education

Introduction

The following is a research essay that focuses on the stress and tension level faced by the higher education bearing international students. It would include all the necessary details and information which would highlight the problems, circumstances, living conditions, and living styles inherited by the higher education students.

Discussion

(Sidhu, 2006) Basically, international students are those education bearers who travel from their homeland to other countries in order to attain and gain higher education with flying colors. There are hundreds and thousands of students who travel every year internationally just to gain higher and quality education for improving their future aspects and to attain their future goals of life. For many years, students have traveled abroad in the search of opportunities to advance and increase their knowledge and educational level. Most of the international students prefer the United States, the United Kingdom, Australia and other parts of Asia to have the best quality education providing universities around the globe. This is because of the fact that higher education is considered to be one of the most significant commodities for the international students. Secondly, international students bring a lot to their host universities; such as, diverse backgrounds, assorted cultures, new perceptions, and augmentation of multicultural surroundings within the learning centers. This helps the students to live with different groups of people while gaining education from a single centre point and provides the opportunity to the students to learn helping and to live with other students from different family backgrounds, castes, religions (Sisk, 2009).

(Grünzweig & Rinehart; 2003) Despite all the advantages of gaining education, there is a particular dark side present that generates many of difficulties and problems for international students while living abroad for higher education. The problems and issues are several that affect the learning process and mental capabilities of international students as a whole. problems such as, poor quality teaching, lack of support from the teachers’ side, increasing educational demands, increasing academic responsibilities, new place to live all alone, changes in social and sexual identity, financial responsibilities and issues, difficult peer pressures, and mainly the depression and stress level faced by the international students. Among all these problems, a number of international students have agreed that stress and depression is the main problem they face while living abroad for higher education. It is because there are so many things to do within a short span of time and most of the time, they not only feel alone without their families, but also face financial difficulties and lack of confident support from their teachers in the universities (Liu, 2001).

(Schweitzer et al, 2006) The high extent of stress and depression level faced by the higher education international students gives rise to the use of alcohol intake, drugs and even suicides at times. The extent of stress level becomes so high and unbearable that the young high education students do not fear committing suicide so that they could get rid of all the problems they are facing from their educational side.

(Sisk, 2009) In order to deal with the level of high stress and depression by the international higher education students, it is recommended that these students should be given extra care and attention as compared to the local higher education students. In this way, they would feel that the teachers and the university management care about them. Apart from that, another thing that could help these students to reduce stress level is to run an evaluation of causative reasons and dynamics, discussion of treatment or healing or behavior options, and ruling out any physical grounds. Once the sol problem of the student is diagnosed behind stress, it becomes easier to treat and clarify that particular problem by counseling the student. This may include the short-term or long-term counseling therapy for the international student so that that student could focus on his academics and educational activities without facing any type of problem or stress level.

References

Ravinder Kaur Sidhu, 2006, Universities & globalization: to market, to market; Published by Routledge, p198.

Jennifer Sisk, 2009, Depression on College Campuses — The Downside of Higher Education, Social Work Today Website, Vol. 6 No. 5 P. 17, Web.

Walter Grünzweig, Nana Rinehart; 2003, Rockin’ in Red Square: critical approaches to international education in the age of cyberculture, Published by LIT Verlag Berlin-Hamburg-Münster, p140.

Jun Liu, 2001, Asian students’ classroom communication patterns in U.S. universities: an emic perspective, Published by Greenwood Publishing Group, p2.

Eluned Roberts-Schweitzer, Vincent Greaney, Kreszentia Duer; 2006, Promoting social cohesion through education: case studies and tools for using textbooks and curricula; Published by World Bank Publications, p60.

Learning disabilities in children is something which cannot be clearly defined. It mainly affects spoken language, written language, memory, arithmetic and reasoning. 6-10 percent of the school-aged children are estimated to have learning disabilities in the United States. It makes academic achievement and progress difficult for the children and their development is found to be uneven. In most cases, these children are found to have compensatory skills even better than others. It is important for the parents and teachers to take proper care of the children from an early age itself, in order to help him get normal education.

Though these disabilities remain throughout the children’s lives, proper care and special attention can reduce its effects on them and help them achieve whatever they earlier found difficult. The disabilities are usually recognized at the time when children join elementary schools because that’s when they try to read, write and memorize. Teachers play an important role in identifying students with various disabilities. Once any of the above mentioned problems is seen, it requires for immediate special attention on the part of the teachers and parents. According to the disabilities, children receive either special attention in ordinary schools, or they are transferred to special schools where teachers are trained to guide and encourage them.

Whether the students attend a special school or a normal school, it is the responsibility of the teachers to give all the care and support to the special needs of students. Students with learning disabilities in elementary schools have a tendency to develop a low self-esteem when they find that they are not capable of doing things the same way and with the same speed as others and that is when the role of instructors comes in. Educators other than regular teachers are often more accepted by the students. Learning support teachers in the elementary LD programs observe and assess these children, and their needs. Separate learning strategies are developed for them with necessary modifications and adaptations to suite their disabilities. For example, demonstrations and visuals are frequently used in teaching. Their performances and progress are constantly monitored, so that changes in teaching methods can be made if essential. Individual attention is required in most cases, and so resource rooms and classrooms in special schools contain only about 8-10 students.

They encourage these students to participate in extra activities like the other normal students or in case of special schools, organize activities which will boost the confidence level of the students. Student disabilities include the inability to understand the teacher instructions. In such cases, direct instructions which do not confuse the children are given. It is found that older students are often helpful to the younger ones. Studies also show that peer tutoring is effective in children with learning disabilities. This requires the teacher to identify peers who are capable of teaching effectively and patiently. There have been successful cases of disabled students teaching other disabled students in the same resource room. This proves that age difference is not a criterion in peer-tutoring programs.(pg-1528, Encyclopedia of Special Education).

For these purposes, enough support is given to the elementary schools. This includes providing itinerant support to the students, their families and teachers, special materials required for teaching them, special education teachers and assistants and consultants to the schools. Elementary school-based counseling is one service provided in schools. Counselors also give personal talks to the students in cases of social or emotional stress. Since, the development as students begins in elementary schools, it is very important to support them the right way, so that they are encouraged to overcome their disabilities at least to an extent.

Middle School Significant Support Needs Class

When entering middle schools, children with learning disabilities face a lot of new problems. The new campuses which are bigger with more teachers and students, the requirement to move from one class to another after each hour, increasing homework and class-work, the introduction of using lockers are just a few of them. Children who attend the resource classes find it difficult to adjust regular studies and special education together. At this age, the students are expected to develop an individuality. The social pressure becomes high and the right guidance must be given by parents and special educators, in order to make progress like the other children.

Middle schools demand more from all students which only worsens the problems of the disabled students. They are required to learn complex theories, and understand itsconcepts. Critical thinking and problem solving becomes important at this level. Learning social skills, life skills and safety skills is difficult for them, but since at this stage, they are encouraged to begin being independent of their parents, a knowledge about these skills becomes essential.

It is at this point that the Special Support Needs program becomes relevant. Every neighbourhood school might give special attention and care to the disabled students. However, not all of them will be successful in providing it to a greater extend. Some of the students may need more than the school provisions. For this reason, Academy School District 20, provides services to meet the needs of all the students. Specialized center-based programs help in reducing the impairments and disabilities of students through Significant Support Needs(SSN) classrooms. “Each middle school and high school has an SSN classroom, and so is able to provide a continuum of services within the building for students with significant cognitive delays or multiple disabilities.” (Special education, 2009).

The idea behind SSN classrooms is to meet the diverse requirements of all students with learning disabilities. Apart from the class teacher, each SSN classroom staffs one or more paraprofessionals. The main goal of such classrooms is to teach the disabled students to be as independent as possible. Every student is made to work independently for at least some time daily, though they are under the supervision of the para-educators throughout the day.Even students with maximum attention, are made to move from one classroom to another independently. Instructions about life, vocational and social skills and recreation-leisure skills are given to the students. Individual guidance is also given individually, based on the student requirements. Peer tutoring, which is one of the best ways, is practiced, along with occasional classes by older students.

