separate training and education, the distinction between landing zones in public transport, and others.

The American society comprised of white people differed by its national and religious grounds along with attitude towards other ethnic groups. The main victims of racial exclusion were non-white people, in particular, Indians and African Americans. Moreover, Italians, Spaniards, French, Greeks, Pilipino, Poles, Jews were under attacks at the household level. They were regarded as “foreign whites.” In spite of the prohibition of racial segregation in the 1960s, racial discrimination persists in the US nowadays as well because of the consciousness of the people and history of the country that equalized the different races in the rights, by means of legislation not so long ago. It is “a consequence of its self-conception as the first ‘new nation’; that is, a nation that was forging its own destiny free of the encumbrances of history and tradition”¹.

Psychologically, the racial segregation laws highlight inequality. Frequently, climate differences and other environmental factors are also included². In this regard, the case of Filipinos is not the coincidence as American law directed to the separation of different races already resided in the U.S. Besides, “Chinese women and criminals are identified as potential threats to the United States”³. There are cases when white Americans exclude other nations by proclaiming the identity of whiteness⁴. There are explicit or conscious white Americans who know their race and who defend it openly. Nevertheless, sometimes, “mixed-race applicants often failed to establish their whiteness”⁵.

In contrast, implicit white Americans rarely defend their racial consciousness, or, perhaps, do not even think about it honestly, but they prefer to communicate with other whites and live among them. In addition, they are attracted to the various aspects of the traditionally white culture, for example, classical music or country music. Speaking of Mexican-Americans, one might note that “Mexican-Americans are excluded from public facilities and neighborhood and the targets of racial slurs, they typically lived in one section of town because they were not permitted to rent or own property anywhere except in the ‘Mexican Colony”⁶.

Moreover, “the demand side of the labor market-employers either have a “taste” for discrimination or use race as a proxy for unobserved variables that imply lower productivity for minorities”⁷. This fact also confirms the existence of social segregation in US society.

Segregation might be observed not only on the country level but also in the daily life of immigrants. The contrast is particularly noticeable at schools because the system of school education in the United States is the same for most of the state and school choice is tied to the education district in which the student’s parents live, but not to the size of their financial state. Therefore, children from different families of different social statuses can study at the same school. Thus, attempts to create new school districts form a better environment for the children of wealthy Americans, that is, at first glance, rich ones separated from the poor.

However, the reality is that in the US, white people are wealthier while Afro-Americans are poorer. As a result, the growing gap between rich and poor in practice entails the social polarization of society by race. This type of segregation called education was expressed in the fact that African-American children were not allowed to attend the same schools as white children. Segregation of that kind has been regulated by state laws.

For this reason, African-Americans had to attend schools that were located on the other side of town, and sometimes simply in another town. Naturally, the quality of education in these schools was different from that received by the children of white Americans. The other instance is Mexican students who suffer from discrimination at school having lower scores than their classmates. School segregation is also connected to political problems, “in particular to the unequal power relations between ethical minority parents and school boards composed of dominant group members”⁸.

In the US, there remains a serious geographical separation, in other words, residential segregation, between the races because immigrants live mostly in areas where the vast majority of residents are entrants. These are mainly poor neighborhoods; as a result, residents have less access to education, employment, and public transport. Generally, the crime rate is higher in these areas. Despite the prohibition of racial discrimination, authorities cannot dictate to owners to sell or rent homes. Due to that fact, members of minorities de facto were not allowed to live in rich predominantly populated by white neighborhoods for decades, and the US authorities suspect that today the practice persists to some extent.

In spite of the fact that racial segregation was a powerful component of the United States society, people tried to confront it. In his article, Kelly describes the theme of Malcolm Little and Black cultural politics during World War II. The leader of the young organization called “Nation of Islam” Elijah Muhammad and his more gifted and temperamental assistant, nicknamed “the angriest man in America” Malcolm Little, better known as Malcolm X, refuted the teachings of King’s non-violent resistance. They counterposed “black capitalism” against “white capitalism”. However, Kelly states that Afro-Americans were integrated, “a sense of collectivity as well as individuality, as dancers improvised on the standard lindy hop moves I friendly competition”⁹. All in all, the article considers Malcolm’s early life and several political and social transformations of that period.

