Vocabulary

Explain the main differences when communicating with adults, young people and children: The main differences between communicating with a child, young person or adult is our tone of voice, body language, facial expressions, gestures and the vocabulary we use. We need to adapt these depending on the age, needs or ability of the person we are speaking too. If we are communicating with a small child we may do this by either playing a game, reading a story, using silly voices or playing with toys or puppets.

When communicating with a young person this is done differently as we would need to adapt our tone of voice, and the words and phrases we use as a young person has a more varied vocabulary. We need to ensure that we allow a young person to vocalise ideas and feelings as they can do this in a greater depth. We can give a young person more complex instructions and they can also appreciate jokes and word play. We can read more complex things with a young person such as poetry or factual books.

We can discuss past events allowing them to give detailed accounts with varied expression and emotions. With regards to communicating with an adult this would be done slightly differently as we would normally do this by having a conversation face to face or by telephone, going out to a social event together or by texting or maybe email. We also need to consider the differences when communicating with anyone from a different culture or social background.

This is because some words or phrases that may be acceptable to one community may not be acceptable to another. We need to always be aware who is around us to prevent us from causing offence. We need to be aware that the way we communicate may not be acceptable to everyone for example if someone was communicating using offensive language and the other person replied with the same language then this would not cause offence, but if they said this to someone who does not use offensive language then this may upset them.

Reading skills are essential to success in society today. The ability to read is highly valued and very important. Reading is important in our life, we gain more knowledge by reading various books. Some persons write their personal experience as their book and share a lot of ways to solve various problems. Reading is a great hobby for various people and they are spending their time usefully by reading good books which helps them to gain knowledge. Having a large vocabulary is not only impressive, but also useful in many areas of public speaking.

Reading is necessary for our practical life also. Good readers can understand the individual sentences and the l structure of a piece of writing. In other words, students who have a large vocabulary are usually good readers. It is really hard to read books daily, but we can read books whenever possible as well as time permits. A good book is like a good companion and we will get more information while reading it as well as it have the ability to give solution to our issues, while reading funny books we will get more fun and enjoyment.

Various kind of books will help us to get various kind of feelings. Surely reading books will give more enjoyment to us and help us to spend our time usefully. We also read to learn about other people life. Reading books is always worth to our time and we never regret for reading a good book in our life. That’s why people say ;” Anyone who says they have only one life to live must not know how to read a book! ”

Alvinston anak Henry Stephen Ms Bobbi Olsen ENGL 150-Writing: Rhetoric The Person who Changes My Perception about Writing Writing is one of the medium that people use to communicate and express their ideas to other people.

It has already been used since prehistoric time even though it is just through drawing but it has helped human to understand what has happened during that time and slowly after billions of years we have advanced to this globalized world that enable us to write in many different type of language and present our writing. Nowadays, through writing alone we can earn money.For example, Harry Potter author J. K. Rowling. In just a blink of an eye she became millionaire through her fiction book which has attracted people regardless their age. I learned how to write when I was in kindergarten or pre-school.

That time I was around four years old. Everything is so mysterious to me because I was forced to learn a new language that is English. As for me, English is my third language. The process of learning English is really annoying and difficult as I have to memorize and understand the meaning of each word. Moreover, the grammar makes it worse.That time, my brain only can focus on playing and joking around with my childhood friends. No one would care about the importance of writing when they were still a child.

That goes the same for me. Luckily at home I have my parents and elder brother that help me with any task that is given by the teacher. Each of them has their own positive impact on my writing. But the person that has the biggest influence on my writing is my English teacher when I was in my primary school. I used to address her as Sister Wee. That is what everyone called her since she is a nun.She is a typical Chinese that have that pairs of famous small Chinese-looking eyes.

She taught me English for six years since I was seven until twelve years old. Along that period of time, I have countless of unforgettable memory with her. Sister Wee was forty plus years old when I first met her. She is as fierce as the tiger even though she looked like an angel with her silky white nun habit. Even the car that she drove is white! I guess it is a Chevrolet coupe small model and I used to name it ‘The Unicorn’ because it has one huge antenna attached on the side of its hood.One funny thing about her is that she wears a pair of big spectacles that makes her looked like an old grandma and a nerd which is a hilarious scene for me every day. Her voice when she screams really can break glass into million pieces.

The frequency is a bit high compared to an average person when they screamed. But that is good criteria as a teacher that as it makes me more alert in the class as I tend to get sleepy in the class. She was the one that taught me more in depth about writing.Without her guidance I would not be able to write a good essay because through her I learned how to construct a paragraph, what kind of information that I should include in my paragraph and many other knowledge on writing that have been programmed and installed automatically in my brain throughout the years. I really enjoyed the moment when she entered the class and started to speak to the students. Because she was taught by some British nun when she was small, she had that British slang with her. Her strong and thick British accent is the reason why I enjoyed the class.