The para-educators are responsible for the health and safety of the students. They monitor the performances of the children, and implement the teachers’ lesson plans using techniques understandable to the children. Often these educators develop a very warm relationship with the students which help in guiding them sincerely. Complete devotion and patience are essential in tutoring children with special needs. The co-operation of the students is also important, which includes not only following the educators’ instructions, but also interacting with them about the difficulties that they face. Attempts made in the right direction can help the students develop as successful individuals and be independent in making decisions.

High School Significant Support Needs Class

With the advancement in medical technology and improved diagnosis, most cases of learning disabilities in children are identified at an early stage itself. This helps in giving proper guidance to the them from the elementary school age. Until the 1950s and 1960s, disabled children were not educated or considered equal as others. But with the civil rights movement, parents of disabled children began to demand the same freedom as others, to educate their children in normal schools. Getting a high school diploma is not easy; even normal students do not find every subject easy. Along with this, the school environment and the transition to adult lives provides challenges to them.

Special support must be given to them if they are to succeed in lives. One way, found most effective is, their inclusion at normal high schools and classrooms. Inclusion differs from mainstreaming, which was the only option in earlier times. Inclusion allows the disabled children to attend normal classrooms, but they are provided special coaching in their regular classrooms if required by special education teachers. They need to meet only the Individual Education Program goals in order to get a high school diploma and not necessarily the essentials of that grade level. Mainstreaming, restricted the children to IEP and the end goal was to meet all the essentials of that grade level which they found difficult. They were given special classes in different study hall and not their home classroom. Also, no special education teacher was assigned in earlier times for this purpose. Now, the educational system equally supports children with disabilities. This kind of a partial inclusion model is the best way for them. Inclusive classrooms help them to improve their academic performances, motivate them better and develop as independent individuals.

Another method adopted is the after school classes, which give opportunities to the students in a range of ways. After school programs organize various activities for children with and without disabilities. Many of these activities are extra-curricular, and they make use of technology and supplemental services, and also creative and collaborative planning to enhance everyone’s participation in it. These activities include, theatre and arts, cooking and academic clubs and athletics.

Such activities improve their academic achievement, school attendance, aspirations, social competence and behavior. “After school programs provide students with special needs opportunities to increase their skills while building on their potential.” (Griffin, 2008). It helps them to stay with the high school program providing all the instructions for academic improvement. Physical activities including games, make them healthy and smart, besides providing opportunities to mingle with other students and developing social skills. They are made assume leadership in many of the activities, which teach them the importance of leading and taking responsibilities. As leadership qualities develop, they learn to be independent in decision-making, which makes them more confident about themselves and their talents.

What must be taken care of while selecting the activities for after-school programs is that they must be of interest to the children and not their needs alone. The aim of such programs is to help the children attain the highest degree possible by learning the various life skills. Since, only the fittest survives today, it is of great consequence to equip them with all the qualities that other children have.

Transition Program

Once it is time for children to leave high school, they begin to plan their future and act accordingly. Children with disabilities are not often very successful in planning their future. They are unable to decide whether they would like take up job, join universities for higher studies or learn extra skills required to lead a successful life, because they find every option equally difficult. It is found that almost 47 percent of the disabled students drop out of high schools before they decide whether to pursue higher studies or take up jobs and begin living independently. Transition programs which are of various kinds help them be independent by providing support in getting a job or joining for higher studies.

Transition programs offer different services to the students. Many of them have introduced innovative methods to provide the students with real-life skills and job experiences. Some of them enable the students to join for higher studies in universities. Vocational Rehabilitation(VR) program is an example of such a transition program.

VR program becomes important when the students begin to plan about what to do after high school. They begin their services when the students are still in school or after completing high school education by providing opportunities for students with disabilities in higher education, additional formal skill training and job placements. Attaining a job requires the students to have knowledge about proper money management. Many of the jobs also require for a thorough information about the latest technologies and developments and methods of making use of them. The students will need the guidance of someone like special educators at school, to inform about all available opportunities. While the special classes in schools help in being socially and individually independent, VR program helps in becoming economically independent through work.

The first step in it is the reference given by high school to VR, following what they will begin preparing the necessary paperwork for the program, so that help can be provided as early as possible after the student finishes his high school education. The students will be contacted by the VR counselor for interviews in order to decide what services are required for each student based on individual disabilities and requirements. Planning for a vocational goal is usually begun while the student is still in school. IPE or Individual Plan for Employment is developed by the counselor for the students. “…it includes: your vocational goal, intermediate objectives, responsibilities that both you and the counselor have accepted, and a list of services that VR will sponsor.” (Services for students transitioning from school to work, 2009). This is based on an agreement signed by the students and the counselor after the interviews.

However, there certain limitations to what the VR program can do. It cannot sponsor for any educational services before the students have completed high school education. If a high school does not have an agreement with VR program, then their services are limited to finishing the eligibility process of the students.

Though transition programs are of great help to the disabled students, they have taken a back seat due to a number of reasons like, the lack of enough efficient transition specialists. It is found that only 30 percent of the disabled graduates and 45 percent of the post-graduate students take up jobs successfully. It is absolutely essential to understand that special services are necessary until the students finish their education and successfully take up jobs.

Secondary Sied Program

SIED refers to significant identifiable emotional disabilities in children. It includes an inability to learn which cannot be explained by the intellectual, sensory or health factors, inability to mingle and interact socially and effectively with teachers and peers, inappropriate behavioral patterns, depression and symptoms of fear for personal and school matters. Such students behave aggressively towards people unexpectedly, occasionally has hallucinations. All these problems affect their academics because, they are unable to concentrate most of the time in class. They are unable to build friends because of their lack of social skills. Any student who misbehaves in school can be suspended or expelled from the institution and this includes even students with disabilities. Three instances of misbehavior can lead to their suspension upto ten days a year. It is important to guide them properly, so that they do not face suspension for reasons they are not consciously responsible.

It is the responsibility of the teachers to understand and cope better with behavior problems of the students in classrooms. They must help them improve in academics and other activities. They must also refer the students to mental health services outside the school, if necessary. Each student will have different behavioral problems. The teacher should be able to identify the needs of individual students and use different methods for each case. RTI or Response to Intervention is an approach is SIED program to promote the general, compensatory, gifted education in students with high-standard instruction methods matching the children’s behavioral and emotional needs. Extra support is given by the educators, including the teachers and special educators in academics and extra activities. Intensive support teams help the children in improving their academic results which also improves their behavioral problems to an extent. Counselors and special educators play an important role in understanding the requirements of the children, since they spend most of their time with students.

Emotional disturbances must be carefully treated, because very often the cases are complex. Every student must be taught to trust others, feel worthy enough of oneself to take responsibilities. They must be taught to control their impulses and behaviors according to the different environments. They should understand how to interact successfully with their peers and politely with their teachers. The students must learn to cope with stress, which is very important once they are in high school, universities or jobs. Teachers must also create an environment encouraging for the students, by explaining to the other students, the need the accommodate the requirements of disabled students. Predictable environments help the students to an extend in controlling their impulses, because generally unexpected happenings frighten them. “Environmental management refers to thesystematic use of resources, physical factors, and organizational andcommunication schema to structure the students total environment for the of providing necessary support and control.” (Skalski, 2000).

Apart from this, SIED researchers also study more cases of emotional disturbances in order to innovate new techniques which will greatly help the students in a better way. This program is very helpful and of great relevance because emotional development is as important as physical and mental development in leading a successful career and life.

References

Griffin, Marissa. (2008). After school and students with special needs. After School Alert Issue Brief. Web.

Services for students transitioning from school to work. (2009). DES. Web.

Skalski, Anastasia Kalamaros. (2000). Guidebook for determining the eligibility of students with a significant identifiable emotional disability (SIED). Colorado Department of Education. Web.

