Statistics

John B. Watson work on classical behaviorism that paved the way for B. F. Skinner’s radical or operant behaviorism which has had a large impact on educational systems. Watson was one of the influential psychologists of the twentieth century. His material is still used in most psychology and educational psychology texts. Watson helped with defining the study of behavior anticipated Skinner’s emphasis on operant conditioning and the importance of learning and environmental influences in human development.

Watson’s criticized of Sigmund Freud has been given credit for helping to disseminate principles of Freudian psychoanalysis. Watson is known for the Little Albert study and his dozen healthy infants quote. Watson is given credit for popularizing the term behaviorism with the publication of his seminal 1913 article “Psychology as the Behaviorist Views It. ” In the article, Watson argued that psychology had failed in its quest to become a natural science, largely due to a focus on consciousness and other unseen phenomena.

Rather than study these unverifiable ideas, Watson urged the careful scientific study of observable behavior. His view of behaviorism was a reaction to introspection, where each researcher served as their own research subject. The study of consciousness by Freud and Watson believed to be subjective and unscientific. Watson believed that controlled laboratory studies were the most effective way to study learning. In approach manipulation of the learner’s environment was the key to fostering development.

The approach stands in contrast to techniques that placed the emphasis for learning in the mind of the learner. The 1913 article gives credit for the founding of behaviorism but it had a minor impact after its publication. Watson prepared psychologists and educators for the highly influential work of Skinner and other radical behaviorists in subsequent decades. B. F. Skinner was one of the most influential theorists in modern psychology. His work was very important and has been studied by many for years. His theories have helped mankind in many ways.

He studied the behavior patterns of many living organisms. His most important work was the study of behaviorism. John B. Watson, behaviorism is one of the most widely studied theories today; Influence in Psychology. B. F. Skinner was one of the most famous of the American psychologists. Skinner was responsible for experiments such as the “Skinner box”. He wrote some very famous books. One of them was “The Behavior of Organisms”. This book describes the basic points of his system. Another was Walden Two. This book describes a utopian society that functions on positive reinforcement.

Behaviorism is a school of thought in psychology that is interested in observable behavior. Skinner said, “Behaviorism is not the science of human behavior; it is the philosophy of that science. ” There are various types of behavior, such as innate behavior. Innate behaviors are certain behaviors. B. F. Skinner, in his novel Walden Two, presents many arguments about how he foresees a positive change in the world through manipulation of behavior on the personal level. B. F. Skinner’s entire system is based on operant conditioning. This organism is the process of operating on the environment.

This operating the organism encounters a special kind of stimulus called a reinforcing stimulus or reinforcer. The special stimulus have the effect of increasing the operant which is the behavior occurring. Operant conditioning the behavior is followed by a consequence or the nature of the consequence modifies the organisms’ tendency to repeat the behavior in the future. Example; you have a cat and the cat just playing around with a ball and when you throw the ball at the cat and the cat catches it and you give him a treat. The cat is starts to catch the ball as you throw it in the air .

The operant is the behavior prior to. The cat will stop the trick which you’re were enjoying. This is called extinction of the operant behavior. If you were to start showing the dog treats then likely the cat with start doing the tricks again and more quickly than the cat learned at first. This is because the return of the reinforcer takes place in a reinforcement history that goes all the way back to the first time the cat was reinforced for doing the tricks. Freud and Skinner agree that human behavior is the result of outside barriers that hinder the ideal of free ill. Skinner believes that humans in good environment can live happy while Freud understands that humans are design to live in some degree of anguish or discontent. Skinner uses the example of Walden Two to illustrate his ideas of how human behavior should be formed. Skinner’s argues on how to eliminate what he knows as problematic rests on his prescription of dismissing the notion of individual freedom. Skinner does not only say that the ideal of individual freedom is farce. He takes further and states that the search for it is where society has gone wrong.

He wants no part in the quest for individual freedom. If we give up this illusion, says Skinner, we can condition everyone to act in acceptable ways. Skinner has a specific prescription for creating this utopian society. He believe that all that is necessary is to change the conditions which surround man. He believe that by controlling what a person’s environment is it is possible to craft a man to behave in any way. Skinner wants to use this notion to create a world without pain and suffering. In Walden Two, he describes what conditions are necessary to create a world of happiness.