Even sometimes my classmates and I try to imitate the way she speaks. That’s the funniest part since speaking in British accent need time to practice and we tend to make our conversation sounded so wrong. It just sounded like a dog trying to speak to a cat. But, imitating another person action is one of the ways how humans learned a new skill. It is so funny remembering the good old days. She was always into literature. Almost every day during class time she will read out some poem in which I always considered a waste of time as all my classmates tends to get sleepy hearing that unrecognized, complicated and meaningless sentences.

Just imagine how a child that is around seven years old can understand such a well-written poem by the infamous William Shakespeare. At that time I hardly can grasp the meaning of the sentence that is being used in poetry, but I know that the writer must be a really remarkable person especially in linguistic as they know how to manipulate and use words differently in their writing. The way how they wrote amazed me even until today. Through that method, she had unconsciously provoked my writing instinct and interest that has been buried and locked within myself.The only thing that I really hate about is the punishment that she gives to students. Every time the students make simple mistakes on grammar or spelling she will pinch their stomach, pull their ears or can them with ‘Rotan’. ‘Rotan’ is a type of climbing palms species that is so durable and elastic that always being used by teacher in my country to punish students.

Even I not excluded to get canned by her ‘Rotan’. Even though punishment is made to act as a reminder and to discipline a person but I really don’t agree using brutal force and physical torture will do any good.As a child, being punished really causes psychological effect on me. It makes me really afraid to study under her because always being haunted by the punishment that she will give if I accidently make any mistake in my writing. Despite all that, I still appreciate her guidance as she had taught me so much basic skills that I need to know about writing in English. That is why she is the person that had the most impact and influence on my writing. Her strictness in class is one of the main key points that I would say really had large impact on my writing.

I always try to prevent making any stupid mistakes especially on grammar and spelling in my writing to avoid the punishment. I never thought in the end it will produce such a wonderful result on the way how I wrote and expressed my ideas in my writing. She had helped me on how to develop my ideas each time I going to write an essay. That is really crucial as every essay must have a topic sentence and it must be clear so that the reader can know what the writer is writing about. Sister Wee also has makes me love reading. Since small, I extremely hate reading.I always run away every time my parents ask me to sit down and do some reading.

But after I entered her class, I found that reading is important because it will help me to improve my grammar and vocabulary. She advised me to read some simple story book and slowly advance to next level. One month after that, I ended up reading a newspaper instead of simple story books. That was a shock event even for me because that time I was only a playful seven years old kid that can perfectly read and pronounce each and every word in the newspaper without making any mistake.Reading has remarkably helped me lot on improving my writing. This is how I improved greatly on my grammar and vocabulary. By reading books, we will unconsciously getting used to the correct way of writing a sentence and we will tend to write in the same manner accordingly to the memory that we had on our reading.

Every time I encounter problem on my reading material, I always consulted her and ask about her advice. Other than that, every time I get my assessment paper back after she has graded it, I will surely read all the comment that she wrote about my essay and try o think about my mistakes and what should I do in order to improve my writing. Sometimes, she even talked to me individually about my writing and explains to me more in depth on what I should do to make my essay better and interesting to read by the readers. The way how she spoke and wrote really shows and proved that she had all the criteria that an English teacher should possessed. That is why I always considered her as my icon. One of her meaningful words that until today I still remembered, “Writing is the most powerful form of communication that we have in this world.We can do a lot of things with our writing.

” Now, I really agreed to what she had said back then. It does make sense because writing helps us to communicate with deaf and dumb people. Other than that, writing also one of the tools that nationalist use to provoke nationalism. Just imagine with words alone nationalist can unify all the citizens that comes from different ethnics and religion to fight for independence of their country. Even to the extent of provoking a war! It has never come across my mind that writing has that much of power.Now, the knowledge and ability that I have on writing is basically all being gained from he. She is now almost reaching sixty years old.

She currently lives in the convent about one hour drive from my house. I did manage to visit her before I came to United States to further my study. She was a bit shocked when out of a sudden one of her naughty student came and visited her. I chatted with her for few hours about my life and what I have been through all these years. She was really interested looking on how I have been grown up from a naughty boy into a young man.Last piece of advice she gave to me, “You really make me feel proud as a teacher and don’t ever forget to go to church and pray when you are in difficulty because God is always here with us. ” Droplets of tears flows down on my cheek when I walked out of the convent while trying to embrace the advice she had given to me.

Nowadays I truly thanked her for all her endless guidance and teaching during my process of learning English. Without her teaching, I would not be able to go this far and writing an essay would be a troublesome task for me.

In English language, there are many fixed, identifiable, non-idiomatic phrases and construction. Such groups of words are called recurrent combinations, fixed combination or collocation. Collocation fall into two major groups: grammatical collocation and lexical collocation. For people who regard the English language as a foreign language or second language, it’s so difficult to express it as perfect.

This “mini research paper” talks about “Cultural Effect on English Language Collocation as Foreign Language” to help them more understanding in how to mastering English.Keywords: Collocation, English as a second language, Cultural effects Introduction Learners of English as a foreign or second language, like learners of any language, have traditionally devoted themselves to mastering words – their pronunciations, forms, and meanings. However, if they wish to acquire active mastery of English. That is, if they wish to be able to express themselves fluently and accurately in speech and writing, they must learn to cope with the combination of words into phrases, sentences and texts. Students must learn how words combine or ‘collocate’ with each other.In any language, certain words regularly combine with certain other words or grammatical constructions. Collocations are important to language learners.