Besides, Sugrue writes about crabgrass-roots politics speaking of the postwar Detroit. In the postwar period, there was a first wave of the exodus caused by the closure of Packard, Hudson, and Studebaker factories. At the beginning of the Government’s program of colonization the city by black citizens, plenty of “white” residents decided to leave. The outflow of the most solvent population has led to unemployment and the departure of shopkeepers, bankers, doctors, etc. At the beginning of the 60s, the population of the city consisted of unemployed people, those living on benefits or low-wage workers. They were mostly representatives of the African-American population.

Poverty and endemic unemployment have led to the fact that the city gained notoriety as one of the “black” and dangerous US cities¹⁰. The abolition of racial segregation was the peak of the intensity in Detroit that has led to the fact that the city’s black residents were more likely to collide with “whites” resulting in interracial conflicts. It shows that the law passed by the state did not guarantee the immediate abolition of racial segregation in the country.

At the same time, inclusion, in other words, assimilation has performed a dominant strategy for the integration of many immigrant communities. The American model of “melting pot” was considered as a model of the national policy. The image of the “melting pot” explained the synthesis of the program concerning immigrants: taking the citizens of other countries, representatives of various ethnic cultures, American society is able to turn them into the unified American nation. In this model, the US government seems ethnically and culturally neutral proclaiming a commitment of American democracy.

The evaluation of the effectiveness of the American assimilation model is inconsistent. On the one hand, some scholars emphasize the remarkable efficiency. For example, all researchers mark national civic consciousness, patriotism, and nationalism in respect of the country. Moreover, Tocqueville wrote that talking about other countries’ Americans usually manifested a bias. “If you talk to them about their own country, you will see their clear, concise, and precise thoughts.

They will tell you about their rights and explain what determines the political life of their country”¹¹. National tolerance towards different ethnic groups becomes a mandatory feature as one of the elements of the so-called American “political correctness”. However, integrating the assimilation model has lost its effectiveness due to the influx of immigrants increased after the liberalization of the immigration legislation in the 60s. It seems that there is critical mass immigration for the “melting pot” of a nation. Nevertheless, the causes of the problem of assimilation are deeper than quantitative “pot” overload. Until the mid-twentieth century, the United States pursued a policy of supporting “ethnic balance” giving priority to migration flows from Europe. The opening of borders to immigrants from the Third World in the 60s of the twentieth century changed the ethnic composition of America. At the beginning of the 20^th century, the proportion of Asian immigrants increased.

It is also should be noted that the American government makes efforts to connect and integrate people. According to Marcias, “the popular Latin music performance brings together people from different races and different neighborhoods by means of country musical programs”¹². Visiting the general public places and communicating with people of different races might contribute to overcoming segregation.

In conclusion, it should be stressed that nowadays racial segregation in the United States still exists, and it is a rather serious problem of society. Social segregation influences all spheres of life making people confronted. However, there is also a positive side to the issue. Due to the American “melting pot” and exclusion, people from different countries and of different races and ethnicities are able to live together in the same area peacefully.

Footnotes

1. Bhambra, A sociological dilemma: Race, segregation and US sociology, p. 1.
2. Tyner, The Geopolitics of Eugenics and the Exclusion of Philippine Immigrants from the United States, p. 55.
3. Tyner, The Geopolitics of Eugenics and the Exclusion of Philippine Immigrants from the United States, p. 56.
4. Roediger, Whiteness and Ethnicity in the History of ‘White Ethnics’ in the United States, p. 182.
5. Martinez, Mexican Americans and Whiteness, p. 99.
6. Martinez, Mexican Americans and Whiteness, p. 100.
7. Loury, Social Exclusion and Ethnic Groups: The Challenge to Economics, p. 232.
8. Menchaca and Valencia, Anglo-Saxon Ideologies in the 1920s-1930s: The Impact on the Segregation of Mexican Students in California, p. 222.
9. Kelley, The Riddle of the Zoot: Malcolm Little and Black Cultural Politics During World War II, p. 75.
10. Sugrue, Crabgrass-Roots Politics: Race, Rights, and the Reaction against Liberalism in the Urban North, 1940-1964, p. 553.
11. Zbigniew and Tracz-Tryniecki, Tocquevillian Ideas: Contemporary European Perspectives, p. 136.
12. Macías, Bringing Music to the People: Race, Urban Culture, and Municipal Politics in Postwar Los Angeles, p. 702.