Skinner proposes that to create his perfect society one need only to come up with the characteristics of what man should be. Edward Chace Tolman was a modern cognitive psychology. He showed that animals in learning mazes acquire organized spatial and temporal information about the maze and about the consequences of various alternative behaviors. He was combating the dominant views of his time which emphasized the acquisition of conditioned reflexes rather than knowledge about environmental events. Although several short biographies or reviews of Tolman’s contributions are (Crutchfield, 1961; Crutchfield et al. 1960; Hilgard, 1980; Innes, 1999, 2000; McFarland, 1993; Ritchie, 1964; Tolman, 1952), it is appropriate that one be included in an encyclopedia of learning and memory because workers in this field today are using ideas that were initiated and developed by Tolman. Tolman’s findings and ideal have helped to shape modern understanding of learning, memory and cognition. Tolman was similar to the behaviorists in his ideals on objectivity and measurement. He did not believe reinforcement was necessary for learning to occur. Tolman (1932) proposed five types of learning: pproach learning, escape learning, avoidance learning, choice-point learning, and latent learning. All forms of learning depend upon means-end readiness, goal-oriented behavior, mediated by expectations, perceptions, representations, and other internal or environmental variables But the problems with his work were that he poorly defined many terms that he used in his fundamental theories, and that is difficult to make predictions from a point of view because of lack of determining the nature and strength of expectations before hand and when or how expectations may change.

There are different ways to think about humans and their behaviors. In modern psychology provide researchers a way to approach problems and find ways to explain and predict human behavior. Develop new treatment for problem with behaviors. All three men contributes to psychology even to psychologist are still using their methods in studies. Several area of the human’s behavior is accomplished by Skinner, Watson and Tolman that stand today in modern psychology.

These men did not agree on every thing but made a caramel ground in studying the human behavior. Also they was studied of animal compare with the human’s behavior which many theory still exist today. These three men remain widely accepted, but all have contributed tremendously to our understanding of human thought and behaviors. The field of psychology has come a long way and these are three men that help paved the way for modern psychology for researchers and student who studied field pertaining to psychology.

Based on Wisped, public transport means a shared passenger transport service which is available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as taxicab, carpooling or hired buses which are not shared by strangers without private arrangement. Most public transport runs to a scheduled timetable with the most frequent services running to a headway. Share taxis offer on-demand services in many parts of the world, and some services will wait until the vehicle is full before it starts. Partisans is sometimes used in areas of low-demand and for people who need a door-to-door service.

We ill describe about the background information of our study that is public transportation problems among students in Amelia Teenage. Besides that we also discuss about the objective of our study and the questions that we researched about. These all are commonly surveyed about the topics like the factors, solutions and effects of public transportations problems. At the end of introduction part, there will be the definition of some important terms in our study. There are many colleges and university in Amelia Teenage. For example, Politick Amelia, CCITT Bandannas, I-ITEM Campus Band and Multimedia University.

Public transport are usually used by students. Every year, thousands of students from different states come to Amelia to further their study. There is so many hostels provided by every colleges and university for their students. Some of hostels like Politick Amelia are situated far from the academic buildings and other facilities around the campus. This arise problems to those who did not own any transport. They had to walk more than 1 km daily due to far distance from student hostels to lecture buildings and other facilities around the campus.

They also need to face unpredictable weather conditions. The hectic daily schedule made the students have to walk back and forth to different block for the entire day. We wanted to do this research to find out the problems of transportation faced by students and the solutions of the problem.

PROBLEM STATEMENT. Public transportation is a shared passenger transport service which is available for use by the general public, as distinct from modes such as taxicab, train or hired buses which are not shared by strangers without private arrangement.

Most public transport runs to a scheduled timetable with the most frequent services running to a headway. Public transport revises can be profit-driven by use of pay-by-the-distance fares or funded by government subsidies in which flat rate fares are charged to each passenger. This is the method used by the public transport system in the whole world. But in Malaysia, there is a state that is still not so strong public transport system, especially the developing state like Amelia. Amelia have several districts, we note that advanced districts such as Amelia Teenage and focus on student PIT.