Special education. (2009). Academy District 20. Web.

Introduction

In self-contained programs, the students are put in a special surrounding for learning isolated from the other students. In these programs, the students are given high level of support and attention under special education at all times. This is due to the unique nature of their educational needs which often concentrate on enabling them to meet the normal academic standards, developing their socializing capabilities and mannerisms so that they can be integrated into the normal school settings. The students usually have the same educational necessities e.g. all pupil that are talented in an institution will be confined in one learning room for a time, the pupils may be in the same grade level.( Carol Bainbridge, 2008).

In educational terms they are programs that help physically challenged, especially children in academics and other essential skills while for secondary students attention is directed towards their homes, neighborhood and skills related to life community.(Central Kitsap school district). Success doesn’t come by confining the physically challenged in self –contained environment only, it’s the quality of the program in that surrounding that matters.(Mike Muir, 2006). According to central Kitsap school district the beneficiaries are the physically challenged for example those with disabilities in their behavior, serious disabilities, partial disabilities and those that cant hear.

Implementation of self-contained programs

Before students are enrolled in the self contained programs, they are tested to determine if they qualify. Once they join the schools their parents are usually given opportunities to interact with the students and their teachers to see how their learning is carried out. Some of the schools offering self-contained programmes are: Kitsap,Pacific view high school, Community day school, Washington high school, Social adjustment class. Pacific view high school offers “self-contained classroom environment”. there students are assisted to enhance turnout, educational presentation, and also their conduct. Community day school helps students set a trend of educational success while Kitsap offers the following programs: Educational and elementary skills for junior and senior high levels ( Central Kitsap School District). Those who are in secondary Kitsap dwell on home, society, and work related living skills. Kitsap objective is to have students in their program linked to existing agencies that assist the physically challenged in the neighborhood or even get work if possible. Kitsap is helpful to assist institutions to help students that have problems with their behavior to implement programs make many students prosper in their home institution. Kitsap offer “adapted physical education for students with the disabilities”, who are unable to engage in usual normal bodily exercise done often.

The students development through the program is usually evaluated to see how they are fairing. Those who show signs of improvements capability to learn normally are incorporated in the normal learning curriculums progressively.

Challenges faced in self-contained programs

Institution find it hard acting in response to their “hard to teach” unique needs including students that posses traits of behavior challenge.It has been discovered that self-contained programs are not practical, students are left to make decisions on their own , teachers bear no blame on students actions. According to new York youth policy ,the weakest students in school have20 or more absenteeism. Also majority of institutions don’t keep these data therefore are ignorant of this trend. There is inconsistency of data concerning handicapped kids that distort the program of special education.

Benefits of self-contained programs

Through the self-contained programs efforts to avoid dropout have been implemented by national dropout prevention centre by laying down some fundamental techniques e.g. mentoring and tutorial service, learning alternative schooling and after school opportunities”, reducing the number of students per teacher( Mike Muir, 2006). This increases the attention paid to a single student by the teacher.

There are some changes which should be made to improve the quality of self-contained programs. These are discouraging altering data on handicapped pupils, (Education Research Information Centre). Teachers should not give students too much freedom because they can hurt themselves since they don’t understand themselves. The teachers should understand the students to be able to guide the the physically challenged students before they make mistakes. Generally there are calls for all students to be enrolled in inclusive education programs instead of the self contained ones since they tend to perform better that way (Sara Signor, Michael LeBlanc, James McDougal, 2007).

References

1. Carol Bainbridge. About.com. Gifted Children. Self-Contained Classroom. 2008. Web.
2. Central Kitsap School District. Self Contained Program. 2007.
3. Mike Muir. The Principals’ Partnership. Self-Contained Programs. 2006.
4. Sara Signor, Michael LeBlanc, James McDougal. State University of New York at Oswego. Academic Achievement in Self-Contained vs. Inclusive Special Education Classrooms.

Introduction

Education is a very important aspect of one’s life. To this lies the future growth and success of everybody. However, there are various challenges to successful education.

One big challenge is the capability of the educators or educational policy makers to motivate the students to learn. To facilitate learning, it is not enough that the teachers know how to teach the subjects. It is also very important that the teachers know how to keep and maintain the power of enhancing the students’ ability and skills through motivation (Bruner, 1996). If the teachers do not possess such skills, students’ successful education could be at stake.

Another challenge in the conduct of successful learning is the proper or improper use instructional designs and materials. Improper use of instructional designs may lead to problems pertaining to the students’ cultural and cross cultural diversity, language barrier, unavailability of resources (such as financial sources) and lower level of interest towards the subject matter. Meanwhile, the use of different visual aids, and/or other form instructional materials also greatly affects the students’ learning. If an educational institution could not provide appropriate teaching materials and equipments, and a place conducive to learning, facilitation of education will never be successful (Bruner, 1996).

In connection with all of these, there have been recent studies conducted which reveal that reading and comprehension is becoming a challenging tasks for the teachers. Students who are in the primary years of school are already being taught for proper reading and comprehension, especially during the levels 1 and two. However, various research giving bodies have reported that an increasing number of students are now in the higher level of education but their reading and comprehension skills are not equivalent to their level of education.

Purpose of the study

This paper is aimed at analyzing if different reading strategies/techniques improve students’ reading ability/fluency. Specifically, this paper is intended for:

• Identifying the needs of students to improve their reading fluency
• Categorizing the different approach being used concerning reading and comprehension

Increased Students’ Reading Fluency: How Do We Go About It?

The Teachers

Teachers are fundamental to any student success. A series of studies have confirmed that good teachers, effective teachers, matter much more than particular curriculum materials, pedagogical approaches, or “proven programs” (Allington, 2002). The National Commission of Teaching and American’s Future (1996) states, what teachers know and do is the most important influence on what students learn. Furthermore, studies show that teacher expertise is the most important factor in student achievement. Competent teaching depends on educators who deeply understand subject matter and how to teach in ways that motivate children and help them learn. A student that has an effective teacher three years in a row scores at 50 percentile points higher on achievement test than a student who does not have an effective teacher over the same time span (Darling-Hammond, 1997).

Good teachers will seek ways to teach and motivate students to read. Good teachers also understand that they do not know it all and will continue to learn through professional development. Professional development is a catalyst that begins the process to the improvement of student achievement. Effective professional development will not just give teachers tips on how to teach, but give them an understanding about the subject matter, understanding how students learn, and how best to present the body of knowledge. As professionals, teachers should recognize that their learning about teaching does not stop when they are credentialed. Rather, they look forward to continue learning throughout their teaching career and to be able to improve their practice extensively with appropriate professional development learning opportunities.

They recognize that they practice in circumstances that are different each year, that much of their knowledge is embedded in their practice rather than in codified bodies of knowledge, and that their extensive, complex knowledge or lack of, particularly with respect to their understanding of how learners learn, profoundly influences how they teach (Loucks-Horsely, Hewson, Love, and Stiles). Effective professional development will also help teachers with the everyday practice of teaching. Many times teachers do not have time to think about their craft (National Foundation for the Improvement of Education, 1996) and the everyday activities that connect instruction to learning for a diverse population of students.

In addition, it is suggested that when professional development is focused on academic content and curriculum that is aligned with standards-based reform, teaching practice and student achievement are likely to improve (Wiley and Yoon, 1995). In order to accomplish this, a variety of trainings cannot be posted for teachers to robotically choose for points or to meet their desires. Effective professional development has to focus on the content and curriculum aligned to the standards with an emphasis on effective teaching practices. To be successful, three elements must be present: (1) Policies must support coherent and integrated professional development; (2) Leadership must make student, teacher, and organizational learning a priority; (3) There must be sufficient time and resource for promising professional development to take hold (Adger & Clair 1999; Darling-Hammond, 1997; Gonzalez & Darling-Hammond, 1997).

