Theories

In this survey, the research worker discoveries and collects theories about motive and attitudes from many beginnings such as libraries, text editions, alumnus research, theses, Thai and foreign web sites, and diaries. They can be categorized into five classs as follows:

2.1 Background and principle of the Thai topic

2.2 Theory of Motivation

2.3 Theory of Attitude

2.4 Some jobs about larning and learning Thai as L1

2.5 Related research

2.1 Background and principle of the Thai topic

Rattana Lucharit ( 2546 ) indicates that the Thai topic began in the Sukhothai period. It was one of four parts of the instruction system ; larning about ethical motives and virtuousness, larning about physical instruction ( for males merely ) , larning about house-work ( for females ) ; and larning about general cognition. ( some foreign linguistic communications and besides Thai )

The old manner of Thai linguistic communication instruction is non standardized. Even standard text editions were non provided for pupils as learning media. Teachers would make textbooks themselves.

In the Ayutthaya period, King Narai the Great realized the importance of instruction. He ordered Pra-Horatibodee to compose the first Thai text edition called “ Jin Da Ma Nee ” . This text edition was used for larning Thai. Students started with reading pattern, retrieving concluding consonants, and significance of words until they can compose a verse form by themselves. As this text edition brought troubles to pupils in acquisition ; Jin Da Ma Nee was merely used from the Ayutthaya period until the early Rattanakosin period. Suriya Rattanakul ( 2540: 11 ) provinces that ‘Jin Da Ma Nee ‘ is the oldest Thai text edition of Thailand.

After that, many Thai text editions were written to learn Tai pupils. Nowadays, the Thai topic is besides portion of the course of study of the Ministry of Education. Rattana Lucharit ( 2546: 184 ) provinces that the aims of Thai acquisition and instruction are as follows:

– To develop Thai linguistic communication in four accomplishments ; listening, speech production, reading and

authorship.

– To understand the rudimentss of the Thai linguistic communication.

– To utilize the Thai linguistic communication for listening and pass oning accurately.

– To utilize the Thai linguistic communication suitably.

– To carry Thai pupils about reading wonts.

– To utilize the Thai linguistic communication for doing determinations.

– To obtain a good attitude towards the Thai linguistic communication and Thai literature larning in the context of Thai civilization.

Recently, The Ministry of Education realized the importance of the Thai topic, so it announced the Development of Quality in Thai Teaching and Thai Using Scheme. Janjira Parethongkam ( 2549: 342 ) provinces that there are seven policies as follows:

– To develop Thai instruction and acquisition in schools so pupils can to the full larn, both Thai linguistic communication and Thai literature. Furthermore, pupils have good reading/writing wonts, researching new cognition and bettering wisdom that correlates with Thai society and Thai civilization.

– To back up and develop Thai instructors, other staffs, and decision makers recognizing the importance of the Thai topic and besides being a good theoretical account for pupils in utilizing Thai linguistic communication accurately. Consequently, Thai instructors should frequently larn new learning methods.

– The Institute of Thai Teachers ‘ Production chooses people who would wish to construct their calling as Thai instructors, and supports them to go specializer in the Thai linguistic communication. Consequently, they will go a qualified Thai instructor in the hereafter.

– To develop Thai learning AIDSs and other learning media used to assist pupils in their acquisition procedure. Enough instruction AIDSs and media should be widely distributed and their monetary value should be reduced so that more schools will be able to afford teaching resources.

– To back up schoolroom research, Thai instruction and learning invention for planing good-quality instruction and acquisition.

– To give people an chance to larning the Thai linguistic communication and utilize the Thai linguistic communication accurately.

– To collaborate with every parts of society to back up pupils and Thai people. There are four aims as follows:

To develop pupils knowledge of Thai.

To develop the cognition of Thai instructors.

To do instructors recognize the importance of the Thai linguistic communication.

To raise their concern in sustainable development of instruction and larning Thai.

All of the inside informations above illustrate the importance of the Thai linguistic communication. Furthermore, the Ministry of Education continually develops the Thai topic by denoting new strategies sing Thai instruction. In contrast, larning and learning Thai in the course of study and in the schoolroom does non follow the strategy. This might be because Thai instructors, pupils or other decision makers do non recognize the of import of our first linguistic communication plenty.

To study pupils ‘ motive and attitudes towards the Thai topic is the first measure to develop the Thai capable course of study in the hereafter. If this survey can place what are factors act uponing motive and attitudes towards the Thai topic, Thai instructors will so be able to use the research consequences to better their instruction methods.

2.2 Theory of Motivation

Sing the theory of motive, there are some issues refering motive and larning motive that stated as follows:

The definitions of motive.

Learning motive.

Understanding human motive.

Promoting academic motive.

The definitions of motive

Many psychologists and faculty members gave their definitions of motive as follows:

McClelland, Atkinson, Clark, and Lowell ( 1953:28ff cited in Russell, William and Robert, 1984:243 ) say motive may be defined as the “ ruddy integrating of a alteration in affect by a cue. ”

Jones ( 1955: seven cited in Weiner, 1992:2 ) say motive has to make with why behavior gets started, is energized, is sustained, is directed, is stopped, and what sort of subjective reaction is presented in the being when all this is traveling on.

Young ( 1961: 24 cited in Weiner, 1992:1 ) defines the survey of motive loosely as a research for determiners ( all determiners ) of homo and animate being activity.

Frymier ( 1974:6 ) indicates that motive is related to adult male ‘s interior urges and is closely associated with his values. Motivation gives way and strength to adult male ‘s behaviour. It significantly affects his abilities and his accomplishment.

Buck ( 1976:5 ) says that traditionally, motive has been defined as the control of behaviour ; that is, the procedure by which behaviour is activated and directed toward some definable end. The specific nature of the control varies widely harmonizing to the behaviour. Thus the control mechanisms involved in simple physiological reactions, in feeding and imbibing, in fond regard and aggression, and in wonder and geographic expedition, are rather different from one another.

Gardner ( 1985:10 ) says that motive refers to the combination of attempt plus desire to accomplish the end of larning the linguistic communication plus favorable attitudes toward larning the linguistic communication.

William ( 1988:1 ) negotiations about motive in larning that it is a moment-to-moment procedure that must be recognized as such. New penetrations and thoughts that assist instructors in actuating pupils to larn must be continually available, because the ultimate day-to-day duty for pupil motive rests with them. Teachers and school decision makers must consciously endeavor to supply an heightening environment while assisting each pupil learns how to win academically.

Weiner ( 1992:1 ) gives his sentiment that the most across-the-board definition of motive is concern about why human and subhuman beings think and behave as they do.

In decision, the construct of motive is about a mental province or feeling that affects human behaviour. It is what we use when we describe the forces moving on or within an being to originate and direct behaviour. The construct of motive is besides used to explicate differences in the strength of behaviour. More intense behaviours are considered to be the consequence of higher degrees of motive. Additionally, we frequently use the construct of motive to bespeak the way of behaviour. As for this survey, William ‘s construct of motive in acquisition is used for determine pupils ‘ larning motive.

Learning Motivation

Learning motive is based on the thought as Gardner ( 1985: 10 ) mentioned that “ the extent to which the person works or strives to larn the linguistic communication because of a desire to make so and the satisfaction experienced in this activity ” . There are many positions about motive in larning. William ( 1988:2 ) references that “ one time you motivate a pupil, that pupil is set for life ” . In the same manner, one time any given pupil has been motivated to make something, he/she would maintain making that thing for the remainder of their life. Motivation is a daily and moment-to-moment committedness. It requires a assortment of supportive accomplishments and schemes. If pupils are ready to larn, they will. If non, they wo n’t, and cipher can coerce them ( Gardner, 1985:10 ; William,1988:5 ) . Encouraging pupils ‘ involvements and engagement through a supportive attack, sincere concern, and attending can animate pupils ‘ motive.