In Amelia Teenage, students PIT have a problem of public transport are slow in their place, so this problem cause they often arrive late o class and doing the learning. It will also lead to decreased performance of their learning and will make trainers looked oblique to them. General Objective Identifying the public transportation problems among PIT students in Amelia Specific Objective Identifying the effects Of public transportations towards the students. Find out the solution to overcome the transportation problems.

RESEARCH QUESTION

1. Why does the public transportation’s problems effect the PIT students in Amelia Teenage?
2. What is the benefits of using public transportation instead of using their own transportation?
3. What kind of solution that could overcome the transportation problems that are going through by the students? Research scope is investigating and finding out the outcome of the process and the methodology.

The research scope can be limited by the number of partial pants. We are focusing on PIT students in Amelia Teenage such as Politick Amelia, CCITT Bandannas and, U TEM Campus Band and Multimedia University.

This is because there are many students that live outside the area Malice that may not bring their own transportation and so that causes many problems to them. We choose the students to be our participants in Business Research because we were having the problems too with the transportation and thus we want to finding out some suggestion to be brought forward. Limitations and Delimitation’s:- The limitations or delimitation’s are the inherent design or methodology parameters that could restrict the scope of the research findings and are out of the control of the researcher.

These reservations, qualifications or weaknesses arise when all variables cannot be controlled within a project design or the optimum number of samples that cannot be taken due to time r budgetary constraints. Our limitations to finishing up the Business Research project is that we are busy with our classes and COUld not find time to meet the participants and doing our research regarding our topic. Contributions:- We hope we could come out with some suggestions in order to help the students like us overcome the kind of problems related with transportation.

The overall objective of this report is to study the effects of transportation to students in Amelia center. Some research taken from other countries, but the intention is to understand the situation in the country, which would armorial be based on domestic investigations. Studies on transport and the drivers often informal and thus we get a conference report and consult a famous investigator and director of the research program in this field, but it is unlikely that the big picture related literature has found.

In addition, although there are some population surveys that offer great insight into the issues at hand, some have become dated and increasingly concerned because there is a long-term and sometimes fast-changing trends in the use of public transport vehicles. This trend ARQ rises forecasting techniques to determine a umber of issues for the next few decades, a dangerous and uncertain at best, and not a substitute for ongoing data collection to assess students.

While the car which controls the use of transportation for most Americans, young and old, men and women, we have tried to review some of the literature that is less rapidly in other transport modes. Among the shed el provided here is from unpublished data authors’, and who will be given special attention. The current literature is very limited especially with respect to radishes. The types of research that have been done have typically focused on transit. Most studies on radishes have focused on qualitative reporting or used fewer variables and therefore are limited in their scope.

It is also not surprising that most transit agencies or radishes organizations have tended to rely on rules of thumb, intuition, or less technical methods for estimating fare elasticity. However, some of the most recent studies such as the Contesters and the Center for Urban Transportation Research (CUT R) study in the Upset Sound area used employer data to estimate the impact of Panola fares and other factors to estimate mode shifts. This research study sakes off from this background by reconciling with the Linsang and Pam bus study as it applies to pompanos.

It also makes advances by adding several regional observations including Arid. The goal of the study is to provide both disaggregated and aggregated measurements of fare elasticity of radishes. The stud’s quantitative analysis was done by a multiple regression and logic model approach. Similarly, a qualitative analysis was done using the point elasticity approach.

Public transport by bus is the mainstay of the transportation system in an economy(Garlic et al. 011 Although modes of ravel in most developed countries are increasingly dependent on the car (see Banister and Bergmann 2000), causing a down-ward trend in demand for transport in most industrial economies, public transport busy remains an important mode of transportation. Bus transport services are provided by public, private or mixed corporations in a highly regulated environment. In addition, important constituents of the transport infrastructure are essentially (semi-)public goods.