Leadership in groups

Even though society consists of groups of people, an important part of the qualities are brought in by each separate individual. This is why leadership in groups is extremely important. There are leaders in religious settings, social and professional. Business and work environments are always in extreme need of a leader who can determine the right course of action, and make sure that the group functions properly.

Leadership is a vital component of every organization. It defines the values, goals, and objectives of employees and the company itself. Effective leadership not only defines these elements but also, determines how they are achieved. The success of leadership and organization emanates from the personal style of the leader and the company’s goals. Therefore, to ensure success, it is important to work with good leaders who are focused on positive results. It is crucial that the person is respectable, reliable, and just. Since the market and economy greatly influence the outcome of the leader’s plans and goals, it is their direct responsibility to predict any fluctuations and prevent loss of stability and control.

Every leader faces a theoretical gap in relation to the practical control and functioning of an organization, and the knowledge or empirical understanding that was gained prior to becoming a member of the team. When an individual starts leading a group of people or has another leadership position, they will mobilize the resources and the processes that are necessary for taking charge. Often, resolving conflicts and adjusting to other team members is critical in making sure of the proper functioning of a group. Sometimes, the internal politics of an organization are not as clear cut before the person gets details about certain goals. For example, a business deal made by the management can look pointless by the other employees or team members. This stems from their lack of knowledge about the other organization or far off plans of the company. The strategies involved in leading an organization are very deep-reaching, so sometimes, it is hard to determine the specific reason for a decision (Robbins & Judge 2013).

It is obvious that every good leader has the ability to organize and mobilize forces that are directed towards the greater good of the company. This is why foresight and empirical knowledge should be balanced with practice. A great manager must be effective and practical in its management. The knowledge of the “trade” is very important, but the ability to use the information and apply it to practice is a skill that is just as important, if not more. They must have a friendly and fair relationship with fellow workers, even with those lower in the rank. At the same time, they have to be specific in the requests and regulations, so that there are a structure and order in the operation. As they are in charge and can take a more global look at the business structure, they have to shape the culture and the inner, as well as outer relations with other workers and the public.

Leaders uphold the responsibility for issues that affect the organization, people, and the greater society and ensure individual discipline in the company domain. The amount of work that the leader has is a lot for one individual, so uniting the efforts in the fight for a common goal must also be present. Considering all the qualities of a leader it is possible to see that the disadvantages must be minimal, if not non-existent at all. The leader can focus all attention on promoting policies and regulations, but cannot forget about the needs of others, leaving the minor organization and support to the team members.

Conflict within and between groups

Conflict, as well as cooperation, is an inseparable part of any society and a group of people. Any organization consists of employees and managers, people who are instrumental to the proper functioning of the company, and fulfillment of all necessary transactions. Since sometimes, work in the office can be stressful, it is possible to conclude that individuals will be feeling some form of stress or anxiety, as such, conflict resolution is instrumental in the individual, as well as team levels.

There are very many issues to address that are stressful in the work environment. These could relate to the tension between employees, employees, and managers, which makes it a “within-group conflict”. In case there is a conflict between employees and customers or other companies, a different strategy must be used because of the conflict of interests being external. When a conflict appears internally, a confident and friendly environment is expected by the workers towards the behavior of managers and other personnel. Every group must have a technique in dealing with and alleviating conflict and stress. Personal characteristics of each person, such as education, family matters, other personal issues, or even ownership feelings can interfere with the common interests of a group. Resolving a conflict is finding productive means for the group (Brown, 2011).