Teachers have to have time to collaborate and learn together to improve their instructional practices. Ending with Locuks-Horsely (1998), “Although professional development is not a panacea, it can support changes in such areas as standards, assessment, and curriculum, creating the culture and capacity for continuous improvement that is so critical for educators facing current and future challenges” (pg. 4).

Additional Time

Students that struggle in reading need more reading instructional time to have any opportunity to become proficient in the reading process. Less than half the day is spent reading. Students are engaged in a variety of activities, but much of that time is not spent on reading instruction (Allington, 2002). Elementary students need at least 90 minutes of reading instruction and students that struggle in reading need an additional 25-30 minutes of reading instruction added (Vaughn, Linan-Thompson, Wanzek, Rodriguez, Cavanaugh, Sanderson, Roberts, Elbaum, Torgesen, 2004).

Students need time for activities that allow them to hear an effective reading model, to read together, and to read independently. For a classroom teacher to effectively teach the five areas of reading to primary aged students she would need 90 minutes of daily reading instruction. As stated above, for struggling students they need even more time. Many schools struggle to find additional time during the regular school day; however, there are other options that should be considered to afford those students more time. Addition time can be provide by after school programs, summer school program, and extended school year (U.S. Department of Education). The success of using time outside the school day is presenting instruction in a different and engaging way to maintain student interest. Recent reviews of research on summer school show that high quality programs can make a difference in student learning (Harrington-Lueker, 2000). While additional time is important, what is more important is what teachers accomplish with that time.

High-quality research based curriculum and instruction

With a 90 minute block of time for reading instruction, teachers need to focus on the five essential elements of reading identified by The National Reading Panel, (2001) as critical to successful reading instruction: phonemic awareness, phonics, vocabulary, fluency, and comprehension. It is vital to define each of these important processes of reading using definitions from Reading Rockets out of the office of Special Education (2004 n. pg.).

Phonemic awareness is the ability to discern, contemplate, manipulate and work with the individual sounds in spoken words. An example of how beginning readers show they have phonemic awareness is combining or blending the separate sounds of a word to say the word (“/d/ /o/ /g/ – dog.”).

Phonics is a form of instruction to develop the understanding and use of the alphabetic principle (Tomlinson, 1999), that there is a predictable relationship between phonemes (the sounds in spoken language) and graphemes, the letters that represent those sounds in written language and that this information can be used to read or decode words.

Text comprehension is the reason for reading: understanding what is read, with readers reading actively (engaging in the complex process of making sense from text) and with purpose (for learning, understanding, or enjoyment) (Tomlinson, 1999). Comprehension involves the understanding of main idea, support details, inference, and predicting.

Phonemic Awareness

Phonemic awareness is the foundation skill that students need to master early in their academic career. It is important for student to master phonemic awareness because it improves a student’s word reading and it helps students learn to spell. Through the Dibels assessments (Marion County Public Schools Assessment, 2003) students can be identified as having phonemic awareness weakness, it with this information instruction can be planned and delivered for those students who need more remediation in this skill. Third grade students should have mastered this skill within the first two years of school. According to Hall and Moats (1999) it can take four times as much intervention to improve a child’s phonemic awareness reading skills if help is delayed until grade 4 than if it is begun in the first year of school.

This is particularly critical in the area of basic skills instruction (vocabulary development, phonemic awareness, and word recognition). Care should be taken not to emphasize skill instruction based on one single viewpoint or approach. Presenting skills through a narrow scheme of instruction might not be responsive to students’ myriad needs in upper grades. Although systematic and explicit skill instruction is appropriate when needed, flexibility in approach is needed (Schifini, n. d.). Once students have mastered phonemic awareness, there is no need to continue instruction in this area. Many teachers use music, poetry, and other activities that have rhyme in the content to teach phonemic awareness. Teachers should spend 10-15 minutes daily on phonemic awareness instruction (Center for the Improvement of Early Reading Achievement (CIEA), 2001).

Phonics

There has been much debate about phonics instruction. However, recent research has given phonics another look and has determined phonic instruction is needed (Hempenstall, 2002). Students that master phonics will have the decoding process in hand and can focus on building fluency and comprehension. Use direct, systematic explicit phonics instruction as a primary component of a reading program. CIEA states, “Systematic instruction includes a carefully selected set of letter-sound relationships that are organized into a logical sequence, and explicit are programs that provide teachers with specific directions for the teaching of these relationship” (p.19). The issue is not whether to use phonics or whole language in reading instruction. “Rather, the issue is how phonics is used; as a primary component of a reading program, as well as when we use phonics; at the beginning reading level” (Dakin, A., 1999). Students who master the decoding process enjoy reading more because they can spend more time on fluency and comprehension. Children who quickly develop competent decoding processes find reading easier because they can concentrate on the meaning of the text. They read more in school and, of equal importance, reading becomes a self-chosen activity for them (Stanovich, 1986). Phonics instruction needs to start in kindergarten and in combination with phonemic awareness instruction. Phonics instruction should occur daily and over a period of two years in the primary grades.

Vocabulary

As stated on the previous page there are different types of vocabulary and students really need each type. However, the most important type for improvement of the reading process is reading vocabulary. When students lack a vast reading vocabulary, they are unable to build fluency and comprehension. This situation contributes to what are called “Matthew Effects,” that is, interactions with the environment that exaggerate individual differences over time, with “rich get richer, poor get poorer” consequences. Good readers read more, become even better readers, and learn more words; poor readers read less, become poorer readers, and learn fewer words (Stahl, 1999). Indeed, the vocabulary problems of students who enter school with poor or limited vocabularies only worsen over time (White, Graves, & Slater, 1990). Students can receive explicit vocabulary instruction through a variety of methods, such as, modeling, reading to students, and using context clues. It is important to use more than the dictionary as the sole source of learning new and unfamiliar words (Texas Reading Imitative, 2002). Student can also learn vocabulary through oral language and listening to adults read to and with them. Vocabulary instruction should be a daily practice with in the reading blocks as well as integrated into other subject areas.

Other important instructional methods

The five areas of reading must be delivered in a variety of instructional methods. The teacher must understand and build on student difference (Tomlinson, 1999). By understanding the five critical elements of the reading process and understanding her students’ strength and weaknesses a teacher can make decisions as to the best instructional strategies to use. The teacher can deliver any of those elements by whole group, small group, literacy centers (listening center, writing center, computer center, independent reading center, and a teacher center), shared reading, read aloud, and guided reading center (Marion County Public Schools Reading Plan, 2000).

Preschool and early literacy opportunities

Research on preschool has show positive result for minority and low social economic children. Preschool is not Kindergarten classroom watered down, preschool give students a foundation in the pre-reading skills through play, songs, and limited structure instruction. “It is in the non-cognitive realm, however, that the greatest benefits of preschool experience occur. Longitudinal studies, some of which have followed preschool graduates all the way into adulthood, have identified many positive and significant relationships between preschool participation and task-related, social, and attitudinal outcomes” (Cotton & Conklin, 2001, n. pg.). For the purpose of the paper, the number one positive relationship between preschool participation is to retention. That is fewer retentions. Preschool graduates were less likely to repeat grades (Berrueta-Clement, et al. 1985; Consortium for Longitudinal Studies 1983; Illinois State Board of Education 1985; Schweinhart 1985; Stallings and Stipek 1986; Powell 1986). Also, preschool programs that focus on language development (McKey, 1985) contribute to student reading success. Preschool students should be involved in phonemic awareness and basic phonics prereading activities that will be the foundation to long-term reading success (Smothergill, 1971).

Conclusion

Based on the information presented above, it cannot be denied that using a number of strategies can really increase students’ reading fluency. These strategies may involve the teachers, parents and even the students themselves.