When learners use collocations, they will be better understood. Native speakers unconsciously predict what is going to be said based on the use of phrases. If a non-native speaker uses frequently-used patterns (collocations), it will be easier for native speakers to guess what the non-native speaker is saying and may help compensate for other language issues, such as pronunciation. When learners write and speak, if they use collocations central to their topic, their readers are more likely to understand their message. The importance of vocabulary acquisition has always been recognized, although, at times, vocabulary was treated as separate from grammar and skills. However, the communicative and natural approach emphasized the importance of vocabulary development. Vocabulary knowledge involves considerably more than just knowing the meanings of given words in isolation; it involves knowing the words that tend to co-occur with it.

Hoey (2005) in Shokouhi (2010), for example, argues that non-native speakers behave differently with collocations than native speakers, in that the former group learns them in very restricted contexts. Compounding this problem is the fact that the frequency of particular combinations depends upon the genre in which each occurs. Grammatical and lexical collocations, like the accompaniments of nouns with other nouns, adjectives with nouns, verbs with other parts of speech, or many other such combinations, may all show different behaviour. Literature ReviewCollocation Collocation is a tendency of words in a language to occur in close proximity to each other (based on logical and meaningful relationships between then, patterns of association and usage, etc). Collocation can be ascertained by experience, reading, and study of dictionaries that give multiple examples in the form of quotations, such as the Oxford English Dictionary) Chandler (1998). Students must learn how words combine or ‘collocate’ with each other. In any language, certain words regularly combine with certain other words or grammatical constructions.

These recurrent, semi-fixed combinations or collocations can be divided into group (BBI dictionary):

Grammatical collocation

Grammatical collocation is a phrase consisting of a dominant word (noun, adjective, verb) and preposition or grammatical structure such as an infinitive or clause. Example: account for, advantage over, adjacent to, by accident, to be afraid that.

Lexical collocation

Lexical collocations consist of various combinations of nouns, adjectives, verbs and adverbs. Lexical collocations, in contrast to grammatical collocations, do not contain prepositions, infinitives or clauses. Example: a crushing defeat, storms rage, a world capital.

Lewis (1998) proposes the following categories for collocations:

1. Strong: A large number of collocations are strong or very strong. For example, we most commonly talk of rancid butter, but that does not mean that other things cannot be rancid.
2. Weak: These are words which co-occur with a greater than random frequency. Many things can be long or short, cheap or expensive, good or bad. However, some things are more predictable, which could be alled collocation; for example, white wine or red wine.
3. Medium strength: These are words that go together with a greater frequency than weak collocations. Some examples are: hold a meeting; carry out a study. The context in which a collocation is used is important. Certain collocations or expressions are appropriate for certain contexts. Factors such as a difference in status or a social distance between the speaker and the hearer can affect the choice of collocational phrases. For example, we would not greet our boss by saying “How’s it going? ; however, it is all right to greet a friend that way.

This example suggests that knowledge of connotation and formality is important in deciding which collocation to use. (Deveci, 2003). Language and culture There are many ways in which the phenomena of language and culture are intimately related. Both phenomena are unique to humans and have therefore been the subject of a great deal of anthropological and sociological study. Language, of course, is determined by culture, though the extent to which this is true is now under debate.The converse is also true to some degree: culture is determined by language – or rather, by the replicators that created both.

Language as Determined by Culture

Early anthropologists, following the theory that words determine thought, believed that language and its structure were entirely dependent on the cultural context in which they existed.

This was a logical extension of what is termed the Standard Social Science Model, which views the human mind as an indefinitely malleable structure capable of absorbing any sort of culture without constraints from genetic or neurological factors.In this vein, anthropologist Verne Ray conducted a study in the 1950’s, giving color samples to different American Indian tribes and asking them to give the names of the colors. He concluded that the spectrum we see as “green”, “yellow”, etc. was an entirely arbitrary division, and each culture divided the spectrum separately. According to this hypothesis, the divisions seen between colors are a consequence of the language we learn, and do not correspond to divisions in the natural world. A similar hypothesis is upheld in the extremely popular meme of Eskimo words for snow – common stories vary from fifty to upwards of two hundred.

Language as Part of Culture

For many people, language is not just the medium of culture but also is a part of culture.

It is quite common for immigrants to a new country to retain their old customs and to speak their first language amid fellow immigrants, even if all present are comfortable in their new language. This occurs because the immigrants are eager to preserve their own heritage, which includes not only customs and traditions but also language. A good example of this is in Canada, where French-speaking natives of Quebec clash with the English-speaking majority.This sort of conflict is also common in areas with a great deal of tribal warfare. It is even becoming an issue in America as speakers of standard American English – mainly whites and educated minorities – observe the growing number of speakers of black English vernacular. Debates are common over whether it is proper to use “Ebonics” in schools, while its speakers continue to assert that the dialect is a fundamental part of the “black culture”. Hossein Shokouhi (2010) found in his research that vocabulary in general and collocation in particular are important to language learning.