Developing proper communication techniques is key to conflict resolution, as it will allow for better understanding and cooperation in an organization. Addressing attitudes and behaviors of people in their views of other employees whom they might consider different or lower/higher in the position must be effective and personal. Managers and leaders would be instrumental in creating an environment that allows adaptation and future improvement of the personnel. People must be taught how to find common ground and establish the proper course of action which unites at least some part of employees’ individual views. It is stressed that an individual’s feelings play an equally important role in dealing with an event that is potentially stressful. Practicing self-control and techniques to calm down an elevated emotional response have proven to be useful in times of pressure and emotional instability.

Conflict management and resolution are important goals of any company. The quality and productivity of work depend on how people feel and what relationship they have with another company. A clear example can be seen in two competing organizations. Each one might use the unethical technique to publicly humiliate the company. A commercial between two types of drinks can be made, and one is shown to be thrown out or displayed in a “filthy” setting, whereas the other drink is shown in color and thirst-quenching. To minimize the conflict, a strong employee base must be present. It already has an established support division that can address any issues presented. In order to be successful in interest-based conflict management and resolution, a company must focus on the fact that conflicts are inevitable, both internally and externally.

Conflict resolution is an important aspect of life that must be used to mediate the situation and find ways that will help people determine the correct path of action. It is a preventative measure and is often used in a stressful and possibly, aggressive situation. Employees must acknowledge and understand that causes of conflict are systematic and attributable to the internal and external make-up of the system and company organization.

Communication in groups

Cooperation within any society and between individuals is based on communication. There are proper and incorrect ways to relay information to another person or group, so it is vital to be able to have the skills needed for interpersonal communication. The reasons for the specific transference of information are numerous, as a lot depends on the effectiveness of communication.

Communication is the unification of goals and plans which make the work easier and faster. The disadvantages are the conflicts in deciding the right path or direction. Too many ideas might intervene with an adequate choice of one, which will be most efficient. A disorganized communication structure will have immediate effects on the functioning of the corporation as a unit. Many times, there is a miscommunication between the management and employees. For example, an email sent out to specific people might raise concerns of others and make them feel left out. They will start gossiping about that person and communication will be minimal. In order to improve, there could be meetings for closer interaction with all the departments and individuals. Personal views of every worker in the company add to the greater understanding of the matters and areas that might need improvement, so making people communicate will prove beneficial.

Ethics is another important aspect of communication. People must feel respected and acknowledged when someone is talking to them. This is true in any situation, a family gathering, friendship, or work environment. In the end, people want understanding and consolation, so this can be qualified as one of the starting motives of communication. An individual wants others to share the pain or joy of an occurrence and so, they look to others for reassurance and acknowledgment. Interpersonal communication motives are very unique to a work environment because there are certain things that can be said which will not be allowed in a conversation with others. Leaders and managers play a great role in setting the framework for communication and interaction.

When people do not have a close personal connection or have just met someone, they are inclined to be more conserved and cautious. People often judge others on what they are told and sometimes, the slightest mix of words can mean something completely different from what was the purpose of a conversation. An example is a culture that is much different or an organization that stands for different principles. Strategic communication is another motive that is exhibited in the formal world. Because people function in a society, the main goal is to make sure that everyone around understands you exactly the way you want to be understood (Engleberg & Wynn, 2013).

As such, clarity and direction become extremely important. Most of the time, people use too many words to explain their feelings and needs. In order for others to keep their focus on your needs, a person must be quick and efficient. As an example, laws of any society are made explicitly direct and meaningful without the possibility of a different interpretation. The same can be said about the formality that is expected of people in work environments and thus, the process of interpersonal communication and its motives is a learned process, accessible by everyone who is determined and wanting.

Communication and its purpose are the unifying entities of all societies. People find elaborate ways to transfer information but it is most definitely a skill that must be adjusted towards the society, other people, and the internal processes. Organizations need proper communication, as it is a collective of people who will strive for success.

References

Brown, D. (2011). An Experiential Approach to Organization Development (8th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.

Engleberg, I. & Wynn, D. (2013). Working in Groups (6th ed.). Boston, NY: Houghton Mifflin.

Robbins, S. & Judge, T. (2013). Essentials of Organizational Behavior (12th ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall.