education

Introduction

There is no doubt that the Chinese education system after confronting challenges and critics from international educationists and scholars has today been able to solve the issues that remain unresolved even for decades. Today the two major paramount issues that were faced by Chinese educators in this century are almost solved: First the need for a new Chinese ideology that could support modern educational institutions, and second, the difficulty of adapting attractive features of western educational patterns to the Chinese context. But still, research and evidence from the Chinese early education indicate that no special considerations have been made in order to lead Chinese education inferior at least when it comes to the point where Chinese education is compared with U.S. education.

However, before getting into the detail if we analyze the Chinese Education System whose success we are enjoying presently it would be clear that it took decades for the Chinese Government and the public to reform their education management. The way it was managed some 20 years ago lacked all the latest developments that we see and admire today.

The Chinese primary education system in the first period had two tracks. One was that system that managed to run and finance urban schools by the state, and the other was that run under the ‘local’ administration of the people. That involved all the rural schools. The city elementary schools were supposedly more academic while the countryside schools emphasized literacy however, this generalization varied from place to place and from school to school (Huang, 1997, p. 7). Today as we see that most of the critics come from the U.S. sector, we should remember that most of the older Chinese students and scholars got educated in the United States and that even were educated in the urban elementary schools in their childhood, while some of them went to rural elementary schools.

Chinese secondary education was more complex and diversified at that time than it seems today and the reason is the presence of too many different tracks and choices for the students at every level (Rosen, 1984). As Rosen (1984) described it in the following words:

“There were regular secondary schools which prepared one for university entrance; specialist (technical) schools which trained middle-level professional personnel, such as accountants and nurses; workers’ training schools which trained middle-level technical workers, such as carpenters and welders; and vocational schools which trained workers with special skills, such as chefs, tailors and photographers. Only in the countryside, there were agricultural secondary schools” (Rosen, 1984, p. 66).

The Chinese exchange students and scholars were usually educated in regular secondary education, which included junior and senior high schools. All the usual subjects were taught to them including Chinese literature but with the exception of music, biology, and health, as they were usually dropped in senior high school. There were two types of regular secondary schools; key point schools and ordinary schools.

The admission was given depending on students’ competitiveness and performance on the entrance test exams to go to the higher level of education. Key point schools were more funded with better-quality teachers, and a lot of recognition (Rosen, 1984). Among ordinary schools, there was a certain unofficial ranking according to their competitiveness. Parents, as well as society, recognized that and let the children apply to schools that matched their academic ability and performance (Huang, 1997, p. 12).

The change took place during the Cultural Revolution, it was decided that the regular and traditional school system would be based on the combination of theory and practice. Education was to be integrated with productive labor and class struggle. Therefore, during the Cultural Revolution, schools, colleges, and universities either set up their own small farms and factories or sent their teachers and students to factories and farms to learn through practice (Hawkins, 1974).

In the first two years of the Cultural Revolution, all educational institutions stopped running. Therefore students of all levels suffered by doing the revolutionary work inside and outside school. Secondary and college students were much more active than elementary school students, and many of those active students became violent. Students who were not involved in the revolution stayed home, either being idle or studying by themselves; it was like a prolonged vacation for these students.

When schools were reopened in 1968, the two-track system that divided urban and rural elementary schools was gotten rid of, schools were supposed to be treated equally, and students were supposed to receive the same kind of education based on Mao’s ideas of ‘equality (Chen, 1974). The classroom teaching did not have the same quality and richness of content as that before the Cultural Revolution, and it was often interrupted by activities such as going out on the street demonstrating and supporting a new revolutionary idea from Mao and/or going to the countryside to work in the fields. Schools in some rural areas were not affected as much as urban schools.

In more radical ways, secondary education during the Cultural Revolution tried to eliminate the difference between schools and students by abolishing the distinction of key point schools, ordinary schools, and other types of secondary schools. As a result, most of the secondary schools became regular schools, students went to these schools in their neighborhoods, and there was no competition among students or schools. Upon graduation, these young people would go to the countryside or factories to work (Rosen, 1984). It would not be wrong to say that Chinese Education at that time was no career-oriented or even merely acknowledged.

The academic quality in secondary schools during this period was not high, especially in big cities. Comparatively, some rural secondary schools, which were not affected as much by the revolution and followed the old curriculum, were producing students of higher academic quality. That may be why, after the Cultural Revolution, some students from the countryside made it to the best universities or graduate schools through entrance exams.

The ones that possessed some wealth and sense acquired secondary education during the Cultural Revolution from the U.S. Their academic achievements cannot be separated from their self-education throughout those years. Since secondary schooling in that period did not provide others with quality education, almost all of them studied by themselves much beyond what the school had to offer.

In the summer of 1970, some colleges and universities began to accept new students and offer classes (Henze, 1984). The policy of recruitment changed drastically. Before the Cultural Revolution, admissions were based on the scores of the entrance exams, but during the Cultural Revolution, a person had to have worked for a certain period of time (about three years), have a ‘red family background’ (from a working-class family), and be recommended by his/her work unit. The recruitment was done this way with very few exceptions with various names given to the college students such as ‘worker-peasant-soldier’ students.

The university and college curriculum in this period was arbitrary because the Ministry of Higher Education as well as the Ministry of Education was abolished. ‘Revolutionary committees’ were in charge of education as they were in charge of other aspects of the country. There was a great disparity among universities and colleges in teaching quality and the content taught, and students’ academic levels were also very different. Students had to go to factories and other basic work units for extended times to do the practice part of learning. Therefore, their classroom learning did not cover nearly as much as that before the Cultural Revolution.

Following the end of the Cultural Revolution, China’s education and its policy started to adopt the system before the Cultural Revolution. Entrance examinations at different levels (from elementary to junior high, from junior high to senior high, from senior high to college/university) were restored. The curriculum was also similar to the one before the Cultural Revolution with some updating. Competition among schools and students was resumed. All these changes were to raise the quality of education and to produce competent people for the country’s modernization.

Today, China which has 200 million primary and secondary enrolled students when compared with the 50 million U.S. students (Palmquist & Li, 2007) still lacks certain characteristics which according to various U.S educationists must be present in any economy which is looking forward to producing a well-groomed and developed generation. Let us examine those characteristics in the light of both U.S. and Chinese criticisms.

Classroom size

Even at the elementary level, each classroom in China consists of not less than 50-60 students whereas in the U.S. not more than 20 students are allowed in each class. It is said that despite such contradictory conditions of Chinese students, they come up as an educated class producing more engineers and technologists whereas U.S. students ace in the world from the bottom, and are called ‘slackers’.

This is evident from the International test results that Chinese students ace. Another fact is the popularity of English in China which has been one of the required courses next to the Chinese language and mathematics in importance, with some variation of availability of English teachers in different areas and some ups and downs during political upheavals. According to Ross (1992), “Approximately 97% of China’s 320,000 full-time secondary school foreign language teachers teach English” (Ross, 1992, p. 251). That means English education has long remained a crucial part of China’s education.

According to Scovel (1983), who taught English in a Chinese foreign language institute, college teachers in China spend a lot of time explaining English grammar and defining the meanings of words. Both teachers and students are interested in understanding the exact meanings of every word they encounter, and they have a low tolerance for ambiguity or uncertainty.