1. If collocational associations are not properly taught and learned, the resulting irregularities will immediately mark the learners’ speech or writing as problematic and non-native. Tanju Deveci (2003) said that many cultures, including the Turkish culture, encourage rote learning, where students memorise lists of words in isolation and when they saw the words in phrases, they could not understand them. Such surface level knowledge inhibits meaningful learning and creates collocation-related problems such as the following: Learners may have intra-lingual problems. For example, instead of many thanks, they might incorrectly use several thanks.
2. Learners may make negative transfer from their mother tongue.For example, some Turkish learners tend to say become lovers instead of fall in love.
3. Learners may look for general rules for collocations that do not work for all collocations. For example, they might over-generalize rules of collocation, for example, the use of prepositions in phrasal verbs. They could think that put off your coat is the opposite of put on your coat.
4. When students learn words through definitions or in isolation, their chances of using appropriate collocations or remembering the words decrease.
5. Students may fail to make sense of an idiom. To illustrate, the English idiom It is raining cats and dogs does not make sense to Turkish learners of English because this idiom does not exist in their culture. To communicate the same idea, Turkish learners would say It is raining out of the glass, which does not make sense in English.
6. When students read texts, they may not recognize collocations as meaningful phrases, which would inhibit their understanding of the text. Findings of researchIn this study, the authors take 30 students of Unnes form several majors whether they’re English students or not English students as a sample.

The participants were given some questions about collocation. This is representing how the Indonesian students make a word combination From 30 respondents. Only 13 students or 44% of students who make a correct answer and it’s not only students from Language and Art Faculty but also from the others. It means that the origin culture has influenced the Indonesian students in expressing English. On the other hand, Based on the tests, respondents have failed to place the right words.That is the fact that a culture has an influence to students in making a word combination well. When the Indonesian wants to say “ Seseorang harus percaya diri dengan kemampuannya” or One should have confidence with his own ability, whereas in English the truth is “One should have confidence in his own ability”.

Conclusion

Collocation is very important in English language because with collocation language will be more natural and more easily understood, learners will have alternative and richer ways of expressing themselves and it is easier to remember and use language in chunks or blocks rather than as single words.This mini research found that the Indonesian students are still influenced by the Indonesian language in expressing English especially in choosing the words to make a word combination well or good-collocation. To make a good word combination or right-collocation, the Author advises to readers especially to Indonesian students to use a BBI dictionary written by Benson, M. , E. Benson and R. F. Ilson.

References

1. Daniel Chandler, 1998 Semiotics for Beginners: a more complex semiotic explanation of denotation/connotation and paradigmatic/syntagmatic analysis. Deveci, Tanju, 2003 teaches English for Academic Purposes at Sabanci University in Istanbul.
2. Hossein Shokouhi, 2010 Collocational Knowledge versus General Linguistic Knowledge among Iranian EFL Learners. , Shahid Chamran University, Iran Lewis, M. 1998. Implementing the lexical approach. London: Language Teaching Publications.
3. Benson, M. , E. Benson and R. F. Ilson. 1997. The BBI dictionary of English word combinations.
4. Amsterdam; Philadelphia: John Benjamins Publishing Co. Appendix Collocation Test i. Fill in the blank the questions below . What is the usual way of describing someone who eats a lot? a)a big eater b)a strong eater c)a hard eater d)a heavy eater e)a furious eater 2. Which is the truth the following phrases? a)a solid tea b)a powerful tea c)a strong tea d)an iron tea e) a stiff tea 3. The high walls give the garden protection …

Introduction

The background of my writing

In the past 50 years, English has become a global language. It’s widely used in international conferences, multinational companies and the Internet. According to the Cambridge University Press Statistics, there are 1.4 billion people living in the country which used English as its official language. There are also 1.2 billion to 1.5 billion people used English as their mother language.

The globalization of English is a indisputable truth in the world in nowadays. More and more people studying English from pole to pole. But at the same time, the English in the process of globalization has also brought a wide range of nativization. Although the British English and American English is still the mainstream of global English, people found a number of English with regional characteristics appeared in the world, like Australia English, Singapore English, South Africa English and so on. Many linguist attention about this phenomenon and do the research in this area. In my opinion, this is a kind of culture shock, because there are many countries have their local language, so when English step into their life, there must be a kind of exchange between English and their local language appearance. In China, English also become more and more important in people’s life. For young people, speak English is an indispensable skill. And in all schools in China, no matter middle school or university, English is the most important subject for students. In China, you can hear two different words to describe the English: China English and Chinese English. They aren’t with the same means. What the different between themWhat’s the real conception of China English?

China English is not Chinese English

Chinese English is also a kind of English from China, lots of people called it Chinglish. But it’s not the emphasis that I want to study. Chinese English different from China English. The phrase “Chinese English” is listed in the book International English Usage authored By British scholar Todd and American scholar Hancock (1986) who expounds Chinese English in the aspects of phonology, lexicon and grammar.