For students to become fluent readers they must have mastered the above skills. Students who are fluent will not have to spend time to recognize each letter or each word. Fluent readers will spend their time comprehending the meaning from the text. Students become fluent readers by listening to good role models and practice (Foorman, 2002). Fluency can be further enhanced when students participate in repeated reading and guided repeated orally reading. Using those two strategies are more effective than independent reading. Comprehension is enhanced when a student can fluently and smoothly (Breznitz, & Share, 1992; Fuchs & Maxwell, 1988). In a study conducted by National Assessment of Educational Progress (NAEP) 44% of the students with low comprehension scores had poor fluency (Pinnell, et al. 1995). Fluency instruction occurs several days a week and should continue until the student becomes proficient with few word recognition errors.

Meanwhile, most researchers will refer to comprehension instruction as text comprehension. Text comprehension refers to gaining meaning from text (National Institute of Literacy, 2002). Students will never master the reading process completely, if they do not master comprehension of text. Without comprehension students will not enjoy reading. Good readers will use reading as a means to gain understanding, information, and pure enjoyment of a good story. Comprehension is the whole purpose for reading. Many teachers simply believe students will automatically comprehend if they are fluent readers. Comprehension must be taught and students must learn comprehension strategies (CIERA, 2001) Comprehension can be taught by explicit instruction, modeling, graphic organizers, summarizing, story retelling, and other organizers (National Institute of Literacy, 2002). No matter what form of instruction is used it must be flexibly and in combination with literature and expository text.

Reading is the gateway skill to all other learning. Students who struggle with reading will feel the “Matthew Effect” the rich get richer in their reading ability and the poor get poorer in their reading ability (White, Graves, & Slater, 1990). Students must master the reading process as defined by the National Reading Panel, (2002) a complex system of deriving meaning from print that requires all of the following:

• the skills and knowledge to understand how phonemes, or speech sounds, are connected to print;
• the ability to decode unfamiliar words;
• the ability to read fluently;
• sufficient background information and vocabulary to foster reading comprehension;
• the development of appropriate active strategies to construct meaning from print; the development and maintenance of a motivation to read.

Reference list

Allington, R. 2002.”What I’ve Learned About Effective Reading Instruction from a Decade of Studying Exemplary Elementary Classroom Teachers” (Phi Delta Kappan, Vol. 83, No. 10 (2002): 740-747.

Bond, Linda A. (1996). “Norm- and criterion-referenced testing.” Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 5(2). Web.

Bruner, J. (1996). The Culture of Education, Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.

Chute, E. 1998. “Social Promotions Flunk Out of School.” Post-Gazette.com. Web.

“Florida Department of Education”. (2002). Florida Statue 1008.25. Web.

Florida Department of Education. (2003). Third Grade Parent Guide. Web.

Foorman, B. 2002.” Definitions and Overview of Fluency: Conceptual and Methodological Challenges.” Pacific Regional National Laboratory.

Hall, S. H., & Moats, L. C. (1999). “Straight talk about reading: How parents can make a difference during the early years.” Chicago: Contemporary Books.

Hempenstall, K. “The relationship between phonics and phonemic awareness Beginning and remedial reading instruction: The intertwined roles of phonics and phonemic awareness.” Web.

Lloyd, D. (1978). “Prediction of school failure from third-grade data”. Educational and Psychological Measurement, 38, 1193–1200.

Loucks-Horsely, S., Hewson, P., Love, N. and Stiles, K. (1998). “Designing professional development for teachers of science and mathematics”. Thousand Oaks, CA: Corwin Press.

Loucks-Horsely, S. (Spring 1998). “Effective professional development for teachers of mathematics.” Ideas that work: Mathematics professional development (p. 4). Columbus, OH: Eisenhower National Clearinghouse.

Marion County Public Schools. (2005). “Database of Student Records”. Marion County Student Progression Plan. Web.

National Foundation for the Improvement of Education. (1996). “Teachers take charge of their Learning”. Washington, D.C.

“National Institute of Child Health and Human Development”. 2001b. Report of the National Reading Panel: Teaching Children to Read. An Evidence-Based Assessment of the Scientific Research Literature on Reading and Its Implications for Reading Instruction. Washington DC: National Institutes of Health.

Raven, J. N. (1997). “Phonics and whole language: Friends or foes?”

Stanovich, K. (1986). “Cognitive processes and the reading problems of learning disabled children: Evaluating the assumption of specificity”. In J. Torgersen & B. Wong (Eds.), Psychological and educational perspectives on learning disabilities (pp. 87-131). New York: Academic Press.

Stahl, S. A. (1999). “Vocabulary development”. Cambridge, MA: Brookline Books.

Stanovich, K. E. (1986). “Matthew effects in reading: Some consequences of individual differences in the acquisition of literacy”. Reading Research Quarterly, 21, 360–407.

Stroup, A., & Robins, L. (1972). “Elementary school predictors of high school dropout among black males”. Sociology of Education, 45, 212–222.

Texas Reading Initiative. 2002. “Promoting Vocabulary Development Components of Effective Vocabulary Instruction”. Web.

Vaughn, S., Linan-Thompson, S., Wanzek, T., Rodriquez, K., Cavanaugh, C., Roberts, S., Elbaum, B., Torgesen, J. (2004). “Preventing Reading Difficulties: A Three Tiered Intervention Model”. Web.

White, T. G., Graves, M. F., & Slater W. H. (1990). “Growth of reading vocabulary in diverse elementary schools: Decoding and word meaning”. Journal of Educational Psychology, 82, 281–290.

Introduction

The principles of equality have been part of the most diverse political ideologies, currents of philosophical thought, and moral and religious beliefs especially in societies under the influence of western culture. Mostly the debate on equality is not about its importance or values as an irregular ideal, but about the meaning that people cast on the concept. Preferences regarding the different conceptions of equality have been closely intertwined with history; with the problems that each historical moment has posed to those who have been intent on either transforming or defending the status quo.

Conceptions about equality in education

Formal equality: this is a conception whereby; individuals perceive equality in liberal thinking, especially in its classical version. The origin of this concept goes back to efforts of dismantling the legally and politically sanctioned privileges of certain social groups. This notion is tied to the liberal notion of rights, which proclaims equal access of all children to education. Historically, the concept of equal rights has presupposed the notions of neutrality, impartiality, and universality in the content.

In many schools, the acceptance of the principle of formal equality has constituted a significant step forward on the road to the fulfillment of the ideal of equality. According to this principle, every child should have equal access to education regardless of race, age, color, sex, and religion, etc. this concept of formal equality in education was advocated after realizing that race, class, and gender were problematic issues concerning education access. The problem with formal equality is that economically disadvantaged children rarely have access to education due to their high dropouts in higher grades as reported by Kenneth (2003). Formal equality to education may lead to imbalances in the enjoyment of equal rights due to inequalities that exist in our societies such as poverty. Secondly, when extending equal treatment to a particular person or group may have discriminatory effects, on accounts of the situation of that person or group.

Real or material equality: this is a recent version of equality, which is proposed by inspired socialists and recently by certain strands of feminism. It focuses on the outcome of education. It deals with problems related to poverty; that is, with the situation of those children who lack the resources needed to enjoy the rights, goods, and services deemed necessary or appropriate to operate adequately in a certain community. For example, the constitution of Puerto Rico mandates the state to establish a system of public education, access to which will be free at the primary and secondary levels. This conception of equality is normally opposed by liberals due to its potential conflict with certain conceptions of liberty. (Michele, 2006)

Equality of opportunities: Since formal equality is a preferred formula for liberalism and real equality is the rallying cry of socialists, anarchists, and feminism. It is useful for certain purposes and supporters of progressive social policies. It is an argument in favor of equal rights, since inequality of rights leads to unequal opportunities, for instance, the students who are initially economically disadvantaged receive the least enriching educations and end up with fewer, less valuable, and historically deflating diplomas. This opposition may be misleading since it is difficult to distinguish between results and opportunities as virtualized by the concept of equality of opportunities.