Teacher-centered vs. Student-centered Classrooms

Today critics blame the Chinese educational reforms for having teacher-centered classrooms where the teacher is the lead actor of the class, who leads the students. Though the critic is correct and sketches the Chinese way of visualizing today’s students the future leaders but let us put the same question to the U.S. education, who believes in student freedom of expression. U.S students are free to accept and question the things to the teacher who is not the lead actor but is the ‘lead extra’ in a room where he is working in front of few actors.

This no doubt boosts students’ confidence, an American student after attaining such an educational environment is confident enough to face the world as compared to that Chinese student who has taught only to accept but then what happens in the long run? Why the Chinese student is found ahead of the American student in all fields of education. After attaining such a ‘freedom of expression’ environment why an American student selects the ‘free’ walk of life and does not prefer to study anymore after attaining hardly a college degree? Why most of the scholarships are acquired by Chinese students?

Criticizing the U.S or Chinese Education does not mean that any one of them fulfills the criteria of perfection; rather both of them need to look at each other’s educational policies and environment in order to make their future generation better than what it is today. The development of private schools in China has featured diversity and plurality and their attempt to satisfy various social demands is no doubt a positive step in standardizing their education.

But private education in China, if it is to continue to develop, faces a great variety of problems as well. Some problems come from internal sources, such as the composition of the workforce while others arise from external sources, such as ambiguities in educational policies and laws. A general statement that ‘schools cannot make profit their goal’ has caused confusion, dampening interest in the development and expansion of private schools.

This statement also suggests that profit chasing has caused serious malpractice, which has damaged the reputation of private education in China. The appearance of such schools that charge high fees in the name of modern education has caused hot debates as to whether social inequality is being reinforced by these ‘elite’ private schools (Lin, 1999, p. 167). Views are divided as to the role of private education in China’s education system, whether it should be supplementary or an integral and important part of the educational system that receives equal recognition and treatment with public schools. Despite the questions and different opinions, there is no doubt that private education has achieved phenomenal growth in a short period of time and will have an important role to play in China’s economic and educational reform.

Absence of Questions in the Classroom

In a typical Chinese classroom, irrespective of the primary or secondary, one can easily point out that during or after a lecture, since the room is teacher-centered therefore there are no questions from the students’ side. This absence of questioning reflects that even today Chinese schools and universities lack the desired confidence which they were supposed to acquire. It also depicts the current pressures that to respond to greater diversity and to foster creativity disturbs this convention because teachers have to pay attention to student perspectives and encourage them to disrupt lessons with their queries.

On the other hand, if we talk about U.S. schools and universities it is evident from their students’ behavior that they are overconfident. Both the conditions are not good, for students must be trained and equipped according to the modern needs which do not encourage any sort of under or overconfidence.

Classroom Pedagogy

The current situation in the Chinese elementary schools that are considered ‘modernized’ when observed and noticed even by an outsider depicts a high level of interaction between the teachers and the students with a lively exchange of questions and answers. The teachers are free to question the students, the students answer but the questions do not take place from the students’ side. In this case, there is a need to respond to students as distinct individuals, giving them space and time to ask their own questions and work out their own points of view.

On one hand, facilitating the creativity and problem-solving capacities of students are priorities in China and the U.S which require students to take more control over what and how they learn, while on the other a Chinese student is never considered as an individual. Yet when teaching is based on the assumption that student groups are broadly homogeneous and the aim is for them all to reach a uniform standard of attainment, in the context of classes of forty or more students, the rhetoric of encouraging a more autonomous engagement creates huge tension.

The practice of all-girl schools not to teach ‘girl stuff’ but to teach unconventional skills such as wrestling and driving opens a window to new ways of conducting education. These schools have arranged the curriculum in a way that allows the girls to be confident in their own abilities and to be more employable in the very competitive job market in today’s China, while also giving them the option of heading toward higher education. Private vocational schools, arts schools, medical colleges, and other types of schools widen employment opportunities for millions of young people who cannot attend a university. Private universities, despite their many problems, give people hope for higher learning.

Chinese education is modernized through the advent of elite private schools, charging high fees and offering excellent conditions for learning, which is also at the forefront of educational reform. Diverging from the traditional model of excessive emphasis on academic learning, they offer a unique curriculum focusing on the well-rounded development of children from primary to secondary level. Besides fulfilling the compulsory subjects of study asset in the national teaching syllabus outlined by the state, they also offer numerous extracurricular courses catering to students’ interests and developing special expertise to meet the future needs of society. Through all types of ‘art groups’ and extracurricular interest groups, students are guided to develop their imagination and creativity.

In analyzing and comparing the Chinese education system from that of the U.S. it is clear that both countries lack fundamental grounds that are essential in the proper upbringing of children. Both confront educational, social, and political critics, therefore it is better for both of them to learn from each other and diversify their educational experience. In fact, both countries must allow choices that amount to allowing for diversity and reform. Diversity injects vitality into the education system, therefore, private education is urgently needed in China’s educational context, where education funding is low; the more avenues open for inputs into education, the better.

Furthermore, we cannot consider that the practices in private schools are unequal, and it is unrealistic to have all students attending the same kind of education with poor conditions. The educational alternatives must allow greater autonomy and accountability in the schooling system, and greater motivation on the part of teachers and administrators, so that they may be able to put themselves in their students’ shoes before conducting or going in a classroom.

Work Cited

Chen T. H. E. (1974) The Maoist educational revolutions. New York: Praeger Publishers.

Hawkins J. N. (1974) Mao-Tse-tung and education: His thought and teachings. Hamden, CT: Linnet Books.

Henze J. (1984) “Higher education: the tension between quality and equality” In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Contemporary Chinese education. Armonk, NY: M. E. Sharpe. Pp. 93-153.

Huang Jianyi, (1997) Chinese Students and Scholars in American Higher Education: Praeger Publishers: Westport, CT.

Lin Jing, (1999) Social Transformation and Private Education in China: Praeger Publishers: Westport, CT.

Palmquist Bruce & Li Guian, (2007). Web.

Potts Patricia, (2003) Modernising Education in Britain and China: Comparative Perspectives on Excellence and Social Inclusion: RoutledgeFalmer: London.

Ross H. (1992) “Foreign language education as a barometer of modernization” In R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Education and modernization: The Chinese experience. New York: Pergamon Press. Pp. 239-254.

Rosen S. (1984) “New directions in secondary education” In: R. Hayhoe (Ed.), Contemporary Chinese education. Armonk, NY: M. E.

Scovel J. (1983) “English teaching in China: A historical perspective” In: Language Learning and Communication, 2( 1), 105-110.

Yang Gu, (2007). Web.

Introduction

Malcolm Knowles (1913 – 1997) was, possibly “the”, fundamental figure in American adult education during the second part of the twentieth century. In the 1950s Knowles was the Adult Education Association of the United States of America Executive Director. Knowles wrote the first main accounts of adult informal education and the history of adult education in America. Besides, Knowles’ efforts to develop a distinct conceptual foundation for adult education and learning through the concept of “andragogy” became very extensively discussed and applied. Knowles’s work was an important factor in reorienting adult educators from “educating people” to “assisting them to learn” (Knowles 1950). In this study paper, we shall review and assess his adult learning theory of “andragogy” with respect to informal adult education.