Therefore, there are economic reasons for a significant degree of gastrointestinal in this area, mainly based on the cognition of a variety of market fail-urges (e. G. , Kerosene 1996). Over the last two decades, serious concerns about postoperatively failures have resulted in a reassessment of the role of government in organizing this sector (Glassier et al. 1990). In view of these concerns, it is of great interest to investigate whether public transport operators work in a technically efficient manner (e. G. , achieve economic goals such as minimizing costs or maximizing output).

An effective and solid measure of efficiency can make a significant contribution to the discussion of the relative merriest the supply of public and The other that, frontier methods have found private transport services. Their way into the transport sector, and studies on the productivity and efficiency of almost all transport modes are now available in the literature. A comprehensive study of parametric Andean-parametric frontier methods empirical findings for urban public transport has been published by De Berger et al. (2002). Our study presented below attempts to fill a gap in the available literature.

While an overview of the pioneering studies on public transport operators has recently appeared (e. G. , von Hirsuteness and Calculations), thorough investigation of frontier methods and empirical results for public transport of the sass is not yet available. This paper is complementary to De Berger, with a different classification technique and study period. This last study is an overview of studies published during thesis. Moreover, it is an analysis of frontier studies. This paper research is based unworn published during the sass’.

We use criteria to select, classify and analyses the studies in this research. In this paper, we use the classification scheme technique to study the papers selected. Thus, is the De Berger et al. (2002) has an influence on atelier studies of public transport efficiency. The objective of this paper is to provide a comprehensive literature review of public transport efficiency and describe the different adopted approaches and methods. Let also evaluates the contributions of frontier analysis as a way to understand performance of public transport.

The rest of paper is organized as follows: the next section aims to define central concepts and details the methodologies of performance and technical efficaciousness. Section 3 deals with the methodological approach and discussion of research procedures of the literature.

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY. Research methodology is a way to find out the result of a given problem on a specific matter or problem that is also referred as research problem.

Len Methodology, researcher uses different criteria for solving/searching the given research problem. Different sources use different type of methods for solving the problem. F we think about the word “Methodology”, it is the way of searching or solving the research problem and it’s the process used to collect information and data for the purpose finking business decisions.

The methodology may incompatibilities research, interviews, sinuses and other charitableness’s, and could include both present and historical information. We are collecting two types of data known as: QUANTITATIVE DATA : is information about quantities that is information that can be measured and written down with number, Some examples of quantitative data are your height, your shoe size, and the length of fingernails.

QUALITATIVE DATA: is information about qualities information that can’t actually be measured, some example of qualitative data are the softens of skin, grace with which run, and the color of your eyes. However, try telling Photos you can’t measure color with numbers. In our research we are use quantitative and qualitative research: Quantitative research contains word quantity something that can be counted. So quantitative research includes any research methods that produce hard numbers which can be turned into statistics.

Quantitative research methods answer questions beginning with words like when,where,how many,and how often. Quantitative research methods including surveys and controlled experiments. The evidence gathered through these methods can then be used in mathematical models to identify trends,or predict future performance. Qualitative research can tell you when,where and how often things happen,qualitative research looks at the why and how-Qualitative research produces ,notes,and descriptions of behavior and motivation. Research methods in this category include: For this part, we get the information from the participants.

They are the PIT students around of Amelia Teenage which are around 18-25 years old. The respondents were randomly selected from varies faculties and courses and grouped according to their years of study . About 100 of the respondents we are chose randomly. We agreed to use some methods for this part of study which is interview, observation and questionnaire. To identify the type of problems of transportation in Amelia Teenage that is faced by PIT students to attend class and to investigate the effects of public transportation among of PIT students in Amelia Teenage.

Classification of Quantitative Techniques: There are different types of quantitative techniques. We can classify them into three categories. They are: 1. Mathematical Quantitative Techniques 2. Statistical Quantitative Techniques 3. Pprogramming Quantitative Techniques Mathematical Quantitative Techcniques: A technique in which quantitative data are used along with the principles of mathematics is known as mathematical quantitative techniques. Mathematical quantitative techniques involve: 1. Permutations and Combinations: Permutation mearns arrangement of objects in a definite order.