Chinese English originated from Chinese Pidgin English. Pidgin is the cultural production of colonization and semi-colonization. It forms during the course of the acquiring European languages by natives and also based on aboriginal languages. Chinese Pidgin English can be divided into four periods:

Birth Stage (1715-1748) : It was started in Guangzhou and Macao
Early Stage (1748-1842): It was in Guangzhou.
Expanding Stage (1842-1890): It was widely use in Hong Kong and other trading ports.
Declining Stage (1890-till now): The normal education of English became popular.

The main places of using Chinese Pidgin English are Guangzhou, Hong Kong, Shanghai and trading ports. Such as: Ningbo, Wuhu, Beijing and so on. Chinese business men and servant used it for communication. At the beginning, it was used for service and trading business by lower class. But later, it appears in different situation, including higher class.

The lexical and syntactic features of Chinese English

Chinese English is a deformed language variant. The vocabulary can best interpret the features of Chinese English. As we all know, Chinese learners often collocate words wrongly. They are inclined to express or translate word by word, which will cause wrong expressions. For example, three piece book (three books), chow chow (means eat something) etc.

Besides, the English words like see, watch, read and look at can all be translated into Chinese “?”, and may be used interchangeably. The situation of speak, say, and talk is similar. Phrases like “Can you say Chinese?” “I’m watching a book.” “Tomorrow I will look a movie.” may be produced.

Syntax, as generally defined, is the study of how sentences are properly formed out of words of a language. The different of the thinking mode of Western people and Chinese directly show clearly in sentences formation in two languages. For example,

• 1: My go topside. He have go bottomside.

I am going upstair. He has gone downstair.

• 2: Aftertoon my come.

I’ll come in the afternoon.

Speakers of Chinese English didn’t really understand English, but in order to communicate with foreigners, they had to use deformed English, which totally misused the vocabulary and grammar. For example, “change money” ( means odd change), “long time no see” (means I haven’t seen you for a long time). With the deepening of Chinese opening-up and reform, the number of English learners is steadily increasing. However, most of the learners have to “learn” rather than “acquire” the language by means of schooling, radio or TV programs or remedial courses. They are under the influence of Chinese Pidgin English. Lacking enough access to the English language and thinking mode. In consequence, the increasing number of English learners leads to more problems with Chinese English.

Examples can best manifest it. There is funny story between a foreigner and his Chinese servant. The foreigner came home and found the glasses were broken, he asked his Chinese servant how did it break. The servant said in Chinese English:” Inside zhi-zhi-zhi, outside miao-miao-miao, glasses broken.” There is no English grammar and logic in his answer. The servant only use some words to describe how it happened. Another example of the same kind can explain the features of discourse in Chinese English. The boss of a British man asked his Chinese driver to buy tickets of a cinema. The driver came back and said:” People mountain people sea. Today no see, tomorrow see. Same see.”

The appearance of China English

In 1980, the famous Chinese linguist Ge Chuangui put forward the conception of “Chinese English” in his article Ramble the translation. He said:” No matter in old China or new China, Chinese people speak or write English always accompany the Chinese trait. Like “imperial examination (??) ”, “imperial academy (???)”, “ May Fourth Movement (????)” and so on. These words with Chinese regional culture, not belong to the western people, and they also never use them. ” Since then, discussions about it have never stopped. The definition and the standard of China English has always been intensively discussed. A number of scholars have proposed their definitions of China English from their particular perspectives. China English has normative English as its core. Wang Rongpei holds that the definition of China English should cover the following three points:

• China English is used by Chinese people in Chinese land
• China English has standard English as its core
• China English has Chinese features

But another scholar named Li Wenzhong disagrees with Wang Rongpei’s definition of China English. Li Wenzhong (1993) maintains that China English is not only used in native China. He argues that quite a few Chinese borrowings have entered the English languages and become part of it by transliteration and loan translation, eg: tea, kowtow, Great Leap Forward and so on.

Xie Zhijun is against Li Wenzhong’s point of view about China English. Xie holds that both China English and Chinese English have the Chinese influence existing in all the aspects of China English-lexical, syntactical and textual. On the basis of his argument, Xie makes his contribution to China English: China English is an interference English variety used by Chinese people in cross-culture communication; its interference is caused by the Chinese language, the way of Chinese thinking as well as Chinese culture. China English is based on normative English and is capable of entering the English languages.

From the various definitions of China English, I can summarize some of the properties of China English.

First, China English is the English used by the Chinese. “The linguistic and Cultural Identities of China English and the Application in Chinese” refers to the Chinese people as those who have grown up in Chinese social and cultural background to communicate with the English –speaking people.

Second, it’s based on Standard English (it means English used by the Englishmen and Americans), that is , it’s in accord with the grammar of Standard English. Third, it is a transfer variety of English affected by Chinese culture.

The lexical features of China English

The lexical features of China English are mainly shown in the Chinese borrowings entering English. It takes Standard English as its core and the English language enriches itself by absorbing Chinese borrowed words.