Andragogy theory

Andragogy theory assumes that the stage at which a person attains a self-concept of indispensable self-direction is the stage at which the person psychologically becomes an adult. An incredibly vital thing occurs when this happens: the person develops a profound psychological want to be seen by other people as being self-directing. Consequently, when the person finds himself in circumstances in which he is not permitted to be self-directing, the person experiences uneasiness between that circumstance and his self-concept. The person’s reaction is bound to be stained with resentment and opposition. (Knowles 1950)

Adult learning

According to Knowles adult learning was unique in various ways. For instance:

• Adult learners come with a lot of experience in the learning setting; Educators can apply this experience as a resource.
• Adults look forward to having a high amount of influence concerning what they are supposed to be educated, and the way they are educated.
• The active involvement of learners ought to be encouraged in formulating and implementing learning programs.
• Adults want to be able to perceive applications for fresh learning.
• Adult learners look forward to having a lot of influence on the manner of evaluating learning.
• Adults expect their reactions to being acted on when there are asked for a response on the progress of their education program.

Inputting focus on the idea of informal education, Knowles was focusing on the “friendly and informal climate” in numerous adult learning circumstances, how flexible the process is, and the application of experience, and the eagerness and dedication of participants (teachers included!). Candy (1991) notes that Knowles did not define informal adult education; other than he uses the phrase to refer to the application of informal programs and, to some degree, the learning achieved from associational or club membership life. Knowles remarked that an organized lesson is typically a better tool for “new learning of an intensive nature, while a club experience provides the best opportunity for practicing and refining the things learned” (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson,1990). He also notes that clubs are also helpful tools for arousing interest. Knowles contrasted formal and informal programs as follows:

• Formal programs; are programs that are in most part sponsored, by well-known educational institutions, for example, universities, colleges, high schools, and technical schools. Whilst countless adults partake in the educational courses not working for credentials, they are organized fundamentally for credential students.
• Informal classes; are ordinarily fitted into more general programs of organizations such as the YMCA, YWCA, community centers, industries, labor unions, and churches. (Knowles,1950)

This education program distinction is suggestive of that later on employed by Coombs and others to make a distinction of formal and non-formal education.

Malcolm S. Knowles suggests that Informal programs are more likely to utilize a group and also forum approaches. A number of significant differences can be found among the interests in an organized class and the interests found in lecture, a forum and club programs. In the first position, the previous is possible to have stable and long-term interests, whereas the latter are highly transitory. Secondly, forums, lectures, and club programs are very flexible as opposed to organized classes.

In a program sequence, the topics can vary from full entertainment to more serious lectures, whereas organized classes are necessarily limited to a specific subject-matter part. Thirdly, the forum, lecture, and club kinds of programs, in general, require little commitment in terms of time, finance, and energy from those participating compared to organized classes. Consequently, they are most likely to be attractive to people with somehow less powerful interests. (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson,1990)

Malcolm Knowles aspects on informal adult education

Malcolm Knowles underscored that the main problems regarding our age concern human relationships; the solutions to the problem can only be found in education. Human relations skill is a skill that has to be learned; human relations are learned in the homes, in the schools, in the churches, on the job place, and anywhere people get together in small groups.

This reality makes the duty of each head of an adult group real, precise, and clear: each adult group, whatever its nature, ought to become an examination room of democracy, a location where individuals might have the experience of being able to learn to live cooperatively. Mind-sets and opinions are shaped chiefly in a study group, a workgroup, and also in a playgroup in which adults associate voluntarily. These specific groups are the foundation basis of our own democracy. The goals of these groups principally determine the overall goals of the society we live in. Adult learning must at least produce these outcomes:

Adults should achieve a mature recognizing of themselves

They ought to understand their own needs, interests, motivations, capacities, and goals. Adults should be capable of looking at themselves in an objective and mature manner. They ought to accept themselves, respect themselves as they are, and strive earnestly to improve themselves better. (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson, 1990)

Adults should build up an attitude of acceptance, respect, and love toward others

According to Knowles, the above attitude is on which all human beings’ relationships depend. Adults should learn to differentiate between individual and ideas and to challenge ideas and not too threatening individuals. This attitude ideally, will go further than acceptance, respect, and love to compassion and the earnest desire to assist others.

Adults should build up a dynamic attitude to life

Adults should admit the reality of change and ought to think about themselves as constantly changing. They must acquire the tradition of viewing every single experience in their lives as an opening to learn and must become experts in learning from such experiences.

Adults ought to learn to respond to the causes, not symptoms, of behavior

Solutions to any problem lie in its cause, not in its symptoms. Humans have learned to apply this important lesson in the physical world, except have not yet learned to relate it in personal relations.

Adults should attain the skills essential to achieve their personality’s potentials

Each individual has capacities that, when realized, will make a contribution to the welfare of himself and of also the society. To accomplish these potentials requires skills of several types: vocational, civic, social, recreational, artistic, and many more. It is supposed to be an objective of education to provide each individual with those skills essential for him/her to make complete use of his/her capacities.

Adults should comprehend the essential ideas in the capital of a person’s experience

Adults should be recognizable with the inheritance of knowledge, be familiar with the great inspirations, great traditions, of this world in which they reside. They must understand and also respect the values which unite men together.

Adults should know their society and must be skillful in directing societal change

In a democratic society, people take part in making decisions that affect the whole social order. Thus, It is vital, that each factory worker, salesman, politician, all housewives, know sufficient information concerning government, economics, civic, international matters, and other issues of the society to be able to participate in them intelligently. (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson,1990)

Malcolm Knowles’s andragogy notion

Knowles had a conviction that an adult learned differently from children, to him this offered the foundation for a distinct field of study. Knowles’s earlier studies on informal adult education underscored some aspects of development and setting. Equally, his records on the growth of the adult education progress in America had assisted Knowles to arrive at some conclusions concerning the outline and course of adult education. What Knowles now required was to merge together these aspects. The mechanism Knowles used was the concept of “andragogy”. (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson, 1990)

Whereas the notion of andragogy had previously been in occasional usage ever since the 1830s, Knowles is the one who popularized the usage of the term for English language users. Though like Lindeman, Knowles recognized the significance of encouraging community participation, Knowles was also more concerned with establishing the theory and principles of adult education. Knowles did this by outlining five approaches in which andragogy differs from the long-established forms of pedagogy. According to Knowles, andragogy was founded on no less than four essential assumptions regarding the features of an adult learner that vary from the assumptions regarding child learners on which conventional pedagogy is founded. A fifth assumption was added at a later stage.

1. Self-concept: As an individual becomes more mature his self-conception moves from one of being a dependent personality toward one of being a self-directed person
2. Experience: As a person matures he/she accumulates an increasing pool of experience which becomes a growing resource for education.
3. Readiness to learn: As an individual matures his/her readiness to be taught becomes increasingly oriented to the developmental duties of his/her social roles.
4. Orientation to learning: As an individual matures his/her time viewpoint changes from that of postponed knowledge application to the immediacy of knowledge application, and consequently his orientation to learning changes from that of subject-centeredness to that of problem centeredness.
5. Motivation for learning: As an individual matures his/her motivation to learn becomes internal (Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson,1990).

Each one of these contentions and the argument of variation among andragogy and pedagogy has become the topic of extensive debate. Helpful critiques of the concept can be found in Jarvis (1977) Davenport (1993) Tennant (1996).