The number of arrangements depends upon the total number of objects and the number of objects taken at a time for arrangement. The number of permutations or arrangements is calculated by using the following formula:=    n! n r ! Combination mearns selection or grouping objects without considering their order. The number of combinations is calculated by using the following formula:=    n! n r ! 2. Set Theory:Set theory is a modern mathematical device which solves various types of critical problems. Quantitative Techniques for Business    5 School of Distance Education 3. Matrix Algebra:

The owner of the stationery store wants to estimate the mean retail value of greeting cards that the store has in its inventory. A random sample of 20 greeting cards indicates a mean value of $1.67 and a standard deviation of $.32.

Sample size (s) = 20

Mean (?) = $ 1.67

Standard deviation (?) = $ 0.32

Normal Distribution

A) Assuming a normal distribution, construct a 95% confidence interval estimate of the mean value of all greeting cards in the stores’ inventory.

The confidence interval 95% means that we have to find out the z-score associated to the probability of (1-0.95)/2 = 0.025 and 0.95 + (1-0.95)/2 = 0.975 or 0.025.

The z-value at 0.25 (left) and 0.975 (0.025 right) are respectively -1.96 and 1.96.

Similarly,

Here, standard error of mean is ± 0.14 (x – 1.67 = ± 0.14)

Therefore, for a 95% confidence interval, the mean retail value of greeting cards that the store has in its inventory will be between $1.53 and $1.81.

B) How are the results in (A) useful in assisting the store owner to estimate the total value of her inventory?

From the part (A), the standard error of mean is ± 0.14 (x – 1.67 = ± 0.14). Now the store owner can estimate the approximate total value of her inventory. The store owner can find a range based on the standard error of the mean for approximate maximum and the minimum total value of inventory.

Suppose, the number of greeting cards is 100 than the total value will be most likely in-between $153 and $181.

Statistics

In marketing, quality control and Insurance Statistics Is the most widely used quantitative method In business. It Is concerned with extracting the best possible information from data In order to aid decision making. It Is often applied to sales forecasting, quality control and market research. Data used in business include population censuses, opinion polls, consumer data bases, and sales and demand data.

The role of the Statistician is to determine, for a given question, the type of data that is needed, the way it should be collected and how it should be analyzed in order to best answer that question. Statistics has been described as “the science of learning from data”. This includes everything from planning for the collection of data and subsequent data management to end-of-the- line activities such as drawing inferences from data and presentation of results.

Important skills

In business should have the following skills:

• to be able to express a generally posed question as a statistical question;
• to be familiar with a variety of commonly used techniques and the models underlying them;
• to be familiar with the mathematical underpinning of often-used statistical techniques to the extent of being able to make simple modifications in appropriate situations;
• to be able to use statistical packages to perform relevant calculations;
• to be equipped with a variety of graphical techniques for displaying data;
• to understand the scope and limitations of statistical inference and its proper role in the process of investigation;
• to be able to decide how to obtain a suitable sample of data;
• to be able to think clearly and coherently;
• to be able to work productively as an individual or in cooperation with others;
• to be able to complete assigned tasks on schedule;
• to be able to produce clear and accurate written work.

Describe the procedure for computing frequencies. Frequencies are commonly used for the initial analysis of a data set. Frequencies provide statistics and graphical displays that are useful for describing all different types of variables. The Frequencies procedure can produce such statistics as: frequencies (counts), percentages, cumulative percentages, mean, median, mode, sum, standard deviation, variance, range, minimum and maximum values, standard error of the mean, keenness and kurtosis (both with standard errors), quartiles and percentiles.

It can also produce bar charts, pie charts, and histograms. Basic data analysis provides valuable insights and guides the rest of the data analysis as well as the interpretation of the results. A frequency distribution should be obtained for each variable in the data. The variability of the distribution is described by the range and the variance or standard deviation. The general procedure for hypothesis testing involves eight steps.

Formulate the null and the alternative hypotheses, select an appropriate test statistic, choose the level of significance (a), calculate the value of the test statistic, and determine the probability associated with the test statistic calculated from the sample data under the null hypothesis. Alternatively, determine the critical value associated with the test statistic. Compare the probability associated with the test statistic with the level of significance specified or, alternatively, determine whether the calculated value of the test statistic falls into the ejection or the imperfection region.