First, early in the 1800s, some words with Chinese unique features entered the English language. Quite a lot of words and phrases in China English are directly transliterated from Chinese Putonghua and other dialects especially Cantonese. The examples are classified as follows:

• About history and culture: like, zhongju (??), yamen (??) etc.
• About recreation and local sports: like, Erhu (??), Kongfu(??),Taichi (??), Mahjong(??) etc.
• About food, clothing, shelter and transportation:like, Cheongsam (??),Chowmein (??),Tea(?),Ginseng (??),etc.
• About local conditions and customs: like, fengshui (??), Kowtow (??)etc.
• About geographical names Inner Mongolia (???), Lhasa (??), Hong Kong (??)etc.
• About measurement units: like, Yuan (?),Jiao (?), Mu (?) etc.

Second, after Chinese reform and opening-up, the total number of Chinese borrowings in English increased rapidly. These Chinese Phrases in English are translated by means of word-by-word translation. Below are some examples:

• About Chinese history and culture: like Four Books and Five Classics (????),paper tiger (???),lefetist (??), Gang of Four (???) etc.
• About Chinese reform and opening-up program: like, laid-off workers (????), Four modernizations (?????),one China policy (????), reform and opening-up (????),one country, two systems (????) etc.

The characteristics of the China English are unavoidable mainly because of the way of Chinese thinking and its traditional culture. This shows that one’s accomplishment of the language acquisition makes the formation of one’s thinking model. Chinese speakers have acquired their mother tongue and have formed the way of Chinese thinking before they study English. Therefore, the way of Chinese thinking must have a great influence on learning another way of thinking. So the Chinese characteristics inevitably exist in the English expressions created by Chinese people.

On the other hand, social linguists hold that a nation’s culture is unique. Chinese people are according in their element when expressing Chinese culture in Chinese language, but are clumsy at doing it in English language. A foreign language serves the function of a bridge in the import and export of the culture. Foreign cultures, when introduced into China, should be understood by Chinese people. Similarly, Chinese culture, when exported to foreign countries, should be understood by foreigners. Consequently, China English, on the basis of normative English, should bear Chinese characteristics; otherwise, it cannot surmount the difficulties resulting from the expression of the two different cultures.

Finally, China English is evolved from two sources:

Native speakers’ description/accounts of Chinese society and culture
Chinese accounts on ourselves and the world in English. It’s an English variety that is saturated with Chinese culture and some characteristics of Han language. It’s based on Standard English and shares idiomatic useage of world English. It helps to spread Chinese unique culture such as in words, phrases, syntax, cognitive style, figures of speech, literary style and discourse structure.

Conclusion

In conclusion, Chinglish and China English are both related and distinguishable. On one hand, both of them are to put across the unique things in China and thus have Chinese features. On the other hand, with new vocabulary and structure, China English is normative English and it will increase its strength with further publicity to the outside world while Chinglish is improper use of English due to poor knowledge to the English language and culture and shall according hinder the communication with other cultures. In future, Chinglish will probably diminish or even disappear with the deepening of culture communication between China and other countries.

We should avoid the deformed used of English Variety-Chinglish, and maintain the effective way of using China English. China English is exiting objectively. As the rejuvenation of China, the output of Chinese culture is becoming more and more important. China English is not enough to become national variety, it’s the absolutely necessary of the world English acting as the supplementary of standard English. Chinese English is the result of ignoring or misunderstanding of British culture and custom. So Chinese English is not equal to the China English. It can be the interlanguage of learning English, but not the taget language of interculture exchange. These two words just with three letters difference, but they stand for two conceptions, also two kinds of attitude.

References

1. Bolton&Kingsley (2002), Chinese English: from Canton jargon to global English, Worm Englishes
2. Joan Pinkham (2000), The Translator’s Guide to Chinglish, Foreign Language Teaching and Research Press, Beijing
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Revision for exams is a daunting and unwelcome task for any student; however if you are an International or ESL student studying in a foreign county, revision might be even more challenging than normal. Fortunately our site recognises this difficulty and have helped thousands of ESL or international students to revise effectively and to pass their exams with amazing success.

Here are our top tips Revision Tips For International and ESL Students:

Improve Your Vocabulary

Most ESL students write using their existing vocabulary – words that come to you without much thought. This is understandable because, as you write and think you have to juggle many things in your mind; however, sometimes this can sound too casual or disjointed in an essay. Instead you can improve your writing by up-grading, or improving, your vocabulary: use a highlighter pen when revising to mark certain vocabulary items. For example, yellow for nouns, green for verbs, and other colours for adjectives, transitions and so on. Go through your work and ask yourself: “Is that word the best I can do?” Do the words actually express what I want to convey?

Either you can think more carefully about words you know or go to a thesaurus. A thesaurus is a book like a dictionary except that it lists words of the same meaning. You can buy print versions, Roget’s Thesaurus being the most famous, but most electronic dictionaries and computers have them. Not all examples in a thesaurus will mean the same thing so you need to cross-reference with a dictionary to make sure it is the meaning you really want.