Review of Malcolm Knowles’s adult learning theory

According to Conner (2007) t point out that, Knowles’ concept of andragogy is an effort to formulate a comprehensive model (theory) of adult learning which is affixed to the features of adult learners. Also Brandford, et al (2000) uses such observed features in a more limited effort to provide a “framework for thinking about what and how adults learn”. Such methods might be compared with those which focus on:

• A mature person’s life situation;
• Adjustments in consciousness (Brandford, et al (2000)

In addition, Knowles makes widespread usage of a concept of relations obtained from humanistic medical psychology, and, specifically, the qualities of fine facilitation which Carl Rogers argued. Nevertheless, Knowles includes in other aspects which are indebted greatly to scientific curriculum formulation and behavioral modification (and thus are somewhat parallel with Rogers). Knowles’s aspects encourage a learner to identify requirements, set aims, and get into learning contracts, etc. that is to say that, Knowles uses suggestions from psychologists who are working in two relatively varying and opposing practices (humanist and behavioral practices). This implies that there is a somewhat dodgy insufficiency model lurking around Knowles’s model.

Furthermore (Brandford, et al (2000) observes that it is not apparent if this is “a theory or set of assumptions about learning, or a theory, or model of teaching”. One can observe something of the sort in regard to the manner Knowles described andragogy “as the art and science of helping adults learn as against pedagogy as the art and science of teaching children”. Conner (2007) states that there is an inconsistency in the definition, he further goes on to inquire: has Knowles offered us a theory, or is it a set of guiding principles for practice? The assumptions stated by Knowles ‘can be comprehended as explanations of the adult learner or as dogmatic statements regarding what the adult learner ought to be like.

This connects with a point stated by Brandford, et al (2000) that states that it appears there is a failure to set and cross-examine these ideas in an articulate and consistent conceptual structure. Brandford, et al (2000) further comments that throughout Knowles works there is a tendency of listing characteristics of an occurrence with no interrogation on the text of the arena (for example in the case of andragogy) or by looking via the lens of a logical conceptual system. Undoubtedly Knowles had several important insights, however since they are not tempered by meticulous analysis, they appeared to be a prisoner to fortune – they may perhaps be taken up in a historical or a theoretical manner.

Evaluation

Malcolm Knowles was fundamental in establishing of andragogy theory which outlines the practice of adult learning. Through establishing the manner in which andragogy varies in practice from the traditional ways of teaching, Knowles assisted to solidify the andragogy theory of adult education and offered a basis from which the approach of teaching adults could be developed. Classes in society colleges, the length and width of America and other countries nowadays, are teaching adults in a manner that respects their maturity as adults and exploits their life experiences.

Knowles’s thoughts on self-directed learning are significant to understanding approaches to adult education. Individuals seek out learning to improve their lives; these people are motivated, and their initiative ought to be met by a very flexible and democratic arrangement of adult education that provides courses in accordance with public demand. (AAACE, 2004)

Conclusion

Andragogy theory is a theory for adult learning formulated by Malcolm Knowles which makes the assumption that the point at which an individual attains a self-concept of indispensable self-direction is the stage at which the person psychologically becomes an adult. At this particular point, an individual is profound of the psychological needs and wants to be seen by others as self–directing. According to Knowles Adult learning must at least produce these outcomes: Adults should achieve a mature recognizing of themselves, Adults ought to learn to respond to the causes, not symptoms, of behavior, Adults should know their society and must be skillful in directing societal change, and many more other aspects.

Knowles, andragogy was founded on no less than five essential assumptions regarding the features of an adult learner that varies from the assumptions regarding child learners on which conventional pedagogy is founded. These assumptions include self-confidence, experience readiness to learn among others. In the words of Brookfield (1994), Malcolm Knowles was fundamental in establishing of andragogy theory which outlines the practice of adult learning.

Reference:

American Association for Adult & Continuing Education (AAACE) (2004): Adult Learning Washington, DC.

Brandford, D. et al (2000): How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School; National Academy Press.

Brockett, R. G. and Hiemstra, R. (1991): Self-Direction in Adult Learning. Perspectives on theory, research and practice, London: Routledge.

Brookfield, S. B. (1994): Self directed learning’ in YMCA George Williams College ICE301 Adult and Community Education Unit 2: Approaching adult education, London: YMCA George Williams College.

Candy, P. C. (1991): Self-direction for Lifelong Learning. A comprehensive guide to theory and practice, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

Conner, M. L (2007): How Adults Learn.” Ageless Learner, 1997-2007. Web.

Davenport (1993): Is there any way out of the andragogy mess?’ in M. Thorpe, R. Edwards and A. Hanson (eds.) Culture and Processes of Adult Learning, London; Routledge.

Kett, J. F. (1994): The Pursuit of Knowledge under Difficulties. From self-improvement to adult education in America, 1750 – 1990, Stanford, Ca. Stanford University Press.

Knowles, Elwood, and Swanson (1990): The Adult Learner Chicago: Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division.

Knowles, M.S (1978): The Adult Learner: a Neglected Species 2nd edition, Houston: Gulf Publishing Company, Book Division.

Merriam, S. B. and Caffarella, R. S. (1991): Learning in Adulthood. A comprehensive guide, San Francisco: Jossey-Bass.

By its definition, learning is the acquisition knowledge, skills and understanding which is realized through development in ones behavior and the context of memories. It is the basic goal sought in the strive for education and obtained through experience. With the nature and contexts of learning, it may occur in different forms which could be both simple and integrated forms. Learning process also is characterized by a divergence in types and style. The different learning styles are described by various learning models. Conventionally, leaning is the cognitive conception methods through which knowledge or elsewhere skills are acquired.

To many scholars however, cognitive and learning styles are used interchangeably and shows very little difference. At one level, they take learning style as a short hand description of cognitive process applied in thinking, remembering as well as perceiving. Due to the interchangeable nature of the two worlds there is considerably a great value of confusion which occurs in their description. However, cognitive learning style may be described as the consistent behavioral pattern which occurs within the limit of an individual variability. It is the consistent way through which a student will respond to specific challenges of stimuli found within the learning environment. Elsewhere, it is the way characterized by specific methods in which a person acquires and uses the information in the learning process. These processes should be in a pursuit of an expressed differentiation in the psychological array which is observed in various modes of processing the information.

The learning styles are the various traits of psychological effective and cognitive nature whose indication describes the perception built by learners, the interaction phenomenon and the response stimuli with a certain environment of learning. Learning style will therefore explain the nature of the specific interaction into the broad context methods of instruction bound by cognitive characteristics within the learner’s psychology. It can be described as the attitude and interaction treatment within the process of acquiring knowledge. In describing learning style the subject matter of roles of the students in the learning process should not be overlooked. Elsewhere, it would describe the strategic relation of an adaptive character which are found within a specific situation of learning whose dependence is built on factors determined by the students motivation and nature of personality. The aspect of personality is the bridge towards the foundations of the student’s discipline. The nature of such personality/behavior determines the nature with which the students perceive their classroom activity (Sternberg, Zhang, 2001).

Various learning models seek to explain the aspect of learning. The development of this Dunn and Dunn Model is dated back in 1967 by Dr. Rita Dunn. The model is founded on two specific styles theories of learning which are the brain lateralization theory and the cognitive theory. Through cognitive theory, Dunn argued that different individuals will process the same information on different parameters depending on whether the processing traits are got from learning or are subject of inherent traits. Elsewhere, the brain lateralization theory has its basis on the conception that the brain contains two hemispheres whose functions are different. These are the left brain involved in the verbal sequentially of learning abilities while the right brain is involved in the emotional aspects of learning. This is involved in the process conception of special holistic nature. According to Dunn, learning style will begin in concentration, processing and with retaining new and elsewhere difficult information got through the learning process.

To Dunn, various fundamentals defined this model. Firstly, capitalization of the learning strengths by the students is probable. Teachers oftenly used various learning period. Due to the indifferent in strengths, each is allotted specific strength though the same strength is perceived to being different within such different people. Learning is discretional and available to the better population of the society population. Implied here was that, many people are able to learn despite the different degree of knowledge acquisition. Either, the response brought out of different sets of learning environments and resources is subject of been diverse in regard to the different personal strength during the learning process.

Within the Dunn and Dunn Model, various types of learners are dominant. Firstly the visual learners use the body language of the teacher above the facial expression in full understanding the lesson content. Either, auditory learners achieve their learning acquisitions through the listening process to the verbal expressions of the teacher. They also get great knowledge through discussions and the verbal conversation held between them and the other students. The learning process involves the interpretation of the specific meaning, understanding the various verbal speech expressions. The sequential learners follow various logical steps in their due learning process. Elsewhere, the active and reflective learners are highly captured in this model. The active learners are th0se who uses their active characteristic in the learning process. They have a big tendency of actively participating in the learning activities. On the contrast, the reflective learners use their high thinking modalities in the process of learning.

The model makes a comprehensive usage of the learning style instrument. It uses the index of learning style which is an online method of assessment into learner’s preference in the learning process. Ideally, it will assess the level of an individual’s strength in the learning process. Consequently, it will evaluate standards with which such a person will adequately fit in the field of learning. Through this instrument, the teacher is able to evaluate and identify the various preferences allied to students. The application of the LSI helps the teachers in identifying the specific potentialities born by the student so that the teacher can use the most adequate methods of teaching the student which imparts the most authentic piece of the knowledge (Dunn, Griggs, 2000).

The David Kolb was developed by David Kolb in 1984. His main argument is on the experimental learning process. It seeks to describe two learning phenomena. Firstly, it is a mode of learning applicable to students with a possible chance of acquiring and applying the knowledge, feeling and also skills within their immediate and relevant environmental setting. This would imply an encounter of a direct nature with the specific phenomena under study rather than pursuit thinking about such encounter. Elsewhere, it could be taken to imply the kind of education, pursuit whose occurrence is participation of a direct nature into the specific lively events. This learning has no institution of formal education sponsorship but the people do the sponsorship. This involves learning via the sense experience.

It is realized via four villages of understanding. The first village accredits and addresses the level of learning from that of life experience or elsewhere experience from work. The second village has its focus on the changes brought into the social structures from any context of experimental learning process. The third village is an emphasis of the group consciousness that voices moral rationality of the groups who foundation is on the experimental learning. The fourth village is the moral concern on grounds of personal growth or the standards of self-awareness brought about by experiential learning. There focus (villages) is on the role of experience in the learning process.

Either, he uses his model formula encapsulating of a pack of various elements (four). There are the concrete experience, formation of abstract conceptions, reflection and test for the new situations (Dembo, Howard, 2007).

Due to the nature of using sense experience in the learning process, this model is compound by three sets of learners. The Kinesthetic learners achieve their learning through touch, moving and also doing activities. They will explore the world which is around them for their knowledge. The auditory learners drive their knowledge from listening/hearing senses. They will listen their teachers and fellow learners about what they say. They use sound conceptions to get knowledge. The visual learners observe the activities by other people (through seeing) and develop conceptional knowledge from the various body languages as well as expressions made by their teachers. The sequential and learners perhaps dominates this model. Sequential learners will follow suit to various steps in a linear character in the learning phenomenon. They will employ various logical steps in the process of acquiring their knowledge. Global learners are in contrast allied to learning through random processes.

The application of the learning style instrument in this model has its pillars on the four to device techniques with which he/she can accurately help to guide the students in their studies. The essence of the LSI in this model is to provide a room with which the student is able to use is preference parameters in the activity of the learning process (Heiman, 2006).

Dr. Richard Felder developed the Richard Felder learning model. He developed the learning style using the index notations. The development of the model was in 1993. It incorporated five aspects amongst which two were replications of Myers-Briggs arguments as well as the David Kolb model. He argued of the sense perceptions as a pillar in the learning process. Elsewhere, his argument on the reflective dimension which was Kolb’s argument is incorporated. Above these two arguments, he had other additional learning dimensions, which included the visual and verbal inputs, the inductive and deductive organization above that of the sequential understanding. His argument was that these five dimensions were responsible credits for the learning process (Lim, Pek, Chai, 2005).

Like the David Kolb’s model, Richard Felder model incorporated three types of learners. The auditory learners learn through listening the different speech output of their teachers or colleagues. Such a speech entering within the student learning senses would then be interpreted for its conceptual measuring. The kinesthetic learners derived their learning knowledge from their movements and touches. This was highly applicable in the world of science. Either, the visual learners learns through physical look and seeing the learning object. The body movements and expressions of the teachers do an important role improving learner the adequate knowledge in this mode. Either, he used the active and reflective learners.

To the Richard Felder model, application of the learning style instrument is highly dominant. These instruments compound the methodology with which the dissemination of knowledge is made possible from the teacher to the student. This is made possible through the use of the must appropriate methods with which the different learners are provided with adequate environment and appropriate tools for use in their learning process (Morgan, 1997).

Summarily therefore, adequacy in learning is a constituent of specific learning style which commensurate with specific kind of learners. However, for all the models, there is very little difference in the conceptional outlay of the standards using in the learning process by the students. Learning is typical to the ay through which knowledge and skills are acquired through various phenomena in an adaptation to the basics of the knowledge gain. In every choice of learning model the long run result is the same where the teacher and student relationship should be sound for adequate communications between them.

References

1. Dembo, M. H., & Howard, K. (2007). Advice about the Use of Learning Styles: A Major Myth in Education. Journal of College Reading and Learning, 37(2), 101+. Web.
2. Dunn, R., & Griggs, S. A. (2000). Practical Approaches to Using Learning Styles in Higher Education. Westport, CT: Bergin and Garvey. Web.
3. Heiman, T. (2006). Assessing Learning Styles among Students with and without Learning Disabilities at a Distance-Learning University. Learning Disability Quarterly, 29(1), 55+. Web.
4. Iram, Y. & Wahrman, H. (Eds.). (2003). Education of Minorities and Peace Education in Pluralistic Societies. Westport, CT: Praeger. Web.
5. Lim, C. P., Pek, M. S., & Chai, C. S. (2005). Classroom Management Issues in Information and Communication Technology (ICT)-Mediated Learning Environments: Back to the Basics. Journal of Educational Multimedia and Hypermedia, 14(4), 391+. Web.
6. Morgan, H. (1997). Cognitive Styles and Classroom Learning. Westport, CT: Praeger Publishers. Web.
7. Sternberg, R. J. & Zhang, L. (Eds.). (2001). Perspectives on Thinking, Learning, and Cognitive Styles. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates. Web.

Literacy coaching is an ever-evolving field of American education according to Stevens (April, 2003). Throughout the nation, many elementary schools are beginning to implement reading programs designed to improve student literacy. These programs recognize that effective and continuing professional development for teachers is critical to success (Great Schools, 2005). This is the very reason why education policymakers thought of implementing the “No Child Left Behind Act”.

This standard or act states that students in grades 3-8 must be tested every year in Math and English subjects to ensure that they are meeting the state’s educational standards. Students in grades ten through twelve will be tested at least once. Teachers, on the other hand, must also be “highly qualified” in the subjects they teach. The state will determine what skills teachers must have to be considered “highly qualified,” but the requirements could include a degree in the subject they teach or extra training for that matter.