Furthermore, some efficient ways to actuate pupils is to allow them listen to a talker who can actuate pupils. Durable motive must be more than fugitive efforts to animate pupils. Motivation is best sustained through a reciprocally developed programs and advancement monitoring and rating.

Besides that, William ( 1988:3 ) provinces that “ attitude is 100 per centum of school success ” . Several factors influence school success, including place influence, self-concept, assurance, basic accomplishments, experience infer to things happened in the yesteryear, future aspirations, available aid, sensible opportunity of success given current accomplishment degrees, attending, demands, feelings, and the sensed ability to act upon their fate given their best attempt.

However, there is no charming solution to the job of pupil motive. But if instructors can actuate their pupils, larning will be accomplished. To cognize a pupil ‘s motive, the research worker has to study and observe foremost. Additionally, analyzing and reexamining human motive is the other manner to understand a pupil ‘s motive.

Understanding Human Motivation

Chery ( 1992:4 ; Aree Panmanee 2546: 269 cited in Siripan Suwanchandee 2548:11 ) negotiations about motive in the schoolroom, divided from behaviour, and remarks that many theoreticians and research workers point to two generic types of motive: extrinsic and intrinsic.

Extrinsic motive exists when persons are motivated by an result that is external or functionally unrelated to the activity in which they are engaged. For case, in the context of school, a pupil who works hard on a study because she needs an Angstrom in order to stay eligible to play playground ball, is extrinsically motivated to compose a good study.

Alternatively, intrinsic motive exists when person works with an interior desire to carry through a undertaking successfully, whether it has some external value or non. Peoples who are per se motivated to prosecute in a specific activity do non hold to be enticed into take parting in that activity. Alternatively, they actively seek chances to take part.

These two points are really of import for instructors to understand. They should cognize about the differences between extrinsic and intrinsic motive in order to place and further their pupils ‘ motive in the schoolroom.

Promoting Academic Motivation

Grossnickle Don R. and Thiel William B ( 1988 ) suggest that instructors may make extrinsic motive in order to assist their pupils achieve in acquisition. Some of the undermentioned statements help instructors promote their pupils ‘ motive.

First, is puting a course of study that is concerned with single differences and the basic cognition of pupils. It will assist if they are interested in larning. Second, instructors must larn aims and results that make pupils recognize the utility of survey and back up a good attitude towards larning. This can assist pupils carry through their survey. Third, instructors should offer chances to pupils to take part in be aftering lessons and inquire for pupils ‘ feedback. This may assist promote pupils.

In add-on, the schoolroom environment should be attractive for pupils to larn new things, without force per unit area or restriction of freedom. Teachers should therefore actuate their pupils by utilizing attractive media, an interesting lead to lessons, a new instruction method, or utilizing teaching AIDSs and appropriate text editions.

2.3 Theory of Attitude

There are some points about theory of attitude analyzed for this survey. The research worker collected the chief points and gave inside informations in each instance.

The definitions of attitude

The constituents of attitude

Attitude measuring

Making attitude trials

The definitions of attitude

Many psychologists and academic specializers have defined attitude as follows:

The word “ Attitude ” derives from the Latin word: ‘Aptus ‘ . It means ‘fitness ‘ or ‘adaptedness ‘ ( Kanjana Makpoon, 2548:40 )

Droba ( 1933 ) says that attitude is a mental temperament of the human person to move for or against a definite object.

In the lexicon of psychological science, Warren ( 1934 ) said that attitude is the specific mental temperament toward an entrance or originating experience, whereby that experience is modified ; or, a status of preparedness for a certain type of activity.

Allport ( 1935: 19-20 ) says that attitude is a mental and nervous province of preparedness, organized through experience, exercising a directive or dynamic influence upon the person ‘s response to all objects and state of affairss with which it is related.

Newcomb ( 1954: 128 cited in Wanpen, 2528:29 ) says that attitude is imparting of head with single experience. They are divided into two characters. They are positive attitude and negative attitude.

Guilford ( 1959:223 ) says that attitude is a complicated emotion of people that is expressed in the manner of the recognized or unacceptable, love or detest.

Vroom ( 1964:99 cited in Malinee, 2542:67 ) says that attitude and satisfaction can be used interchangeably, because those words mean the consequences from person to fall in some state of affairss and express positive attitude or negative attitude with it.

Thurstone ( 1967: 20 ) provinces that attitude is the affect for or against a psychological object.

Bem ( 1970: 14 ) says that attitude is like and dislike.

Good ( 1973:48 ) says that attitude is the preparedness to show in whether manner, possibly support or against in some state of affairs with the individual or anything.

Anastasi ( 1990:584 cited in Kanjana Makpoon, 2548:40 ) says that attitude means the reaction with support in similar or unlike such as state, usage, or institutes. It can non see in straight, but it can be inferred from linguistic communication and behaviour

Raweewan Aungkanurakpan ( 2533:12 ) says that attitude is personal inner potency which intend to act in the positive/ negative ways.

Aunchala Satsupap ( 2549:5 ) says that attitude is a belief in something which makes a positive reaction or negative reaction.

In decision, attitude means satisfaction or dissactisfaction of a individual with something or person such as topographic points, people, things, or state of affairss. It can be used to foretell behaviour in the hereafter, because people tend to utilize their attitude when make up one’s minding to show their behaviour. The research worker applies Thurstone ‘s and Bem ‘s attitude definition to this survey because it is accordant with the construct of attitude constituents which is stated in the following issue ( http: //www.blurtit.com/q720160.html, retrieved on 28 March 2008 ; Raweewan Aungkanurakpan, 2533:12-13 ; Wattana Srisatwaja, 2534:26 ) .

The constituents of attitude

Many psychologists, such as Rosenberk, Hovland ( 1960 cited in Theeraporn Uwanno,2535:2 ) Kretch, Prutchfield, and Pallachey ( 1962, cited in Raweewan Aungkanurakpan, 2533:12 ) and Triandis ( 1971 cited in Raweewan Aungkanurakpan, 2533:12 ) , back up the construct that constituents of attitude are three as follows:

1. Cognitive constituent: It is a belief and perceptual experience of a individual towards something in a positive manner and negative manner.

2. Affectional constituent: It is a feeling, emotion and private values that are different in each individual. These make positive attitude or negative attitude.

3. Behavioral constituent: It is a individual ‘s preparedness to react behaviorally to the object.

Harmonizing to this construct, it is believed that based on Plato ‘s construct, viz. human head consists of three constituents: idea, feelings, and conation ( Allport, 1985 cited in Theerapon Uwanno,2535:4 ) .

On the other manus, late, the construct of constituent of attitude which is celebrated back uping by Thurstone ( 1959, Insko 1967, Bem 1970, Fishbein & A ; Ajzen 1975 cited in Raweewan Aungkanurakpan, 2533:13 ) province that attitude has merely one constituent like or dislike feelings towards psychological objects. The research worker applies this construct to this survey because many societal psychologists believe that it is the most of import portion of attitude which can take to understand and predict homo ‘s behaviours and they define the attitude definition as the affectional constituent ( Theerawut Akakul, 2549:8 ) .

Attitude Measurement

Subin Yurarat ( hypertext transfer protocol: //www.student.chula.ac.th/~43846691/attitudetheory

.doc: parity 50, retrieved on 25 Feb. 2007 ) observes that there are many ways to mensurate attitude. Each manner is developed by many psychologists. Some ways of mensurating attitude are as follows:

At the beginning, observation is one manner to mensurate an attitude. It uses ears and eyes to detect another individual ‘s behaviour towards something, and to roll up that primary informations for analysis. It is divided into two types: direct observation and indirect observation ( Raweewan Aungkanurakpan, 2533: 17-18 ) . The consequences can bespeak a individual ‘s attitude.

Furthermore, interview is besides an attitude measuring, where the interviewer should fix the inquiries before get downing the interview to acquire the clearest information. In some instances, nevertheless, we may non acquire the existent information. Therefore, interview should partially used as attitude measuring, along with other methods.

Furthermore, there are some other ways to mensurating attitude. Self-reporting is ever designed in graduated tables such as Thurstone scales, Lickert scales, Osgood graduated tables, Bogardus scales, Guttman scales, and the smiling faces graduated tables. As a projective technique, it is attitude measuring that participant have to give sentiment about images they see. Likewise, making psychological undertakings can besides mensurate attitude. Social psychologists believe that human behaviour originates from attitudes or feelings in each individual.

The last 1 is the physical reactions of worlds, such as reactions to electric daze, look intoing bosom round per minute, and iris expansion. The societal psychologists say survey consequences indicate the relationship between strength or appendage of attitude and physical reaction. They do non speak about good or bad attitude.

Those methods are non recommended as the best manner to mensurate attitude, as it depends on the aim of what is being measured and what consequences you seek. For the method that the research worker uses in this survey is the observation, interviewings and self-reporting.

Making attitude trial

Jittraporn ‘s survey ( 2543:38 and Theerawut Akakul, 2549:56 ) refers to making a Likert scale attitude trial as follows:

– Considering whose attitude the research worker wants to mensurate, towards what, and clearly gives the definition of attitude and the aims what the research worker wants to mensurate.

– Composing the obvious sentence structure covered in each point. The inquiries must inquire about respondents ‘ feelings or beliefs. Likert ( 1967: 90 ) suggests the building a questionnaire should be as follows:

In the paragraph, it is non a fact, but it is written in the footings of feelings or purpose to make something.

In the paragraph, to set both positive and negative statements every bit.

In each point, it should be clear, short and easy to understand.

So the creative activity of an instrumental attitude trial, all of the inside informations above should be considered. This instrument will be efficient and can be used in a existent state of affairs.

For this survey, the research worker adopts those methods to make a questionnaire for mensurating attitude and motive.

2.4 Some jobs about larning and learning Thai as L1

Jantarat Anansantiporn ( 2548 ) and Amara Prasitrattasin ( 2548 ) province that Thai is a linguistic communication which we use to pass on in day-to-day life, but people are non really interested in it. There are some jobs about larning and learning Thai divided into three chief points. The first is Thai instructors ‘ jobs, the 2nd 1 is pupils ‘ jobs, and the last is involved in learning AIDSs.

Mentioning to Thai instructors ‘ attitude job, Thai instructors do non hold adequate support from decision makers, such as a opportunity to analyze abroad. It makes Thai instructors less enthusiastic, due to the fact that they do non see hereafter in their calling. Sometimes the personality/appearance of Thai instructors besides looks uncomfortable or uneasy.

Actually, instructors think that good instruction is to assist pupils to go through the test. They do non learn the pupils to use their cognition to utilize in the existent state of affairss. Particularly, the memorizing method is frequently used. From my experience, the pupils are bored and the instructors are besides bored to learn, in every bit much as many Thai instructors at each school have a heavy work load. Therefore, they are non motivated to develop their instruction accomplishments or new learning methods and this reduced their instruction quality.

Tai instructors believes being a Thai instructor is non interesting for pupils, so it makes them less motivated in giving their attempt in learning. Some instructors besides lack Thai instruction accomplishments. Students, hence, may hold less regard for instructors. Some of instructors ddo non pattern truth in Thai plenty, but they have to learn Thai. They think anyone can learn Thai. Other instructors do non collaborate with Thai instructors when their pupils use Thai falsely. They ever think it is Thai instructor ‘s responsibility to learn pupils how to utilize Thai accurately. Not merely Thai instructors, but in fact all instructors should remind and rectify when their pupils use Thai falsely.

Additionally, some Thai instructors have been learning for a long clip and do non desire to develop their accomplishments. Rangsan Klinkaew ( 2550: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.perfs pot.com/blog.asp? id=23CAA779-0ADF-4B2B-9D7D-BB3036156D6 & A ; BlogId=28732, retrieved on 29 March 2008 ) states that instructors who use the same method, makes pupils bored.

Furthermore, instructors do non back up pupils in researching their sentiments, are unfriendly, and are excessively much reliant upon the regulations since they themselves lack experience and cognition in learning Thai. Besides, single differences of pupils are non taken into history. For illustration, smart pupils can be bored and weaker pupils may non maintain up with others.

Besides, learning Thai is non unvarying, for illustration, teacher A Teachs Thai linguistic communication accomplishments and instructor B teaches Thai literature. In add-on, in learning Thai use, Thai instructors do non promote pupils to pattern all four accomplishments.

In footings of the testing frequence: Teachers frequently test at the terminal of school twelvemonth or semester. This does non uncover the existent proficiency of pupils.

The 2nd issue about pupils ‘ job, in the article of Panthanee Vihokto ( 2538 ) about learning and larning Thai jobs, indicates that pupils have a bad attitude towards the Thai topic. They do non hold duty. They do non hold involvement in larning Thai, nor do they recognize its importance as they think it is their female parent lingua. They do non believe it is necessary to larn because they can automatically use/speak Thai. Consequently, they focus on other topics such as Mathematicss, Science, or Foreign linguistic communications.

In fact the Daily News ( 2550,12 November:20 ) points out that pupils ‘ deficiency Thai linguistic communication accomplishments, particularly composing. Possibly this is because they do n’t frequently utilize and pattern it or they use it merely merely when they study at school. Cipher encourages them to rectify their errors. When they say something incorrect, instructors frequently blame or knock, but do non butencourage them. Furthermore, pupils who come from a rural country and usage idiom find that analyzing linguistic communication requires attempts. Therefore, they feel that the Thai topic is excessively hard. Although they work hard on larning Thai, their consequences are still worse than those of other topics. These consequences in pupils being bored, lack inspiration, and disregard the Thai topic.

One of the solutions for the job is utilizing learning AIDSs. It is a tool that helps instructors to learn in a more effectual manner. However, there are besides some jobs with learning AIDSs which are summarized as follows:

Jantarat Anansantiporn ( 2548 ) surveies about pupils ‘ satisfaction of larning Thai. She states that Thai instructors do n’t utilize learning AIDSs decently. Though they are necessary, it is adequate if they have a chalkboard and chalk. When they can non utilize, or do non cognize how to use, learning AIDSs, they merely work out this job by non utilizing them. They think that Thai learning AIDSs are non interesting compared with learning AIDSs of other topics ; for case, a research lab is more interesting than word cards because pupils can use their hearing and composing accomplishments at the same clip.

In fact, in wider society, the information is an importance portion of believing procedure. Many resources, for case, cyberspace, e-books, ocular stuffs ; are prompts for instructors, but so instructors gain the information merely from text editions ( Department of Curriculum and Development: 104 ) .

Apart from the jobs already given, there are some general jobs, for case, the deficiency of learning AIDSs ( Thaipost 2007, 27 July: hypertext transfer protocol: //www.drkalaya. com/education.php? newsid=579, retrieved on 30 March 2008 ; Pantanee Vihokto 2538 ) , the deficiency of pupil suites, noise, deficiency of support by decision makers, and decision makers do non back up outside instruction, because they will hold to react to more undertakings. These jobs hamper efficient instruction.

2.5 Related Research

To analyze pupils ‘ motive and attitude towards the Thai topic, the research worker reviewed related research which supports and proves the theory of motive and attitude. They are as follows:

About larning attitude and motive, Rugsiri Sithdichoke ( 2531 ) studied the Relationship Between Attitude Towards Thai Subject and Achievement in Learning Thai Subject of Students in The Colleges of Physical Education. The intent of this research is to analyze attitude towards the Thai topic of pupils in the colleges of physical instruction and to analyze the relationship between attitude towards the Thai topic and accomplishment in larning the Thai topic of pupils in the colleges of physical instruction. The sample group consisted of 530 pupils, used bunch random trying from the colleges of physical instruction. The questionnaires about Attitude towards Thai Subject Test, Thai Grammar Test, and Thai Literature Test are the instruments. The consequences show that the pupils in the colleges of physical instruction had positive attitudes towards Thai Subject.

Furthermore, Rattana Thinklao ( 2533 ) surveies of Thai instructors ‘ instruction behaviours, attitudes towards supervising, and the academic accomplishment of the pupils instructed by the instructor who were supervised in equal clinical and peer concentional supervising in Cholburi secondary school. The sample group is 18 Thai instructors and 564 pupils from Matthayom Suksa 3, divided into 2 groups: an experimental group ( 9 Thai instructors and 290 pupils ) and a control group ( 9 Thai instructors and 274 pupils ) .The instrumental research is by questionnaire and observation. The consequences show that Thai instructors ‘ behaviour in the experiment group has higher than the control group. Students ‘ accomplishments in experiment group and control group had no difference.

In add-on, Khachornsri Jatikananda ( 2533 ) surveies of the relationship between larning accomplishment and attitudes towards the methods of learning Thai linguistic communication of Matthayom Suksa 2 pupils through mini-course and the instructor ‘s manual of the educational techniques section. The sample group is 80 pupils at the secondary presentation school of Srinakaharinwirot University in Bangkok, is divided into two groups of 40 pupils each. The experimental group is taught by mini-course and the control group is taught by utilizing instructor ‘s manual. The consequence shows that the experimental group has higher larning accomplishment than the control group but the attitude of pupils between the experimental group and the control group are non different.

Besides, Jittraporn Duangjumpol ( 2543 ) surveies the effects of utilizing reading workshop direction procedure on Thai linguistic communication reading comprehension ability and attitudes towards reading Thai linguistic communication of Mathayom Suksa two pupils in Bangkok Metropolis. The sample group is pupils in Matthayom 2, Prakanoung Pithayalai school and they are divided into two groups. One group used the normal method, and another group used the reading workshop direction procedure. The consequences show that pupils who are taught by utilizing the reading workshop direction procedure have a good attitude and accomplish higher mark than pupils who are taught by utilizing the normal method.

Similarly, Patamathida Najaikong ( 2544 ) surveies about the effects of the mind-mapping and self-regulation on attitudes and Thai linguistic communication larning accomplishment of Mathayom Suksa 1 pupils. The sample group is 60 pupils in Matthayom Suksa 1, Borployratchadapisek school, was indiscriminately divided into four groups. Each group consists of 15 pupils. Group 1 is assigned to pattern utilizing head function technique. Group 2 is assigned to pattern utilizing self-regulation. Group 3 is assigned to pattern both of head function technique and self-regulation. Group 4 surveies in normal method. The consequences show that pupils who pattern utilizing the head function technique and self-regulation have a good attitude towards Thai topic. Furthermore, their tonss are besides higher than pupils who are taught the normal method. As for larning motive, Chonthon Ruamtham ( 2533 ) surveies Matthayom Suksa 2 pupil ‘s Thai linguistic communication accomplishment and motive the direction based on reply hunting activities and instructor ‘s manual activities. The sample group consists of 100 Buddhajak Wittaya school pupils who are every bit divided into two groups. The same content is taught to both groups for 16 periods of 50 proceedingss. The research design of the experiment is the pretest-posttest design. The consequence shows that the academic accomplishment of the experimental group is higher than the controlled group, but the learning motives in Thai linguistic communication of the two groups are non different.

Then, Kanchana Makpoon ( 2548 ) surveies the effects of direction utilizing the plot line method on Thai linguistic communication larning accomplishment and attitude towards direction of Mathayom Suksa 2 pupils. The sample group consists of pupils in Mathayom Suksa 2, Cholburee Sukkhaboj school, is divided into two groups. Experimental group one consists of 47 pupils utilizing plot line and experimental group two consists of 47 pupils, utilizing the normal method. The consequences show that experimental group one, utilizing the plot line method have a good attitude and accomplish higher acquisition accomplishment than group two.

Similarly, foreign research about larning attitude is studied by Colin Baker ( 1992 ) . He studied the attitude of the Welsh towards their linguistic communication. He compared his research over the old two old ages. The sample group is 11-14 old ages old pupils who studied in secondary school degree 1, 2 and 3. In another research, sample group is 13-16 old ages old pupils who studied in secondary school, degree 4, 5 and 6. The consequence shows that male ‘s positive attitude was somewhat lower than that of their female opposite numbers.

Some research about larning motive are studied by Noppadol Buasai ( 2545 ) and Anchala Satsuphap ( 2549 ) . They besides study a comparing of Matthayom Suksa 1 and 3 pupils ‘ reading public presentation and motive in larning Thai by utilizing sketch lesson programme and the instructor ‘s manual. In the survey by Noppadol, he uses 80 pupils from Pasanusorn Bangkhae school as the sample group. Likewise, Anchala Satsuphap, uses 96 pupils from Matthayom Suksa 3 Srivikorn school. Each research besides divided into two groups: an experimental group, and a controlled group. Cartoon lessons are used to learn the experimental group, whereas instructors ‘ manual is used to learn the other 1. The consequence of Noppadol and Anchala shows that the ability of reading public presentation and motive in larning Thai between the experimental group and the control group are different, that is, pupils ‘ ability of reading and motive in larning Thai in the experimental group is higher than the control group.

Unless larning attitudes and motive, the surveies about Thai instruction and acquisition jobs are studied by Watcharee Srikham ( 2535 ) . She surveies jobs and learning demands of Thai III instructors. The sample group dwelling of 60 Thai instructors from Vocational and Technical College in four parts of Thailand is classified by learning experiences. The consequence shows that Thai instructors need the instruction techniques and supervising at the high degree. The same as Srichan Wichatong ( 2542 ) surveies on the analysis of Rajabhat Phranakhon pupils ‘ mistakes. The sample group consists of 1152 pupils who register in the Thai Usage class 1540201. They are assigned to compose the essay within 60 proceedingss. The consequence shows that pupils ‘ mistakes, harmonizing to the frequence of happening, are spelling, words use, word order, pauses, punctuation, the usage of etc. , abbreviations and figures.

These are the related research on motive and attitude of pupils towards linguistic communication acquisition. However, cipher has researched the motive and attitudes of pupils towards the Thai topic. Therefore, the research worker thinks that my survey will be the first measure to assist instructors and decision makers develop and better the Thai capable course of study in the hereafter.

The Vroom Expectancy Theory of Motivation The Vroom Expectancy Theory is “based on the premise that telt needs cause human behavior” and that motivation strength depends on an Individual’s degree of desire to perform a behavior (Certo ; certo, 2008). As an Individual recognizes a need, they will more than likely employ an action to satisfy that need. The motivational strength will also fluctuate correspondingly with their desire. If the desire Increases, so will the motivation.

The opposite Is true as well. In equation form, motivation strength equals the perceived result value of performing behavior multiplied by the perceived robability that the result will actually materialize (Certo ; Certo, 2008). For example, consider anovice stockbroker in training who was has been given a one-month probationary period to earn a position and make $500 commission from any successful trades. Assuming they really want the Job. the motivation strength. r desire would be calculated as their perception of the value of that position with the bonus in relation to their perception of the probability that they can successfully trade during the trial. As the stockbroker’s perceived value of the two rewards and erceived probability that they would be able to achieve increases, their motivation strength to obtain those rewards will also increase. To put it briefly, the key to the Vroom expectancy Expectancy tTheory is whether the individual perceives a positive relationship between ettort, performance, and reward.

The advantages and Ilmltatlons of the vroom Expectancy Theory can be expressed as follows (Expectancy Theory of Motivation): Advantages of the Expectancy Theory It Is based on self-interest individuals who want to achieve maximum satisfaction and who want to minimize dissatisfaction. ? This theory stresses upon the expectations and perception; what Is real and actual Is Immaterial. It emphasizes on rewards or pay-offs. It focuses on psychological extravagance where final objective of Individual is to attain maximum pleasure and least pain.

Limitations of the Expectancy Theory The expectancy theory seems to be idealistic because quite a few individuals perceive high degree correlation between performance and rewards. The application of this theory is limited. as reward is not directly correlated with performance In many organizations. It is related to other parameters also such as osition, effort, responsibility, education, etc. lnA Question of Motivationcase study, the Vroom Expectancy Theory relates to both workers.

The theory suggests that individuals can be motivated if they believe that there is a positive correlation between efforts, performance, and rewards (Expectancy Theory of Motivation). In the case of Alex, he is not motivated at all to perform his duties assigned by Dan due to the lack ot rewards received tor his efforts. He sarcastically stated,”l don’t even care anymore. what’s the point? If I stock more apples, or something meaningless like that, hat does It get me-another sucker that says ‘good Job? HIS performance and efforts does not have a positive Impact on the correlation to his rewards, which decreases his motivation strength. Stephanie on the other hand has a different relationship with her boss Jonathon and appears very motivated by the reward he will offer for Stephanie illustrated her enthusiasm by saying “lif I sell the oil Jonathon said that he’ll give me a $75 bonus,. Sso I’m definitely going to give it a shot. ” Her motivation strength is determined by her perception of the $75 bonus and probability that she can sell the oil to receive that reward.

As her perceived value of the $75 reward and perceived probability that she can successfully sell the oil increases, her motivation strength to sell 10 bottles of truffle oil next week also increases. In both situations, the Vroom Expectancy Theory illustrates how it “is all about the attractiveness or appeal of the potential reward to the individual”(Expectancy Theory of Motivation). Antoine, I think this is a great paper, however, the first two pages you are giving us a lot of information on what Vroom Theory is and not a lot of how it relates to the case study… again, it is a great paper though :

Game theory is a concept of decision making that considers more elements beyond just benefits minus costs. Specifically, it includes the interaction between participants. In economics, the theory attempts to predict the participants’ optimal decisions. It has found a core place in economic decision-making and policy-making for its inherent ability to predict reactions in resource allocation, business negotiation, and other economic aspects. Game theory is mostly associated with decision-theory and other contexts such as cooperation and negotiations.

From its function, it is evident that the game theory is largely used in the study of the human decision making processes. In psychology, its equivalent is known as the theory of social situations. In economics, however, game theory tends to focus on sets of outcomes known as equilibrium that represent the most rational solutions to each situation. Game theory emanates from the complexity of human interactions; thus, in a situation where an individual is dealing with an inanimate object such as a tree, he or she does not expect the tree to fight back or respond (Layton-Brown and Sham 51).

The environment can also be considered neutral to what is done to the tree, at least in direct and rational response. In human interactions, however, each action by an actor emanates from a situation and elicits a response. Each actor must thus recognize how his of her interaction with other rational actors works so as to foster cooperation and stem conflict. Every game is primarily dependent on a core strategic interdependence. Strategic interdependence is defined by two major types, namely simultaneous and sequential ones.

In simultaneous strategy, the players act at the same time or at different times UT without perfect knowledge-essentially what the other players are doing. In the latter strategy, however, the players move in sequence, with knowledge of all the past actions by the other players. Sequential-strategy games allow each player to review the past moves and rationalize his next move with more information (Osborne 30). He or she can also use that information to anticipate the responses to his or her move as well as how he or she will have to respond after that.

In practice, this information comes together during the process to select the best solution as each player must IEEE the board from several different angles, including how the other player views all his or her moves. Sequence-strategy games are different as they are based on a logical circle. Although either player in the Prisoner’s Dilemma, for example, is unaware of the other’s actions and vice versa, he or she knows that the other prisoner has been presented with the same choices in the same situation. The game is thus a logical circle that requires the individual actor to review his position without sufficient information.

A game in strategic form possesses no temporal component. Instead, each player must choose his or her strategy without knowing the other players choice or move. As a matter of fact, this is the central tenet of the Prisoner’s Dilemma. In a game with accurate information, however, there are no simultaneous moves as each player moves at a time. Where the game is in extensive form, each player is at any particular point during play also aware of all the previous choices of commitment game tree as represented below. Figure 1: Quality choice with commitment game tree Any player a move makes is represented above as the next node.

The tree starts at the root and ends at the terminal node where players’ playoffs can be determined. In the example above, Player I is the service provider who makes the first move by choosing to provide either high or low quality service. Player II is the customer who is then aware of that choice and can thus whether buy or not buy in either case (Osborne 70). The payoffs can then be determined by the choice made. The backward induction technique is best suited to fully analyze such extensive games with perfect information since the players and thus the nodes move in sequence.

Thus, one only needs consider the last possible choice. In the game tree, Player I makes his decision with the rational knowledge of what Player II might choose. The ideal solution is hence one where the service provider offers high-quality service and Player II buys it. The complication that emanates from the use of backward induction technique emanates when/if one player is indifferent to some more than one move at a single node. The complexity makes rational prediction less accurate and means that instead of Player Xi’s decision affecting Player Sis’s choices, the reverse happens.

Backward induction, however, defines the extent of the game by defining the complete plan for each player as it works from root of the tree to the outcome, providing a step-by-step overview of what should be done and when (Giants 89). A critical point in the development of game theory was John Anna’s demonstration in 1950 that all finite games have an equilibrium point (Pyongyang 105). At this optimal point, each player must make decisions that are best for them while considering their opponents choices. The example best given for this is the prisoners’ dilemma.

In the analogy, the decision of either broker has implications that are dependent on what the other person chooses. In the scenario, the authorities arrest two fraudsters and take them to different interrogation rooms. They offer them an incentive, that each will have their prison sentence reduced if they betray the other. In practice, this places each prisoner in a dilemma where the only choices are to cooperate or defect. The payoff in this case is a reduction in the years to be spent in prison. The most significant element in this game is that it is a non-zero-sum game where both players eave imperfect information.

In this context, neither player knows what the other will do until both of them have made their moves. The prisoner’s dilemma illustrates the conundrum that multiple agents have in a game. According to single-agent decision theory, all that one has to do is to assess the choices and determine the optimal strategy. The theory encourages the agent to improve and maximize his or her payoff in the environment. In essence, this analogy is used in political theory and economic contexts such as union negotiations where collective bargaining is the strategy of hospice.

In multiple agent contexts, the game theory normally arrives to three major outcomes: Nash equilibrium Parent optimality Dominant strategy equilibrium In game theory, the Nash equilibrium is an example of a non-cooperative game that defines a strategy for each player that that player cannot improve upon alone. Since recommendation. To illustrate the Nash equilibrium, it is necessary to consider the example below that shows two companies selling items at the price of one, two, or three per item. Items B p=l p=2 p=3 Items A 40,-20 -10,50 20,20 90,10 -20,40 10,90 50,50

The payoffs for such companies are profits which are determined by subtracting costs of all kinds from the price of each (Harrington 92). The rationale is that the company that sells them at the least price gets more customers than the other, and thus, given the economies of scale, more profits. From p=3, it is clear that either competitor can benefit from reducing their price even if the other players does nothing. Specifically, this is an example of a situation that is not Nash equilibrium. In B (p=2)/A (p=3), A charges $3 and B charges $2.

A can benefit from cutting its price to 1, a price strategy that can be applied across the board except for the upper left corner where both companies have a non-Nash equilibrium. In mixed strategy games, the payoff should be the average of that that can be obtained through all the other strategies. German economist Reinhardt Selene refined the Nash equilibrium to include the small probability that either or both players have trembling hands (Layton-Brown and Sham 60). Essentially, a tremble’ is an n error in Judgment or reason.

In particular, this refinement is applied in macroeconomic theory to account or the protection of one player from another mistake. Parent optimality is the situation in a game where no player can be made better off without making another player worse off. In resource allocation, this is known as Parent efficiency if it is not possible to allocate resources in such a way that making some people better off will not cost others. The assumption is that there is a defined number of goods in a society. Where there is only one good then each allocation becomes Parent efficient.