Create a Checklist of Your Weaknesses

This is fairly simple: understand what kinds of mistakes you make or habits you have that weaken your writing. If you don’t know, look back at any work that has been corrected by a tutor, or speak to you tutor directly about this. Often the same mistakes are madeDo you forget or mix up articles (a, an, the)This can help you to create a checklists of your mistakes you could use. Make a list of these things, keep it somewhere prominent and refer to it when you check your writing.

‘Listen’ to Your Essay

As you write and re-read your work, your eye and brain become used to seeing the words. In some cases you become too familiar with your own writing so you miss small mistakes. Read your own writing aloud (in English) will help, but you have to vocalise, or say, the words clearly. As you do this you may catch some things. But, the next step is important. You can also try recording yourself reading your essay and then play back the recording. This will help you to:

catch small mistakes (articles, tenses, grammar etc.)
realise the rhythm of your writing is too monotonous (similar word length etc.)
find you don’t move smoothly between ideas and sections (transitions)
see (hear, actually) you have used the same word too much or the words are too simple (vocabulary)

Pause and make corrections to your writing as you listen, and do it a number of times to be sure. At first you may be shy doing this recording and even shocked at hearing yourself speaking in a foreign language, but it is a good exercise to do.

Check Spelling Backwards!

Computers can check spelling for you but electronic spell checks are not perfect.

Firstly, spell check using your computer, then read your writing backwards, in reverse. When we read we group words together in our mind. We do not (or should not) read each single word individually, so we might overlook spelling mistakes or omissions in the process. Reading from back to front makes us focus on individual words and we can more easily pick mistakes.

Find a Friend

It is advisable to have another person read your final essay before you submit it. If it is someone in the same class or who has the same assignment you can do it as an exchange. A native speaker of the language would also be helpful, but perhaps too helpful. A native speaker who is not a teacher might tend to do too much work for you and you will not benefit in the long-term. Find a friend who is willing to spend some time on your writing and give you constructive comments, advice and criticism. If you are a friend, be honest about where you think improvements can be made. If you are the writer, be open to criticism and consider the advice you are given. Both of you would benefit from the task of peer review, which is what we call this. A peer is someone who is equal to you such as a classmate or fellow student. Often a peer can give you much more feedback than a teacher who might have many papers to check.

Writing is one of the most important skills for educational success, but also one of the most complex skills to be mastered

It is one of the four macro skills of the English language that requires a great cognitive demand and much practice in order to produce a well-structured way of presentation of thoughts in an organized and planned manner. Significantly, it embodies the rule of syntax, semantics, orthography, mechanics, and most of all appropriate choice of lexis that will fit in the writing content and in the target audience of the piece hence, it turns out to be complex in the part of the students especially the L2 learners.

The Contrastive Analysis of Cummins states that there is an existence of language interference in the part of the L1 learner as he/she is in the process of acquiring the L2 language which makes it difficult to learn. In addition, Cummins believes that a linguistic difference between the two languages, which includes the pattern of syntax, morphology, orthography, and even phonology, affects how an L2 writer organizes the written discourse in the second language.

This may produce errors and distinct rhetorical patterns due to the L1 cultural mode of thinking. Nevertheless, even the native speakers feel difficulty in showing good command of writing (Johnstone, Ashbaugh,& Warfield, 2002) and even experience complication in a tricky situation. This only proves that writing is indeed a difficult task. However, language teachers can lessen these difficulties among learners by encouraging them to engage in writing activities as part of their teaching-learning process, because (Kellogg, 2008) states that writing helps to i) reinforce the grammatical structure, ii) and assist other language skills such as reading, listening and speaking, and most of all iii) enhance the students’ vocabulary.

In today’s global world, the demand of the 21st century has been dominating all the government sectors especially the field of education. There is now a need for both students and teachers to embody one of the 21st-century skills known as communication skills – refers as the ability of individuals to communicate clearly, not only in oral languages but also in written, and non-verbal languages(www.ksbe.edu/spi), in order to become globally competitive individuals. Coady and Huckin (1997) posited that part of communicative competence is lexical competence, which defines as the ability to express thoughts and ideas inappropriate words and meaningful sentences. To make it happen, the leaners need a wide range of vocabulary in expressing their thoughts especially in the aspect of writing.

On the study of (Shah, Gill, Mahmood, & Bilal, 2013) they found out that lexical richness has a direct link at the vocabulary size. Learners can only attain lexical richness if their written composition contains three features such as how diverse the words are; how difficult the words are; and how many content words are produced in writing. These can simultaneously classify in the designated word levels and may also determine if what levels are the learners belong to.

Significantly, the researchers aim to find out if what level of language proficiency is shown or reflected in the written compositions of the participants who expected to show advanced language proficiency because they are English majors that will become future language teachers of English.

As Leyaley (2016) points out that those Education students must learn how to equip themselves with all the skills, which there course, being imparted because they will become teachers who may serve as the pedestal of learning to their future students. If they will remain incompetent, there is a high rate of possibility that they will become a contributor to the poor performance of their pupils and students, and worst will hamper the endeavors of parents and children in achieving their dreams because of malpractice in the use of the English language.