Taking the case of equal access to education alarms the question of whether it is the condition that provides for a better opportunity or the policy aimed at the redistribution of services and resources. This concept behind equality for opportunity is under the Jeffersonian paradox whose proposal would not have eliminated social inequalities but would have allowed the best in every social class to reach the top. In the historical turn, the concept has been coop-ted by conservative thinkers of the post-welfare state as a way to oppose the several calls for affirmative action geared to address the persistent inequalities of today’s world. Equal access to education may not eliminate the detrimental effects of inequality, for example, a kid from a poor background is granted study to private school, but is daily rebuked by his/her classmates because of his/her social background, which results in high dropouts cases. (Michele, 2006)

Difference approach: it is a concept of equality whose proposition rests on the idea that there are differences among people and the best thing is to accept those differences for what they are. These differences arise due to biological e.g. race or social constructs e.g. roles given to different genders by society. It aims at; eliminating any disadvantage that real differences may entail such as a legal provision that requires people with disabilities to be accommodated to have access to education, place a positive value in differences. Within this concept, claims for the cultural self-determination made by indigenous and other ethnic groups are included i.e. the right to own their culture and language, or rights asserted by girls concerning the differential facts of pregnancy or motherhood. (Kenneth, 2003)

Conclusion

In conclusion, the problem of inequality in education is solved in a multi-dimensional or through a popular approach. It is necessary to eliminate legal barriers or other obstacles provide resources, protection, or services for equality to be enjoyed in schools and not to remain a promise made by a formal system of rules.

References

Kenneth, R. (2003), Equality of education Opportunity and the Criterion of Equal Educational Worth, Journal of studies in philosophy and education, vol 11 (329-337).

Michelle, F. (2005), Framing dropouts, New yolk, Suny press publishers.

Michele, S. (2006), Social welfare, the Neo-conservative Turn and Educational Opportunity: journal of philosophy of education, vol 38 (275-286).

Abstract

In the modern age of innovative popular strategies of learning such as the internet online learning, the significance of collaborative online learning is often emphasized. In the background of several limitations of online learning, the incorporation of collaborative learning strategies becomes a central contributing condition to a more effective online or web-based learning which can even challenge the outcome of a traditional learning strategy. In this paper, the significance of collaborative learning strategies in the online learning framework is discussed based on the pertinent theories that address the issues related to collaborative online learning. Another major consideration of the paper has been the integration of Web2.0 in Higher Education (University, College) and it is found that the technologic services of Web2.0 can be effective in Higher Education. Thus, the paper attempts to integrate the topic of Collaborative Learning in Asynchronous Online Learning with the use of Web 2.0 in higher education.

Introduction

In the modern age of innovative popular strategies of learning such as the internet online learning, the significance of collaborative online learning is often emphasized. The modern learning atmosphere is said to provide the right basis for the introduction of online collaborative online learning. The student preferences for the strategies such as online learning have provided the exact context for the students to be more engaged in the type of learning that best suits them. In this context, the most desirable thing about the question under consideration is that the best strategy that assists the learners in their learning is provided so that the learning performance of the students is affected and better results are gained at the higher levels of learning.

There have been several criticisms placed against the innovative learning strategy of online learning and the most significant among them has been that online learning causes less social interaction and social relationships among the students. It is also criticized as it does not cater to the sense of community life and living as is possible in traditional campus learning. In this background, the most recommendable strategy to make online learning most relevant to modern learners, as the research evidence proves, is the introduction of collaborative online learning. The implementation of this strategy is effortless but effective as a relatively less number of students and groups need to be mentored by the instructor which enables more effective learning results. Thus collaborative learning strategies, therefore, become a central contributing condition to a more effective online or web-based learning which can even challenge the outcome of a traditional learning strategy.

Collaborative Learning in Asynchronous Online Learning

In this paper, the significance of collaborative learning strategies in the online learning framework will be discussed based on the pertinent theories that address the issues related to collaborative online learning. Based on the theories, the relevance of collaborative learning strategies for better online learning will be discussed. Thus, one of the pertinent concerns of the paper has been to analyze the collaborative learning strategies in online learning. Asynchronous Online Learning has been the focus of the discussion and ultimately the paper seeks to address the questions such as how we can integrate or implement Web2.0 in higher education such as University, college and what all steps guide one in integrating or implementing Web2.0 in teaching courses in university or college. First of all, it is important that a clear understanding of collaborative learning is developed based on which it is possible to analyze the pertinence of collaborative learning in online learning.

Thus, to better understand the possibility of the use of collaborative learning strategies in online learning, the concept of collaborative learning needs to be clear enough. As a first step, it is of significant note that there have been considerable researches on the topic. Thus, the concept of collaborative learning, i.e. the grouping and pairing of students to achieve an academic goal, has been one of the most commonly researched and advocated concepts among the learning concepts. “The term “collaborative learning” refers to an instruction method in which students at various performance levels work together in small groups toward a common goal. The students are responsible for one another’s learning as well as their own.

Thus, the success of one student helps other students to be successful. Proponents of collaborative learning claim that the active exchange of ideas within small groups not only increases interest among the participants but also promotes critical thinking.” (Gokhale, 1995). There has been a great number of studies that prove the important role of collaborative learning in the development of the skills of the students and the theorists of the social interactions such as Vigotzki, Piaget, and Bruner emphasize the implications of collaborative learning. According to research studies, “collaborative learning fosters the development of critical thinking through discussion, clarification of ideas, and evaluation of others’ ideas. However, both methods of instruction were found to be equally effective in gaining factual knowledge. Therefore, if the purpose of instruction is to enhance critical- thinking and problem-solving skills, then collaborative learning is more beneficial.” (Gokhale, 1995).

The study specifically relates to effective online learning with the help of collaborative learning strategies. As has been already mentioned, the study aims at finding the extent to which there is evidence suggesting effective online learning with the assistance of textual interactions with the strategies of collaborative learning. In the background of higher education online, collaborative learning has great contributions to make. “Traditional e-learning suffered from a “boredom” factor. The introduction of conversational technology constitutes a solution to improve retention rates.” (Selouani et al, 2006). The effective implementation of strategies such as collaborative learning to avoid the limitations of online learning is therefore of pertinent consideration. There have been wide researches in the area of collaborative learning in online learning in which online interactions among students in higher education are investigated. All these studies prove the significance of collaborative learning theories in the explanation of online learning.

In a remarkable study of the relationship between collaborative learning and online learning environment David D. Curtis and Michael, J. Lawson explain the vital relationship between the two. The analysis has been particularly important as the research on students’ contributions to online discussions offers confirmation of effectual collaboration in this online environment. “The literature on collaborative learning has identified a range of behaviors that characterize successful collaborative learning in face-to-face situations. Evidence of these behaviors was sought in the messages that were posted by students as they interacted in online workgroups. Analysis of students’ contributions reveals that there is substantial evidence of collaboration, but that there are differences between conventional face-to-face instances of collaborative learning and what occurs in an asynchronous, networked environment.” (Curtis & Lawson, 2001). The relevance of collaborative learning in the strategies for online learning has, thus, been very much proved by the existing literature on it.

As the most focal consideration of the essay has been the development of the strategies of Asynchronous Online learning with the assistance of collaborative learning, the meaning of the concept of asynchronous online learning needs to be very clear. Most pertinently, the concept of “asynchronous learning networks” (ALN) refers to the use of the Internet to provide education at any time, anywhere. The first among the two possible models for the use of asynchronous learning networks is the model of the “mass market” which “emulates the previous, primarily “one-way” distance learning delivery modes of sending material to students, receiving back individual assignments or test materials, and providing some means of limited one-to-one communication between the student and the instructor. Web pages might replace video for lectures, and email might replace surface mail for student-teacher correspondence, but it is the same pedagogical model. This does have the advantage to educational institutions that education can be very “cheap;’ hundreds or even thousands of students can be accommodated in a single course. Inexpensive adjuncts can be hired to do the grading and communication.” (Hiltz, 1998).