Accordingly, make the decision to reject or not reject the null hypothesis, and arrive at a conclusion.

What is the major difference between cross-tabulation and frequency distribution? Cross-tabulation is a statistical technique that describes two or more variables simultaneously and results in tables that reflect the Joint distribution of two or more variables that have a limited number of categories or distinct values.

Frequency distribution is a mathematical distribution with the objective of obtaining a count of he number of responses associated with different values of one variable and to express these counts in percentage terms. The major difference between the two is that a frequency distribution describes one variable at a time, while cross-tabulations describe two or more variables simultaneously.

What is the general rule for computing percentages in cross-tabulation? The general rule is to compute the percentages in the direction of the independent variable, across the dependent variable.

A manager must use reliable information generated through techniques called cost-volume-profit analysis in determining which business prospects to pursue. One must have a clear understanding of cost behaviors before being able to effectively utilize these techniques, otherwise the information provided may be erroneous, and consequently not a good basis for decision making. A common mistake most managers make is treating mixed costs as fixed costs.

Mixed costs are composed of both variable and fixed cost components and should be broken down to such. The techniques commonly used sort these components are the high-low method, the scatter diagram and the least-squares regression analysis (cliffsnotes. com). The high-low method uses the data from the highest and lowest levels activity for the given period and computes for the difference.

The difference in cost divided by the difference in activity units is the variable cost per unit. After obtaining this rate, one can now compute for the fixed cost component by subtracting the total variable cost from the total cost, using either the lowest or highest activity level data. This method is simple to use but may yield an inaccurate answer if there are “a number of rogue data points” (Walther, 2009) since it only utilizes two data points.

The second method is the scatter diagram which consists of plotting all data on a graph, the horizontal and vertical axis representing the activity units and total costs, respectively. A line, called the regression line is then drawn through the points in such a way that equal number of points fall above and below it (Garrison & Noreen, 2000). The point in which the line touches the vertical axis is the fixed cost, while the variable cost rate can be computed by selecting a point in the line and dividing its total cost by its total activity units.

Since this method uses all data available, discrepancies arising out of fortuitous events can be easily identified by the experienced analyst who then makes the adjustment to the regression line (Garrison & Noreen, 2000). However, this method is highly subjective, in that no two analysts are likely to draw the same exact regression line; this method also does not provide for a very accurate amount of fixed costs since it is difficult to ascertain the exact amount where the line touches the vertical axis (Garrison & Noreen).

Least squares regression analysis is the last method. This involves the use of complex manual computations or that of a spreadsheet or statistical program. Either way, the goal of this method is “to define a line so that it fits through a set of points on a graph, where the cumulative sum of the squared distances between the points and the line is minimized,” hence the name (Walther, 2009). Regression analysis provides the intercept (the fixed cost component), the slope (the variable cost rate) and the adjusted R2.

The R2 provides the percentage of the variation in the dependent variable (cost) that is explained by variation in the independent variable activity (activity units); it is a measure of the “goodness of fit” (Garrison & Noreen, 2000) hence the higher this percentage, the better. Of the three methods, it provides the most accurate cost formula but is also the most cumbersome if performed manually. As with any business decision, the choice of which cost estimation technique to employ requires a cost-benefit analysis.

If the cost estimation is to be performed manually, it is suggested that the analyst start with the scatter diagram to get a grasp of the entire behavior of the particular cost and supplement this with the high-low method to get a more accurate amount of the fixed costs. If there are spreadsheet or statistical programs available at a reasonable costs, then the least squares regression analysis should be used since it provides for the most accurate cost formula. These suggestions aim to provide the maximum benefit for the company at the minimum cost.

References: Accounting Principles II: Cost Behavior – CliffsNotes. (n. d. ). Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http://www. cliffsnotes. com/WileyCDA/CliffsReviewTopic/Cost-Behavior. topicArticleId-21248,articleId-21228. html Garrison, R. H. , & Noreen, E. W. (2000). Managerial Accounting Ninth Edition. United States of America: Irwin McGraw-Hill. Walther, L. M. (n. d. ). Cost-volume-profit and business scalability. Retrieved May 1, 2009, from http://www. principlesofaccounting. com/chapter%2018. htm