However, where there are two people and two goods the rationale is more difficult to e unless each prefers either of the goods. It is important to note that every game has a Parent optimal profile in at least one context. In economics, specifically business contexts, Parent efficiency is where one party makes profit at the expense of the other. At Parent optimum, the economic efficiency is the point where no one can make more profit at the expense of the other (Osborne 30). The exchange or reallocation will therefore not harm the other party. These conditions would hold if the economy had perfect competition with no externalities.

In fact, this makes it hard o apply it in real-life economic policymaking because of the presence of externalities. In Nash equilibrium, a player’s best choice is dependent on whether the other players keep to their stipulated strategies (Pyongyang 59). However, there are some situations when there is a dominant strategy such that a player’s best choice is the same no matter what the others do. The antonym of this is the dominated strategy-a uniformly bad choice for each player. In economic policymaking, dominant strategy makes it easier to decide on resource allocation and other such policies by seeking the dominant strategy.

Unlike other equilibrium and contexts, the dominant Specifically, this consideration makes it such that selecting the good does not affect and is not itself affected by the choices of other players. As discussed in preceding sections, selecting the best strategy is often a rational process that requires information and observation of what the other player might do. A significant concept in game theory is that it might be in the player’s interest to place him in a situation where he will have less freedom of action in future.

When Polaroid Corporation’s monopoly on the instant photography market was threatened by Kodak, for example, Polaroid decided not to diversify to fill in the gap (Osborne 20). Instead, it fought to maintain its monopoly, dragging Kodak through a fourteen year billion-dollar lawsuit. In conclusion, the application of game theory in economics is wide and varied. It covers many aspects related to economic decision making and resource allocation. In practice, the theoretical tenets of assessing how one player’s moves affects and is affected by those of others makes it possible to effectively select the best choice in ACH situation.

The four tenets of game theory are thus competition, conflict, cooperation, and interdependence. These form the foundation of game theory where players have to employ rational thinking and strategy under specified rules to arrive to a conclusion. Non-zero-sum games and other many agent contexts where cooperation is the most effective solution are the most used to study economic behavior. Works Cited Giants, Herbert. Game Theory Evolving: A Problem-centered Introduction to Modeling Strategic Behavior. Princeton: Princeton University Press, 2000. Print.

In this essay I intend to analyse the attachment theory of well-known British psychiatrist Dr John Bowlby. I will examine both the primary and secondary research behind the theory and look at some of the arguments against it before going on to explore the impact Bowlby’s research has had on the early years setting. Edward John Mostyn Bowlby was born in London on February 26th 1907 to a fairly upper-middle class family. His parents were of the belief that too much parental affection would in fact spoil a child and therefore spent very little time with him, as little as one hour per day.

His primary care-giver was the family nanny until, when he was four years old, the nanny left. Bowlby later described this as being: “as tragic as the loss of a mother” (www. mentalhelp. net/poc/view_doc. php? type=doc;id=10104;cn=28) He was then sent away to boarding school at the age of seven. It is therefore entirely comprehensible that he became increasingly sensitive to children’s suffering and how it appeared to be connected to their future mental health. Bowlby began his study at Trinity College Cambridge where he studied psychology.

He excelled academically and spent time working with delinquent children. He then went on to study medicine at University College Hospital and enrolled in the Institute of Psychoanalysis. Upon his graduation he began working at Maudesley Hospital as a psychoanalyst. It was while studying medicine that he volunteered in a children’s residential home and began to develop his interest in children who appeared to him to be emotionally disturbed. While working in the residential home he encountered two particular children who intrigued him.

The first of these was a very isolated, affectionless teenager who had no permanent, stable mother figure and the second was a young boy of seven or eight who followed Bowlby around constantly. This led him to speculate that there was a possible link between a child’s mental health problems and their early childhood experiences. It was generally believed by many early theorists that the need to make a bond with a mother or mother substitute was part of our ‘biological inheritance’ and Bowlby’s experience and observations lead him to whole-heartedly agree.

The resulting body of work and research carried out by Bowlby became known as the attachment theory. It was his firm belief that babies are ‘biologically programmed’ to be dependant on their mother. He went so far as to say that there was a ‘critical period’ in a child’s life from birth to age three where the child would be irreparably damaged psychologically by a prolonged absence from the mother. He referred to this absence as ‘maternal deprivation’. He wrote in his book, first published in 1953; Prolonged breaks (in the mother-child relationship) during the first three years of life leave a characteristic impression on the child’s personality. Such children appear emotionally withdrawn and isolated and consequently have no friendships worth the name” (pg 39, Bowlby J. Child Care and the Growth of Love, 1974) While working at the Child Guidance Clinic in London in the 30s and 40s Bowlby began to suspect that not only was a child’s mental health affected by the lack of bond with their mother but there may well be a correlation between delinquent behaviour in children and ‘maternal deprivation’.

This led him to carry out his own study between 1936 and 1939 to try and prove this to be the case. The resulting scientific paper was published in 1946 and entitled 44 Juvenile Thieves. The study involved Bowlby selecting 88 children from the clinic. Of this group of children 44 had been referred to him for theft and 44 had been referred due to emotional problems. Half the children in each group were aged between five and eleven years of age and the other half were between twelve and sixteen. There were thirty-one boys and thirteen girls in the first group and thirty-four boys and ten girls in the second.

The two groups were roughly matched for age and IQ. On arrival at the clinic, each child had their IQ tested by a psychologist and at the same time a parent was interviewed by a social worker to establish and record details of the child’s early life. Bowlby, the psychiatrist at the clinic, then conducted an initial interview with the child and parent. The 3 professionals then met to compare notes. Bowlby then went on to conduct a series of further interviews with the child and/or parent over the next few onths to gather more in-depth information about the history of the child, specifically in their early years. Bowlby considered his findings to be entirely conclusive. Of the 44 thieves Bowlby diagnosed 32% as ‘affectionless psychopaths’. He described this condition as involving a lack of emotional development in the children, leading to a lack of concern for others, a lack of guilt and an inability to form meaningful and/or lasting relationships. Bowlby concluded that this condition was the precise reason why these children were capable of stealing.

His speculation was further strengthened when he discovered that 86% of the children with affectionless psychopathy had experienced a long period of maternal deprivation in the first five years of their lives. They had spent the majority of their early years either in institutions or in hospital with little or no visitation from their parents. Interviews also showed that the majority of these children had been undemonstrative and unresponsive since approximately two years of age. Only 17% of the thieves who were not diagnosed as affectionless psychopaths had experienced maternal deprivation in the early years.

Of the second group not one child proved to be affectionless and only two of them had experienced prolonged maternal separation. Bowlby concluded in the resulting paper; “There is a very strong case indeed for believing that prolonged separation of a child from his mother (or mother substitute) during the first five years of life stands foremost among the causes of delinquent character development” [Bowlby J. pg 41] Many have however argued that Bowlby’s findings were not reliable. It has been suggested that as the study was carried out retrospectively this may have tainted the results.

It is possible that the parents or the children had not recalled events accurately or indeed that they had not responded truthfully to questioning in order to put themselves in a better light. Michael Rutter suggested in 1981 that some of the children in the study had never had a mother figure at all so their delinquency was not due to maternal deprivation but rather to ‘privation’ of any sort of loving attachment. Bowlby looked at research done by others which could support his own findings. He examined both animal studies done by Hinde and Harlow and Lorenz as well as child studies.

He noted in particular the work of Rene Spitz and Katharine Wolf. Spitz and Wolf had observed 123 babies during the first few years of their lives while they were being looked after by their own mothers who were in prison. When the babies were between 6-8 months old their mothers were moved elsewhere within the prison for a period of three months and the babies were cared for by others inmates. Spitz and Wolf noted that the babies lost their appetite, cried more often and failed to thrive during this period of separation. Once the babies were returned to their mothers their behaviour returned to what it had been previous to the separation.