Likewise, the schools must increase the number of students who achieve state standards. At the end of 12 years, all students should be able to pass the tests. Schools that fail to achieve this progress will be targeted for improvements that could include increased funding or staff and curriculum changes (Great Schools, 2005).

The No Child Left Behind (NCLB) Act of 2001 is bringing unprecedented funding for professional development to K-3 teachers and special educators. The goal of the legislation is to provide sufficient support to develop the knowledge and skills of classroom teachers so that student achievement will improve. In 2000, the International Reading Association released a position statement on the roles of the reading specialist (Neuman, 2006). This statement argues that literacy coaches should provide a three-part role including leadership skills, diagnosis and assessment skills, and instructional skills which all serve the overall goal of improving student learning.

Designing and providing professional support for all adults who work with children in a school is the key to pulling a school-wide program together. Although broadly defined, professional support includes all of the ways that literacy coaches assist teachers in understanding, implementing, and evaluating the literacy development of the reading program (Mitchell, 2001).

According to Hirsh (2005), it is the fundamental objective of No Child Left Behind, state legislatures, local school boards, and school advancement councils to close the achievement gap by guaranteeing that all students excel academically. Hirsch found that the quality of teacher instruction in the classroom has the greatest impact on student achievement. Unfortunately, not all teachers are adequately trained or prepared to meet the needs of the diverse student population. As a result, attention must be given to finding approaches to help those teachers who are identified as ineffective become more successful educators.

Furthermore, teachers must be trained in both instructional strategies and content in order to understand how individual students learn and what a teacher can do to raise student achievement levels. Professional development, specifically in the area of literacy training, makes use of such strategies by improving teaching and closing achievement gaps.

Traditionally, hierarchical organizational structures have permeated educational institutions. This traditional model is characterized by a superior-subordinate relationship between principals and faculty members (Neuman, 2006). Under this model, the principal is the primary decision-maker and is held accountable for the operation of the school. Educators often are assigned specific roles and responsibilities for providing educational programs to students. For instance, a classroom teacher may be assigned to deliver instruction for a prescribed portion of the curriculum (e.g., World History) to a group of students, Likewise, other educators such as guidance counselors may have other assigned responsibilities such as assisting students with school, personal, and vocational issues and academic programs.

In the face of growing student diversity within educational environments, educational reformers have suggested a move toward shared or horizontal organizational structure as an alternative to the traditional hierarchical organization of schools. This approach features a horizontal or collaborative structure in which constituents (i.e., principal, teachers, parents, students, and community members) participate equally in identifying the educational priorities, examining school policy, sharing educational practices, and implementing effective educational programs into the system. Thus, teachers and other constituents are given the joint responsibility and power to plan, set goals, implement and evaluate innovations to improve the educational outcomes of students (Foley, 2001).

The selected program for evaluation is housed in an elementary school in the south that serves a diverse, multicultural population. The school was created by the consolidation of two elementary schools that merged in the fall of 1998. The investigation is in a rural school, serving children in kindergarten through fifth grade. The school population consists of 358 students and 27 teachers. The demographics, obtained through public school records and school management software (STI, 2006) of the student population, represent the following ethnic categories: 55 percent African American, 30 percent Native American, and 15 percent other (Rude & Brewer, 2003).

The ability to measure the results of professional development programs and activities remains an elusive goal for most educators in rural settings. While students in classrooms continue to face extensive assessment requirements related to the attainment of educational content outcomes, there has been little effort to assess the impact of professional development designed to enhance the effectiveness of educational professionals who carry the major responsibility for the facilitation of learning outcomes for all learners. These issues sometimes become more difficult to address in rural schools if there are limited resources and support services. To realize the benefits of effective professional development, assessment approaches that link the effectiveness of such efforts to increasing student achievement are described (Rude & Brewer, 2003).

Taking a Stand

Thus, I strongly believe that at this point in time, the “No Child Left Behind” Act is unnecessary and even consider as illogical. Though the purpose is good, the very means of implementing it and the processes behind it are pointless. What the educational policymakers need to focus on first, before divulging to the students, are the teachers… the educators… the supposed to be a source of information for the students.

It is important that staff development approaches are consistent with the needs of the instructional professionals whom they are intended to benefit, and that align most clearly with the beliefs of staff members (A+ Foundation, 2006). With the implementation of appropriate approaches, positive change can come much sooner and pose far-reaching effects upon staff development, school improvement, and student achievement. Furthermore, one of the key objectives of professional development is helping teachers gain knowledge to facilitate positive literacy instruction and student academic achievement.

Teachers, as well as literacy coaches, must maintain a high level of commitment to professional development in literacy in order to ensure program success and high student academic achievement. Ultimately, teachers and literacy coaches need to commit to improvement, out of a desire to do so.

Hirsh says, “effective professional development will deepen participant understanding, transform beliefs and assumptions, and create a stream of continuous actions that change habits and affect practices” (2005). The effects of successful professional development produce a beneficial change in teacher instruction and student achievement. Ultimately, professional development that is aligned with standards and is centered on the daily work of teaching will improve student learning (Hirsh, 2005).

References

Foley, R. (2001) Professional Development Needs of Secondary School Principals of Collaborative-Based Service Delivery Models. High School Journal.

Great Schools. (2005). Web.

Hirsh, S. (2005). Professional development and closing the achievement gap. Theory Into Practice, 44(1). Web.

Mitchell, K. (2001). Knowledge and skills teachers need to deliver effective reading instruction. Montgomery: Alabama State Department of Education.

Neuman, S. (2001). The role of knowledge in early literacy. Reading Research Quarterly 36(4), 468.

Rude, H. & Brewer, R. (2003) Assessment of Professional Development Systems: Improving Rural Special Education Services. Rural Special Education Quarterly.

Stevens, L. (2003). Reading first: a critical policy analysis. (Viewpoints). The Reading Teacher, 56, i7, p 662 (7).

Introduction

Metacognition is the knowledge concerning ones owns cognitive processes and the active monitoring and the regulation of these processes in the pursuit of ones goals. It involves the active reflection of what you already know and what you think coupled with cognitive self management that is the ability to plan and implement appropriate strategies. The benefits of metacognitive teaching in education and technology lies in the ability to transfer responsibilities for monitoring learning from teachers to the immediate learners. It requires students to use the available technology like the use of computers in schools in order to advance learning.

In the context of rapid change, such as the inevitable technology, this approach provides students with distinct advantages.Metacognitive learning is considered as addressing certain influences on education and technology that is motivation, strategies and affect. These elements are seen to have an impact on the present and the future education and technology to most of the learners. Educational technology especially with the introduction of computers with the computer related peripherals have grown widely and are used in almost all the institutions. Most of the institutions like banks, hospitals and other industries use this technology in most of their activities. (Baker, and Brown, 1984).

Main body

Metacognitice approach focuses on attitudes, beliefs, learning strategies and also helps learners to come in to recognition of how technology changes and how to effectively utilize this technology. When students are in a position to change with the new technology, education system will eventually improve and less time taken in education. This can be achieved by introducing computers to schools and these students are supposed to embrace life long computer learning. It is advisable for learners to foster technology abilities at every level of schooling process. It is due to the use of these computers in schools which will hopefully lead to greater and more innovation in the use of technology.