It has been already mentioned that collaborative learning can be best used in online learning to make the latter more effective. Considering how this claim becomes correct, it is important to note that collaborative learning contributes to the development of various skills of the students and therefore it can be crucial in any learning strategy. “Collaborative learning uses small groups of learners in the instruction encouraging them to maximize their own, and each other’s, learning. Collaborative learning engages learners in knowledge sharing, inspiring each other, and applying active social interaction in a small group. Therefore, collaborative learning depends upon the art of social interaction among learners rather than a mechanical process.” (Tu, 2004, p.12). In the higher education system, collaborative online learning can bring about innovative progress. Computer-supported collaborative learning within the context of technology-supported project-based subjects offered to advanced level students of higher education can be most advantageous and several studies and theoretical positions support this claim.

Many such studies focused on the subject that was given in the collaborative online learning at the higher learning levels and the qualitative case studies which investigated the effectiveness of the program revealed how efficiently students work in teams on authentic project tasks. The role of the online tools in enhancing their collaboration has been particularly noted and therefore it was concluded that collaborative online learning becomes an effective tool for the students of higher learning such as university in performing their projects and other tasks more effectively than doing these individually. In an investigation of the background of collaborative online learning, it can be noted that the assistance of the students in developing their interpersonal skills which strengthen collaboration in online learning has been an essential part of the preparation for the world of work. The significance of the collaborative learning strategies in the new ways of learning such as online learning is always stressed.

The advancement of online learning has worked out in favor of the students as well as the teachers and effective collaboration which was the important factor of traditional campus learning in has been considered an effective contributor to collaborative online learning. The role of computer-supported collaboration in the authentic activities and projects of the present day is often emphasized. Online support tools have been essential in online learning to create the learning environment of a collaborative strategy. The preparation of the collaborative learning environment in online learning is often suggested for the effective implementation of collaborative online learning. In a significant investigation of collaborative online learning and its essentials, some pertinent findings were arrived at. “The students identified a range of factors that influenced team success and…common conclusions emerged. One of these was the observation that open communication had to be established and maintained for the team to succeed… For most groups, this meant managing communication among members working in different locations and at different times. This proved to be a significant challenge.” (Bennett & Roberts, 2004, p.10-11). The study also concluded that a range of was needed to support the teamwork. Asynchronous online communication tools were considered effective in these activities.

It is therefore most relevant to investigate the role of collaborative learning in asynchronous online learning and there have several studies in the area which support the need for more effective implementation of an asynchronous learning method in online learning. It is remarked that collaborative learning designs can be more crucial and effective in online learning than pedagogical approaches which stress individuals working alone with materials posted online. “The value of collaboration as a tool to promote learning is becoming increasingly more evident. Students engaged in collaborative efforts are typically more actively engaged in the learning activity and retain the information longer. Asynchronous online environments can provide meaningful collaborative assignments.” (Hafner, & Ellis, 2004, P.6-10). In such practices, software structures that support group collaboration can be developed.

However, it is important, for the group to adopt a structure of interaction that is collaborative, that the instructor molds, models, and encourages the desired behavior in students and the students are able and willing to participate regularly. “Several studies indicate that when collaborative learning is used in ALN delivery, “objective” results in terms of mastery of material and efficiency of education tend to be equal to or better than traditional face-to-face classes. However, even when collaborative learning is used, the current “state of the art” of systems plus pedagogy seems to lead to less feeling of community than is typically obtained in face-to-face small group interaction. The question of how to build and sustain online learning communities is thus a prime area where researchers on ALN ought to be focusing their efforts. The most basic premise from which all online teaching should begin is that the goal is to build a learning community and to facilitate the exchange of ideas, information, and feelings among the members of the community.” (Hiltz, 1998).

The kind of daily interaction between students, as well as the instructor, needs to be encouraged to raise new topics and ask questions of the class, and to respond to one another’s contributions, which does require regular attention from the instructor. It is also necessary that colleges and universities are concerned not with how fast they can ‘put their courses up on the Web,” but with finding out how this technology can be used to build and sustain learning communities.

The Integration of Web2.0 in Higher Education (University, College)

One pertinent question regarding collaborative online learning is about the strategies to make online learning effective. The higher learning sector has been growing at a fast rate and modern technology assist in the greater development of higher learning. One of the most effective tools in higher education has been the use of internet services for learning. The use of social software available which assists in the learning process of the universities and colleges has been one of the popular innovations in technology-assisted learning. The integration of such suitable social software in higher learning has been one of the important concerns at present. There have been many new services introduced in the last few years. Their focus on community, rather than on the service they provide has been always recognized. “More services arise every day that offer full, rich, online user-experiences; services that are no longer inferior to offline applications. This new trend is often referred to as ‘Web 2.0’, but this term evokes more and more resistance. It is argued that Web 2.0 is no more than a buzzword; a slogan that is created to relive the Internet hype of the late nineties. The concepts, projects, and practices included in its scope are far more important.” (Kloos, 2006).

There have been several characteristic features that make Web 2.0 to be specifically useful to modern higher learning. The many types of services available in Web 2.0 can be made the best use of ineffective higher learning. All these technological advances contribute to the inclusion of Web 2.0 in the university and college learning. “Specific technologies contributing to Web 2.0 include blogs, wikis, syndication of content through RSS, tag-based folksonomies, social bookmarking, media-sharing, social networking sites, and other social software artifacts. Although the term Web 2.0 is the latest buzzword around the world beneath all the hype Web 2.0 is seen to hold remarkable potential for addressing the needs of large numbers of students from colleges and universities, enhancing their learning experiences through customization, personalization, and rich opportunities for networking and collaboration.

Moreover, there is something new that Web 2.0 has to share with education: the development of a clear picture of the features that might constitute a new ICT pedagogy in the 21st century: pedagogy 2.0.” (Grosse). In a consideration of the effective implementation of the technological advancements in higher learning, it is often remarked that the core competencies of Web 2.0 companies include services, not packaged software, with cost-effective scalability, control over unique, hard-to-recreate data sources that get richer as more people use them, trusting users as co-developers, harnessing collective intelligence, leveraging the long tail through customer self-service, software above the level of a single device, lightweight user interfaces, development models, and business models. (O’Reilly, 2008, P.5).

Various factors make Web 2.0 a vector of change and innovation and these are listed by Dr. Gabriela Grosseck which include the following. It continuously modifies the classical paradigm of generating and conveying the knowledge (we are talking about the read/write web); It improves the quality of learning, by forcing us to adopt other ways of changing and managing the curriculum; Far from dividing and ghettoizing information1, Web2.0 creates new opportunities of bringing together and connecting, especially using social networks; It facilitates a new educational context, with new procedures, roles and relations in forming and cultivating the young generation (it determines traditional teaching to recoil); It supports the educator with tools and services which are easy to handle and implement, thus eliminating the fear of technology.

Using these technologies does not represent “an elitist acquisition”, but a general practice, especially because, since using Web 2.0 technologies, technical tasks can be solved more easily; It encourages those we teach to give up passive listening in favor of active involvement; It allows didactic relations to take place online, in an environment which requires minimum digital competences of manipulating the computer and the Internet; They learn from each other, to different extents (autonomy to take decisions and to act); It transforms the traditional pedagogical methods in which schools function; It creates the premises for personalized and cooperative/collaborative learning (students and teachers reciprocally support each other), for distributive and continuous learning; It promotes the interest for knowledge (motivating the students); It allows spatial distribution of knowledge; It creates genuine learning communities; It strengthens the principle of sharing information or competences (collective intelligence); It answers the challenge of knowing similar intellectual conducts, etc. (Grosseck).

It is often remarked that Web 2.0 has profound implications for learners and teachers in formal, informal, work-based, and lifelong education. It is significant that Web 2.0 influences how universities go about the business of education, from learning, teaching, and assessment, through contact with school communities, widening participation, interfacing with the industry, and maintaining contact with alumni. Conversely, it is not possible to consider Web 2.0 as the single tool that affects such changes. Rather, Web 2.0 needs to be viewed as an important part of the higher education ecosystem.