These results certainly appeared to support Bowlby’s hypothesis however others disagreed. In Czechoslovakia in 1972 Koluchova wrote of twin boys who had suffered extreme deprivation. Their mother had died soon after the boys were born and their father struggled to cope on his own. At eleven months of age the boys were taken into care and were considered to be normal, healthy children. A few months later their father remarried and at the age of eighteen months the twins returned to their fathers care. Unfortunately the father worked away from home a great deal and their step-mother treated the boys horribly.

They were beaten, given very little food, made to sleep on a plastic sheet on the floor and sometimes locked away in the cellar. This continued for five and a half years and when the boys were examined at the age of seven they were found to be severely mentally and physically retarded. The twins were hospitalised until they were able to be placed in a special school for mentally disturbed children. They coped well with their schooling and went on to be fostered by a very affectionate, kind lady and in her care they blossomed.

By the age of 15 the boys IQ was normal for their age and their emotional health had improved immensely. Koluchova’s work would appear to demonstrate that it is in fact possible for a child to recover from maternal deprivation in their early years if they are given the love, support and security required later in their childhood and that the results of maternal deprivation need not be permanent. Schaffer and Emerson also disputed Bowlby’s findings and argued that, although an infant needed to form a bond, children could form multiple attachments and they could benefit greatly from the attention of the extended family.

They performed a study in Glasgow in 1964 where they observed 60 children from birth – eighteen months. They met with the mothers once a month and interviewed them to ascertain who the infant was smiling at, who they responded to etc. They found that many of the infants were forming numerous attachments. Twenty of the children studied were not attached to their mothers but to another adult, in some cases the father and in others another family member or even a neighbour. Schaffer states; “There is, we must conclude, nothing to indicate any biological need for an exclusive primary bond” [Davenport G.

C. pg 38] In 1950 the World Health Organisation, who had been following Bowlby’s work closely, commissioned him to write a report on the mental health of homeless children in post-war Europe. While researching the report Bowlby visited several countries and met with many childcare professionals and experts giving him the opportunity to look further into his theory on attachment and the importance of a strong bond between mother and child. His findings supported his thinking entirely and the report was written in six months and published in 1951, entitled Maternal Care and Mental Health.

Bowlby went on to publish further papers and books and his findings and research on attachment and the mother child bond has had a profound impact on childcare in general and that of the early years setting. As Juliet Mickleburgh states in her article Attachment Theory and the Key Person Approach “Bowlby’s research is recognised as the foundation for our understanding of the centrality of making secure attachments in infancy. ” [Juliet Mickleburgh, www. eyfs. info] There have been numerous changes to childcare practice since the 1940s and Bowlby’s influence must be acknowledged.

It can be no coincidence that ‘family allowance’ was introduced in 1946 in the UK, the same year 44 Juvenile Thieves was published, making it affordable for mothers to stay at home with their children. Bowlby made a plea for reforms in the care of young children in hospital and advocated ‘rooming in’ where the baby stays with mother from birth in the maternity ward. Although some children’s hospitals were already extending visitation rights of parents many more followed their lead after the publication of Bowlby’s W. H. O report, ensuring that the mother/child bond remained as strong as possible.

In the early years setting we have witnessed the implementation of the ‘Key Person Approach’ pioneered by Elinor Goldschmied. This approach recognises that an infant will be comforted by a secure relationship with one specific adult. We can now see this in practice in the nursery, each child has their own ‘Key Worker’ who has the duty of monitoring the child’s needs and development. This approach also accepts the need for parents and early years practitioners to work together rather than independently and the key worker regularly liaises with the parents regarding their child.

Parents are also encouraged to become actively involved with the life of the nursery and to work in partnership with the nursery staff to provide their child with a positive, stable and stimulating learning environment. In my view as a parent and an early years practitioner I believe that Bowlby’s research has benefitted both children and families immensely. As a mother I feel that society supports my right to be at home with my children until they go to school and that I am the child’s most vital resource in their early years, not only for nourishment but for their emotional development.

To echo the words of John Major, Bowlby laid the foundation for mothers in the 21st century to go ‘back to basics’. As a practitioner I believe that the implementation of the ‘key person approach’ can be immensely beneficial for both the child and the parent. The child knows that there is always someone there to whom they can turn if necessary and the parent knows that there will always be someone looking out for their child in the setting and that he/she is being given the attention and care of a trained adult in their absence.

I have witnessed first-hand in the nursery how a child who is upset by the departure of their mother can be comforted by the attention of their key worker. I have also observed how the key workers are constantly monitoring the children to pinpoint any needs, to witness the achievement of developmental milestones and to document this for the parents in the form of the Personal Learning Plan, a written and photographic record of the child’s achievements within the setting.

In conclusion, although there have been arguments against Bowlby’s research methods many professionals agreed with his findings regarding the importance of a secure attachment in the early years. These findings, and undoubtedly those of others in the field, have led to positive reforms in childcare. As we progress through the 21st century women are feeling the need, either for financial reasons or the belief that they too have the right to work, I find myself asking will society continue to regard the bond between a mother and her child as paramount or will ‘maternal deprivation’ increase and society as a whole be damaged as a result?

Bibliography www. mentalhelp. net/poc/view_doc. php? type=doc;id=10104;cn=28 Bowlby J. 1953. Child Care and the Growth of Love, 2nd ed, England, Pelican Books Davenport G. C 1994. An Introduction to Child Development, 2nd ed, London, Collins Educational www. eyfs. info/articles/article. php? Attachment-Theory-and-the-Key-Person-Approach-66 .

Introduction Myra Levine proposed a grand theory of energy conservation. Using the Chinn and Kramer Model for critique, this paper will describe the theory reviewing purpose, concepts, definitions, relationships, structure, assumptions, and rationale for selection. Then, the theory will be critically examined for clarity, simplicity, generalizability, accessibility, and importance. Energy conservation provides a unique framework for education and current practice. Well-defined concepts of environment, health, nurse, and patient can guide research.

However, the theory has limited application to some areas such as health promotion and disease prevention. Further refinement of this theory would beneficially develop the knowledge base of nursing, guide practice, and contribute to favorable outcomes. Description of Theory Purpose Myra Levine was an experienced nurse and teacher who sought to educate medical-surgical students about major concepts in nursing. Levine wanted the focus of nursing to be patient-centered instead of task-oriented (Sitzman & Eichelberger, 2011).

Also, like other early nursing scholars, Levine wanted to distance nursing practice from medicine (Meleis, 2012). Trophicognosis is a term Levine invented to replace medical diagnosis. Trophicognosis referred to nursing judgement arrived at by the scientific method; according to Meleis (2012) trophicognosis was a “useful beginning for the use of the nursing process” (p. 291). Concepts Levine based her theoretical concepts on her personal philosophy. Levine viewed man as “an ever-changing organism in constant interaction with an ver-changing environment” (Levine, 1969, p. 93). Levine believed individuals respond to their environment in a systematic way based on their perceptual systems. Therefore, Levine conceptualized nursing based on the idea that “an appreciation of these responses will conserve the patient’s resources, alter his environment to fit his resources, and be an extension of his perceptual systems when his own are impaired” (Levine, 1969, p. 93). Conservation is unique to Levine’s theory and is the primary concept (Sitzman & Eichelberger, 2011).

Levine identified four conservation principles as a framework for nursing interventions and established the goal of conservation as adaptation (Meleis, 2012). Other important concepts included wholeness, organismic responses, adaptation, integrity, and perceptual systems. Definitions The conservation model clearly defines major concepts related to patients, environment, adaptation and energy conservation. Levine did not think it was an accident that the word “health” was derived from the Anglo-saxon word for “whole” (Levine, 1969).