The future success of technology in education is seen as been depended on teachers by developing their own ideas on this new technology. In the metacognitive approach, certain elements such as the learning styles, help seeking, attribution, and problem solving were developed as metacognitive scaffolds and these elements were eventually tested in the students. Those elements which evoked insight and change were retained. With introduction of computers in schools, you will find that students can work faster and teachers will take the shortest time possible when teaching since computers are thought to be quite effective. (Baker, and Brown, 1984).

For instance the internet is becoming an increasingly tool of information in most of the societies today. But there is need to invest in the new technology. We live in a world whereby we deal with huge and big volumes of data. In order to be in a position to organize and analyze these data’s, then there is the need of computers application and software in order to be in a position to work effectively with these huge data’s.

One famous academic research organization was created to apply knowledge on understanding. This organization came with a certain web, Kno.e.sis which was used to mean an advance to new approaches, technologies and techniques for various information and this was to be applied for the process of management. One way in which work can be made understandable is by the use of semantic web which is used worldwide and its used by much software’s and machines.

Technology and innovation can improve the lives of many people in the modern life. The internet has a wide range of information which is used in many schools, so students are in a position to research their work using the web. In most of the schools, you find that they have installed these computers and hence making it easy for the children to learn better.Barack Obama in his statement said that, the only people to succeed in the 21^st century are only those people who utilize the internet facilities. (Baker, and Brown, 1984).

Also metacognition approach in education today has led to distance learning with the new technology. Education is done online through the distance learning systems like tapped in learning system, blackboard learning system, Moodle learning system, Sakai among other systems. The high demand for education requires the need for a continuous professional development which includes the online activities. Online teaching is supposed to put the teachers in the anytime, anywhere teaching programs. It is also due to the increased demand in education that communities need to combine their resources, efforts and support and it’s by the system approach, which will support this mission.

For instance, tapped in is a web based learning environment. It was created by the SRI with the initiative of transforming the teacher professional providers and educators. It offers a professional and quality education. It is through the distance learning whereby the users make full exploitation of the computer based training, electronic classrooms and videoteletraining.Its by fully utilizing the network based training programs whereby the learners are in a position to make use of the network services hence enabling the training to be quite effective since the learners are in a position to access this information via the internet.

Knowledgeable and effective school teachers are extremely important in determining whether technology will improve learning in most of the students. So for effective technologies, leadership strategies must be put in place. (Brown, 1980).

Conclusion

The metacognitive approach in education and technology has a wide impact on the teachers and educators. It provides a mechanism for building capability for lifelong learning and the adaptation for the rapid rate of technological change. The modern world uses the new technology in most of its activities and hence this technology should be introduced in schools to empower the educators with the necessary knowledge so as to meet their career goals.

Reference

Adams, M. (1989). Teaching thinking to chapter 1 students. Center for study of reading.

Baker, L. and Brown, A. (1984). Metacognitive Skills and Reading. New York, Longman.353-394.

Brown, A. (1980). Metacognitive development and reading. Hillsdale, NJ, Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.

Barrack O. (2007). New Technology in the 21^st Century. United States Press.

Many nations around the world have dedicated much of their resources into the development of their educational institutions. Every year, schools undergo a series of assessments in order to maintain a standard of quality education with regards to the institution’s curriculum, facilities, student and faculty performance, etc. However, schools that cater to students with special needs handle more duties to uphold required standards in order to provide each and every student a safe and supportive learning environment.

Physically disabled students and those with special learning disabilities have distinct needs in coping inside the classroom. The diversity and number of students who have been diagnosed as physically handicapped present a certain level of difficulty in programming. (Hartlage & Hartlage 1986) Some examples of students under this category are those bound to wheelchairs due to motor or neurological problems; and, those with hearing, visual, and speech impairments. Students who need wheelchairs, crutches, or hearing or visual aids require the schools to be equipped with ramps, accessible classrooms, lunchrooms, restrooms, and special buses with lifts and locks. In addition, the school’s doctor and psychologist should work together and be aware of not only their physical needs, but also their psychosocial necessities and backgrounds (1986).

On the other hand, the academically gifted, students with learning disabilities such as the mentally retarded, or those with Attention Deficit Disorder (ADD), also need specialized programs that will enable the students to cope with learning or reinforce their skills.

A comparison may be conducted in order to distinguish the specific needs for these two categories of special students. In this case, a student with ADD (Student X) will be paralleled with one that has hearing impairment (Student Y).

Table A. Comparison of two special needs students

School support systems for the auditory impaired and those with ADD obviously vary from each other by virtue of their nature as special needs categories. Also, if one were to look at a sample observation for both students, one can immediately conclude that specialized programs for both special needs students require tedious planning and systematic execution. Table B and C will show sample behavioral observations during a class session for Student X and Y.

Table B. Sample behavioral observation for Student X

Table C. Sample behavioral observation for Student Y

Aside from the special facilities mentioned earlier, proper classroom management needs to be integrated with specific educational philosophies to effectively deliver learning to the students and develop their existing skills. For the student with ADD, it is critical for the school to have the services of a behavioral therapist. (Routh 1986) These professionals not only specialize in students with ADD, but also with other learning disabilities. The therapist and the teacher should work closely together to provide the student with individualized activities such as special workbooks, manipulative toys, and assessment procedures. (Campbell 1977) The behavioral approach on the treatment for ADD targets specific responses of students to certain situations, unlike the pharmacological researches which only aim to match the symptom with stimulant drugs. But probably the most effective approach to ADD, conducted by Silver and Hagin in 1976, is the formation of intervention groups that aim to give the students tailored educational tutoring for the improvement of their academic performance as well as their behavioral dysfunctions. Sixth-graders who joined this group were observed to have performed better academically and were able to better cope emotionally than others.

For those with physical disabilities, the problems they are often faced with, more than their physical inadequacies, is the social and emotional impact brought about by their impairments. Therefore, the best support for any educational institution should be based primarily on the psychological perspectives involved and their implications on students’ emotional and social adjustments to the school, their teachers, and their peers (Newland 1986).

The formal determination of the cause of the student’s impairment should be a prerogative for the school. Knowledge of this will help both the therapist and instructor in creating specialized activities for the learner. In 1940, the state of Pennsylvania enacted a mandate to test each school child’s hearing every three years. This program is still in effect to this day (1986). Also, parental involvement has quickly gained recognition in educational institutions worldwide because prior to speech therapists, their initial observation of the child helps in the immediate determination of any auditory problem.

According to Newland (1986), certain “givens” must also be instilled within the institution, along with the teachers and staff when dealing with auditory impaired students. First given is “the student in active”. Beyond the obvious fact that the students are live beings, what this given is actually pointing out is the importance of the teacher’s familiarity to various sources of stimuli. The student reacts to both internal and external stimuli, and using diverse forms of stimuli for learning ensures better comprehension and absorption of information for any student. The second given is “the student manifests a pattern of development or maturity.” This means that the development of the student with regards to learning has a definite progression and observation of these patterns will enable the teacher to develop a linear and dynamic curriculum for these students. The student’s reaction to his or her social milieu is the third given’s main point. This implies that each student will have a different reaction to their social surroundings which places an importance on the timing of mainstreaming the student or placing them in special classes. (1986) Mainstreaming involves integration with regular students and early or late exposure to this type of classroom environment is a factor on the child’s future ability to socialize with others. Timing and proper guidance is the key to catering to this type of support system. Finally, the fourth and last given is “the student learns.” The student should not be treated as a mere passive receiver because of his or her disability. (1986) The role of the teacher is not only to input information to the child. Processing of the students’ responses and providing feedback will allow for a holistic classroom interaction for the teacher and the learner. Students who have lost hearing during the prelingual stage tend to have greater specialized instructional materials for leaning, and it is the responsibility of the school to provide this. These unique problems of students should not be treated as an impediment to learning. The hearing impaired has great psychological concern for communication with other people, and so, how communication is bridged between the disabled and the regular person needs constant attention and support. Knowledge of sign language and other visual aids is a must for many special schools at present. Providing a means for special students to connect with their peers will not only become an effective avenue for learning, but more importantly for socialization and non-isolation.