Among the other drivers are included pressures to greater efficiency, changes in student population, and ongoing emphasis on better learning and teaching methods. It is, however, important that “Web 2.0 is…a technology with profound potentiality for inducing a change in the HE sector. In this, the possible realms of learning to be opened up by the catalytic effects of Web 2.0 technologies are attractive, allowing greater student independence and autonomy, greater collaboration, and increased pedagogic efficiency… Content sharing via Web 2.0 mechanisms is also the enabler of social software, which as much as pure data content sharing has the potential to change the face of education.” (Franklin & Harmelen, 2007). It is of pertinent note that Web 2.0 systems are increasingly being used all over the western world both on an individual course module level, and at an institutional level.

It is important that in the modern technology-assisted learning environment, everyone is a consumer of information as well as a contributor of the same. The technologies of Web 2.0 help in many ways. These help people in writing their diary on the Internet or add comments to other people’s articles, subscribe to information via RSS (Really Simple Syndication) feeds, ask and answer questions online, and publish pictures, video, and audio files to share with others. Other significant uses of Web 2.0 include the service of the blog which “is a web application which contains periodic time-stamped posts on a common webpage,” wiki which “is a web application that allows users to participate in the creation of content,” RSS that “aggregate information from students’ blogs” and “subscribe resource to support teaching,” and the use of multimedia in education. (Jie).

The services of Web2.0 can be very well understood as the most effective tools for educational purposes and it needs to be clarified that these services were not created especially for dialogue. But rather they originated primarily for different people to “interact with programs, create new items, and store things inside the new items and recordings. Blogs, WikiWiki, recording bookmarks, photographs, and documents may all be used for individual purposes. However, it’s just a small step from such personal use to the creation of a community. Those working on a joint venture do not need to be in the same place and at the same time. Every member of a community can make his contribution. This new model of network interaction can be used in student teaching for development by pupils of ideas of decentralization and environmental strategy.” (Patarakin, 2006). Among the many ways to view the development of Web 2.0, a significant one is to see it as an important contribution to the world of knowledge and it will very soon completely control the learning process.

It is important to view Web 2.0 as a series of at least six powerful ideas or drivers that are changing the way some people interact. It needs to be clarified that these ideas are not the preserve of Web 2. They need to be viewed as direct or indirect reflections of the power of the network: the strange effects and topologies at the micro and macro level that a billion Internet users produce. It is also necessary to understand the various kinds of propositions of Web 2.0. “The changes that are taking place are likely…to provide three significant challenges for education: Firstly, the crowd, and its power, will become more important as the Web facilitates new communities and groups. A corollary to this is that online identity and privacy will become a source of tension. Secondly, the growth in user or self-generated content, the rise of the amateur, and the culture of DIY will challenge conventional thinking on who exactly does things, who knows, what it means to have élites, status, and hierarchy… And finally, there are profound intellectual property debates ahead as individuals, the public realm, and corporations clash over ownership of the huge amounts of data that Web 2.0 is generating and the new ways of aggregating and processing it.” (Anderson, 2007).

There are also several problems associated with the introduction of Web 2.0 systems into HE and there are important ramifications about “the choice of types of systems for institutional use; external or institutional hosting; integration with institutional systems; accessibility; visibility and privacy; data ownership, IPR, and copyright for material created and modified by university members and external contributors; control over content; longevity of data; preservation; information literacy; staff and student training; and appropriate teaching and assessment methods.” (Franklin & Harmelen, 2007). And these are topics that demand institutional responses at the policy and strategy level. It is often remarked that the pace of the expansion of modern technology needs to be even higher for the effective implementation of social software programs. “The web will expand indefinitely till it occupied the complete universe. And the rate of growth would always be faster than what people have seen before. But for the internet to contain everything that surrounds us, it will have to connect to everything it can. It might be the mobile phone, or if you are the sci-fi kind, the chips embedded in your body.” (Why Web 3.0 would be Mobile 2.0? The start of Moogle, 2007).

In conclusion, it has been clear from the discussion that the usefulness of Web 2.0 in the higher education process is often remarked as their various technologies assist the students’ better learning. Though some key factors limit the application of these services in higher learning, the faster growth and popularity of the various services will turn for the better implementation of Web 2.0 in the higher learning aspects. About effective online learning, it is also important to note that collaborative learning strategies, as well as online tools, enhance the scope of online learning in higher learning such as universities and colleges.

References

Gokhale, Anuradha A. (1995). Collaborative Learning Enhances Critical Thinking, Journal of Technology Education: dla. Vol.7. No.1. Web.

Selouani, Sid-Ahmed., et al. (2006). Online Collaborative Learning System Using Speech Technology, waste.org. Vol.15. Web.

Curtis, David D., & Lawson, Michael J. (2001). Exploring collaborative online Learning. Vol.5 Iss.1. Web.

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The debate on public versus private schools has no clear cut rights or wrongs. Parents, students, teachers and other education stakeholders value different aspects in schools and one ought to give precedence to those factors that make their experience more enriched.

Comparison of Private Versus Public Schools

The most distinct difference between public and private schools is funding. No tuition exists in public schools yet this is the primary source of funding in private schools. Consequently, the cost of joining such a private institution would be much higher than a public one. The independent schools national association estimated that on average, ninth to twelfth grade students will spend approximately twenty eight thousand dollars on tuition. The latter apply to boarding schools; day schools on the other hand pay approximately fifteen thousand per year. (Mc Meekin, 13) Clearly, these are figures that may be problematic to low income households. Furthermore, parents in private institutions have to adjust their work calendars in response to the many fundraisers set by private institutions and this may be problematic to their careers. Conversely, public schools tend to depend on the state for funds and this makes them vulnerable to changes in the political landscape.

The type of education offered in these institutions differs substantially. More often than not, private schools have the capacity to offer specialized programs. The latter arise out of their independence from state initiated regulations. (Levin 25) For instance boarding, single sex and military programs are exclusive to private institutions. Since public schools are dependent on tax revenues for funding, this makes them bound by state processes. To this end, they are all required to cater for special needs especially of the mentally and academically challenged. Private schools have the option of not offering these initiatives unless they specialize in those areas. Parents with special needs concerns may have to do a lot of ‘homework’ to locate private schools that can meet those needs. On the other hand, they can place their special needs child in any public institution since they are guaranteed of their ability to cater to such individuals; no personal research will be needed here.

Quality of teachers enrolled in private schools differs substantially from public schools and this therefore reflects the quality of education to be found in these institutions. The state has preset standards for enrolling teachers into public institutions. All teachers are expected to have a degree and a license. Dismissal can only be done after a probation period of one year. This can increase retention rates but compromises on the level of competence if a teacher is guilty of misconduct. Conversely, private schools place more emphasis on certification for subjects or areas of specialty rather than general college degrees. This promotes a high level of specialty. Their ability to deal with personnel matters immediately also makes them flexible to their surrounding. It may however minimize retention rates. (Chen, 14)

In terms of output, it has been found that children from private schools report better performance in national assessment proficiency tests. Average scores in subjects such as science, math and languages are higher in private than public institutions. Many have asserted that this could be due to the high graduation requirements set by the former institutions which expect more input and time in various subjects. This great performance does not automatically make private institutions plausible at all times because they have been know to send away students who do not perform to their preferred academic standards.

Conclusion

As has been seen, no school type ought to be placed over and above another because inefficiencies in one area are compensated for in another. For instance, the high performance rates reported in private schools are neutralized by their dismissal of underperforming schools. Conversely the low costs of taking children to public schools are undermined by their vulnerability to political elements.

Works cited

Chen Grace 2007 Public school vs private school. Public school review, Web.

Mc Meekin, Robert. Networks of schools education policy analysis archives. Tempe: Arizona state university, 2003. Print

Levin, Hillary. The private public nexus in education. Rosenau: MIT press, 2000. Print