Levine saw patients as complete persons made up of dynamic systems that continuously seek a state of balance. Levine viewed health and disease as patterns of adaptive change along a continuum of dynamic processes within a person’s unique pathophysiology and environment (Levine, 1966). Both internal and external environments were described; the external environment was categorized as perceptual, operational, or conceptual. Conservation of energy was defined as the goal, or outcome, of nursing; the concept of conservation included maintaining a person’s social, personal, and structural integrity (Meleis, 2012).

Relationships According to Levine, the patient’s health is dependent on the nurse-supported process of adaptation (Sitzman & Eichelberger, 2011). Nurses function as an extension of the patient’s perceptual systems, but work to end the dependence as quickly as possible (Levine, 1966). Structure The conservation model follows a linear progression from desynchronization to energy conservation to adaptation. As a patient-focused and goal oriented theory, success is measured by outcome-based criteria. Assumptions Levine presented many implicit and explicit assumptions throughout her theory development.

Levine’s assumptions centered on the essence of the human experience, adaptation, and nursing. The most influential assumption was the wholeness and complexity of patients (Meleis, 2012). Rationale for Selection There are many reasons to study Levine’s Conservation Model. The concept of energy conservation is unique to this model. Levine believed in holistic care and supported patient’s rights to personally define their health (Meleis, 2012). The concept of wholeness is consistent with most modern philosophies of nursing. The World Health Organization definition of health is also consistent with Levine’s concepts.

Many multidisciplinary concepts relate to adaptation, including physics, physiology, and neuroscience (Meleis, 2012). These concepts may facilitate future theory development and research. Finally, in the current socio-political environment, outcome-based theory will likely become increasingly relevant as reimbursement depends on patient outcomes. Critical Reflection Clarity Chinn and Kramer defined clarity based on ease of understanding and consistency of concepts (Meleis, 2012). Myra Levine precisely and accurately labeled her theory Energy Conservation.

It is apparent that her pedagogical practices influenced definitions of main concepts. I think she was consistent in her operational definitions of the patient, the nurse, the environment, and adaptation. However, I agree with Meleis (2012) that the derived concepts of integrity, wholeness, and humanism do not have clear boundaries. Simplicity Some of the definitions are complex, but Levine maintained simple components consistent with the theoretical assumptions & propositions (Meleis, 2012). Although human responses are a complex phenomenon, Levine limited much of her paradigm to physiologic responses.

I believe this limitation benefits the use of her theory for empirical approaches to research. Generalizability The theory of energy conservation seeks to provide a broad framework for nursing care. However, the pathophysiology-based foundation biases application to acute care settings. Likewise, the specificity of the conservation principles limits implications for practice. The theory emphasizes short term goals and treatment; it does not generate propositions for modern issues of nutrition, diversity, health promotion, long-term care, family care, or community health (Meleis, 2012).

Accessibility Levine’s theory has been widely used to direct education, administration, research, and practice (Meleis, 2012). The theory provides a useful framework when energy conservation is important for patient recovery. Therefore, this framework readily applies to vulnerable patient populations. However, a lack of clear definitions, boundaries between concepts, and development of propositions reduces the theory’s testability (Meleis, 2012). Importance Practically applied, Levine’s theory most readily relates to acute care settings.

However, within the grand theory of energy conservation, Levine asserted concepts that are still important today. Levine emphasized science, recognized wholeness, and acknowledged patients as partners in care (Fawcett & Swoyer, 2008). Empirical knowledge remains imperative to scientific development in nursing. Also, contemporary nurses widely accept the paradigm of holistic care. Person-environment interactions and life processes are additional ideas Levine presented which current nursing practice accepts (Meleis, 2012). Conclusion

Levine’s Conservation Model has proven useful as a theoretical framework to develop educational curricula, guide practice, and improve patient outcomes. The theory application is limited to acute care settings and lacks well-developed propositions for research. However, the theory possesses many salient ideas which could encourage future research on environment, energy, and adaptation. Levine accepted the evolution of theories, acknowledging their potential for change and development (Meleis, 2012). I think Levine would be pleased that her ideas continue to be explored.

Conflict theory was developed from the concern that the structural functionalism theory neglected conflict in society and was politically conservative. This conflict theory also addressed the perceived failure of structural functionalism to account for change in society (Ritzer, 1992, p. 61). This theory has evolved to include elements of structural functionalism and traditional Marxist focus on dominant and subordinate groups.

Conflict theory often depicts a: polarization of the forces of “law and order” on the one hand and left wing political activists and minority group members reacting to what they saw as excessive police repression of political protests and urban riots on the other (Giffen, et al. , 1991, pp. 8-9) This aspect of conflict theory assumes, however, that the dominant and subordinate groups are more or less homogenous in nature.

Most research in the field of drug policy recently, however, deals with power being located in “institutional structures in society such as economic, governmental and religious institutions (Giffen, et al. 1991, p. 10)” that do not presuppose homogenous groups. An example of this would be the comment of Riley after attending a conference on drug issues in the United States, where he remarked that “many researchers felt the real reason for the war on drugs in that country was that it helped to suppress blacks and minorities. (Riley 1994b)” One of the failings of conflict theory becomes apparent when researchers in the history of this legislation find little in the actual discussion of the laws that pertains to race.

Giffen, et al. (1991) write that the early legislation’s principle proponents had the “altruistic aims of supporting the international anti-opium movement” despite the anti-Chinese sentiment of the times (p. 525). The fact that the laws were used solely against the Chinese at first is indicative of this anti-Chinese sentiment, and not the creation of the laws themselves. Later legislation was driven mainly by enforcement officials, as there was little in the way of public outcry for more rigorous anti-opium legislation (p. 525).

Johns (1991) under the heading “Race: The Creation of an Enemy Class,” writes bluntly: “The enforcement tactics of the War on Drugs are focused on minority populations” (p. 155). In her paper, Johns (1991) posits that the War on Drugs takes attention away from the factors which underlie the problems of drugs and trafficking, partly because the “more powerful segments in society” (p. 150) do not want attention focused the poor job they are doing to cure the ills of society. Johns also expands the group being oppressed to include the poor, who have been hit with massive housing and health care cuts under the Republican Presidencies.

The dichotomy between those in power and minorities and the poor is self-perpetuating, in that these groups have a limited upward mobility (and, therefore crimes like trafficking in illicit drugs becomes appealing), and when they do try to increase their wealth through illicit means, those in power see that as justification for minorities and the poor being in the position they are in. The conflict theory is problematic in describing why there is a war on drugs. It may help to explain (as Johns (1991) successfully does) why a War on Drugs continues in the U. S. , but leaves unanswered questions when applied to other situations.

The Thomas Theorem states that in a social world, the interpretation of the situation influences the actions of the members of society. This would mean that when a number of people believe that some social issue, phenomenon or event is true, those same people would be driven to act on those issues or phenomenon which will then lead to the said issue to occur in reality (Macionis, 2007). A personal example of the Thomas Theorem is how my family has a tradition on a curing soup. The soup’s recipe has been learned by the women in the family and is said to be effective in making people better if they have the flu, colds, cough and other maladies.

Thus, whenever a family member show symptoms of illnesses, my mother and sister will make the soup and then oblige the sick family member to eat that soup as much as they can. The healing component of the soup is attributed to its nutritional value and in some way; it is really nutritious since it has tons of vegetables in it. However, the soup is cooked for a long time which may have caused the break down of the nutrients that was in the vegetables and it contains a lot of salt. This would indicate that whatever nutritional value the soup has, it is not enough to heal the person’s sickness.

On the other hand, since most of my family members believe that the soup is indeed effective, we consume the soup heartily. Consequently, after eating bowls of the soup, we do get better. The flu, colds and coughs may be caused by viral infections that are self-limiting, thus, after some time, the virus weakens and we get better. Eating bowls of soup may just coincide with the weakening of the virus, hence we attribute getting better with the soup even if they are not related at all.