Moreover, written communication skills are the primary basis upon which one’s work, one’s learning, and one’s intellect will be judged—in college, in the workplace, and in the community (www.Marquette.ed as cited in Leyaley, 2016). Much writing is required of teacher education students, among pre-service and in-service teachers. They prepare their lesson plans and learning plans; prepare written requirements they need to comply with; and most of all leading writing activities as part of teaching-learning process, which definitely requires the use of different kinds of words, refer as lexical richness, as a reflection of good writing.

Statement of the Problem

This study will look into how lexically rich are the written compositions made by BSED- English III students of Sorsogon State College- Bulan, Campus using the Lexical Frequency Profile supported by three software namely: RANGE, Vocabprofiler, and TextAlyser proposed by Laufer and Nation (1995). The result will become the platform of the present study to figure out what level of language proficiency is shown or reflected in the written compositions of the participants as a third year English major students who expected to have an advanced English proficiency level and rich vocabulary size. Thus, the researchers came up with two significant questions that will guide them in their study. These are the following:

• How lexically rich are the written compositions of the third-year English major students under the program BSED of Sorsogon State College Bulan, Campus along:

1. Lexical diversity
2. Lexical sophistication
3. Lexical density

• What level of proficiency is shown/reflected in the written composition of the students?

On the other hand, the researchers likewise create research assumptions on each of the following research questions.

1. The lexical richness of the written compositions of BSED- English III students along with its three aspects, which are lexical diversity, lexical density, and lexical sophistication, vary from the four vocabulary frequency lists of Laufer and Nation (1995).
2. The written compositions of the BSED- English III students had shown vary of result of English language proficiency level based from the proposed analysis of Laufer and Nation (1995) about the levels of vocabulary frequency in writing.

Scope and Delimitation

This study focused mainly on the lexical richness of the compositions made by BSED- English III students’ of Sorsogon State College- Bulan, Campus of the current year 2017-2018. It involves thirty- third-year English majors whom made two different compositions as requirements in one of their subjects, which will be used by the present study as the first significant input to attain its objectives. The study will not go beyond the paradigm of lexical richness such as grammar, content and mechanics, but it may discuss some factors like vocabulary size and vocabulary acquisition that may influence the lexical richness due to the need of determining the level of language proficiency, which their written compositions have shown.
Significance of the Study

Laufer (2003) stresses that using different words in the text, which commonly refers, as lexical richness is a part of lexical competence. It may depict that a learner has a rich vocabulary that enables him/her to express his/her thoughts in an organize pattern without overusing the words. However, Laufer and Nation (1995) classify English words into three band namely: high frequency words, low-frequency words, and academic words, which may affect the attainment of the lexical richness of any written compositions despite the presence of different words. They explained that the most frequent words are essential for any real language use but it was under the level of less proficient learners.

On the other hand, the use of low-frequency words and academic words is an indicator of richness in a learner’s vocabulary, which is essential for academic success. Likewise, it was under the level of advanced learners. Therefore, the target respondents must achieve lexical richness because they are future language teachers who will develop writing proficiency among their future students. Moreover, Laufer and Nation added that richer vocabulary is characteristic of better language, which typically anchored in the concept of language proficiency.

The findings of this study on the respondents’ lexical richness will create a reservoir of information that can be used as a tangible reference for more meaningful educational services. Much of the research data may be useful in the solution of problems related to English language learning as well as teaching.

The researchers hope that the results of this study will of significance to the following:

• Students- For them to be able to assess themselves in their writing competence; to be able to enrich their vocabulary, and to be able to improve their performance.
• BSED- English students- For them to realize how valuable to be proficient in the English language not only for the sake of professional competence but also as a pedestal of knowledge in the English language.
• Teachers- This study will help the teachers/ instructors to make use of teaching methods or instructions, which can empower the vocabulary of the learners and they can be able to apply it to written or spoken discourse. Moreover, it can also contribute to teaching the students how they can develop their writing skills and writing proficiency which indeed a premise for an L2 learner and for a man who wanted to be part of emerging globalization.
• State Campus Administrators and Supervisors- They can use the results of the study as a reference in formulating school policies and programs for the student’s learning progress. They can also initiate in-service training/seminars based on the learners’ needs in terms of English language learning.
• Curriculum Planners- This may provide them certain basis on what are the appropriate written curricula to be used by the teachers, which can develop the lexical competence, writing proficiency, and language proficiency of the learners.
• Computer programmers- The study will use computer software that will measure the lexical richness of the written compositions of the respondents. Thus, this might be a springboard of idea for those computer programmers whom would like to create the same or more advance lexical richness software that can help the researchers, students, teachers, and another group of persons who are in need with this kind of software.
• Future Researchers- This study may serve as a guide for those who want to do the same kind of research. Significantly, this may be an emblem for those researchers of the same school who plan to continue and broaden the study that can contribute in the quality of education which the Alma Mater offering.