Lastly, for both categories of special students, the tandem of the school and the parents may be the most essential form of continuous reinforcement that can be given to the child. Regular parent-teacher conferences on the student’s progress are an assurance of a holistic support system for all those involved in the learning process.

Bibliography

1. Campbell, S.B., Endman, M.W., and G. Bernfeld. 1977. “Journal of Child Psychology and Psychiatry,” Michigan.
2. Hartlage, P.L. and L. Hartlage. 1986. Epilepsy and other neurological and neuromuscular handicaps. New York: Wiley and Sons, Inc.
3. Newland, Ernest. 1986. Children with auditory and visual impairment. “Psychological Perspectives on Childhood Exceptionality”. New York: Wiley Publications.
4. Routh, Donald. 1986. Attention Deficit Disorder. ”Psychological Perspectives on Childhood Exceptionality”. New York: Wiley Publications.
5. Rutter, M., Cox, A., Tupling, C., Berger, M., and W. Yule. 1975. Attachment and adjustment in two geographical areas. “British Journal of Psychiatry,” London.

Adult learning is the process of training, schooling and enlightening adults. This usually takes place at the workplace, by means of ‘extension’ or ‘continuing education’ initiatives at high schools, at an academy or university. Other learning places include schooling establishments, community colleges, and social learning institutions. Usually the process is also known as ‘Training and Development’. Adult learning is assigned a specific term known as andragogy in order to differentiate it from pedagogy which relates to strategies of delivering instructions, or an approach towards education in general.

Adult learning is also different from vocational education, which is typically carried out at workplaces and normally refers to upgrading the skills of the employee, and informal adult education together with training on skill development or erudition for personal growth.

Edification of adults is different from teaching children in numerous ways. One of the most significant differentiations is that adults throughout the course of their lifetime have already developed a certain level of understanding and gathered some degree of experience that can facilitate or on the contrary impede the learning process. Further, for the most part adult learning is a voluntary process. Consequently, the participants are commonly better motivated. (Merriam, Caffarella & Baumgartner, 2007)

Adults often put their knowledge into application in a much more realistic manner to be trained more effectively. They tend to have a rational anticipation that the awareness gained from learning initiatives will assist them in advancing and accomplishing their objectives. One illustration widespread throughout the 1990s was the increase in computer training programs in which adults, primarily office workers and experienced professionals participated. Another more general example is that of the high-school dropouts in the United States, who go back to learning establishments in order to complete general learning necessities. (Ross-Gordon, 2005)

An adult engaged in earning activities is not likely to possess the liberty of simply giving up his or her means of daily bread and returning to full time education. Public school programs and community colleges frequently recommend evening or perhaps weekend curriculums for people with such constraints. In Europe, this is frequently known as “second-chance”, and numerous schools offer specifically suited programs and learning courses for these returning students.

The adults who return to the most basic levels of learning receive aids from volunteer literacy initiatives. These initiatives offer conversational teaching and small group discussions for adults at a very basic level. Community libraries, voluntary organizations and school coordination teams oversee these initiatives across the various countries at different levels. (Merriam, 2008)

By now it is clear that adult learning is a special case in the field of education. It is, in a number of ways, different from ordinary educative programs. To understand the various aspects of adult learning and education some inherent features of adult learners must be discussed. The following distinctiveness of adult learners has been identified by Malcom Knowles, a pioneer in the field of research relating to adult education:

Adults are generally autonomous and self-directed. Thus, they need to have the liberty to direct their means themselves. Thus their involvement in the learning process should be taken into account. Assigning responsibility and leadership can play a significant role in their development. Educators should assume the role of facilitators, chanelizing development pathways for participants using their own understanding instead of merely delivering facts.

Adults accumulate a base of life experiences and knowledge may be gathered from work-related actions, family duties and prior education. Therefore they need to associate the learning process to this foundation of knowledge and experience. It is important that their knowledge and experience is brought out during the process and it must be ensured that by using this base they relate to specific topics.

Adults are goal-oriented. While joining in a particular course, they usually have their objectives and priorities sorted out. Hence, they value an educational initiative which is structured and organized. Educators should help participants realize the way the program helps them to achieve their objectives.

Adults are relevancy-oriented. They must see a reason for learning something. Learning has to be applicable to their work or other responsibilities to be of value to them. Therefore, instructors must identify objectives for adult participants before the course begins. This means, also, that theories and concepts must be related to a setting familiar to participants. This need can be fulfilled by letting participants choose projects that reflect their own interests. (Caffarella, 2007)

Adults need to be treated with respect. Trainers must recognize the assets in thee form of experiences that adult partakers bring in and should be cared for as equals.

Possibly because the idea is so fundamental when related to adult learning, the self-directed learning approach has emerged as one of the field’s highly researched subject for approximately a decade. Self-directed learning is frequently illustrated as a method in which participants take most of the initiatives, with or without the assistance of others, to analyze their learning requirements, devise learning objectives, describe resources for learning, choose and apply learning approaches, and assess learning results.

One of the most popular models describing self-directed learning is a two-by-two matrix of the participant and the program offering establishment. The self-directed learning circumstances come into existence when the participants and not the offering establishment determine both the learning goals and the mode of learning. The following circumstances take up the other cells of the matrix:

1. formal learning, wherein establishments, not participants, determine goals and the mode of learning;
2. informal learning, wherein participants determine the objectives and establishments oversee the means; and
3. informal learning, wherein establishments determine the purposes but participants manage the mode of learning. (Merriam, 2008)

Self-directedness hinges on the entity in charge—the one determining what is to be learned, what approaches should be adopted, which resources are to be used, and the what standards should the outcomes of the initiative meet. The circumstance under which the participant takes those decisions, the learning is usually regarded to be self-directed.

The Transformative Learning concept relates to a learning process of generating a vital awareness of one’s self-tacit conjectures and opportunity and in addition that of others and evaluating their significance for developing an understanding. Transformative Learning can be classified into three segments comprising of critical reflection, reflective discourse, and action. It is also suggested that associating with this process can give rise to frames of reference which are more flexible to supplementary adjustments, reflective, comprehensive, discriminating, and on the whole more sensitively receptive to change. It habitually involves profound, authoritative feelings or viewpoints which are substantiated in action. (Ross-Gordon, 2005)

The process of “Perspective Transformation” is fundamental to the concept of Transformative Learning Theory. It categorizes three aspects to a perspective transformation: psychological- alteration in perceiving the self, convictional- reconsideration of the value systems, and behavioral- transformation of lifestyle. Transformative learning is the development of awareness by means of the makeover of basic perception of the surroundings and definite competence of the self. It is made possible in the course of willfully controlled processes such as approvingly obtaining and receiving the representative contents of the unaware and decisively examining the fundamental principles. (Merriam, 2008)

“Experiential learning” is perhaps one of the most momentous areas for contemporary research and practice in the field of adult learning, and emerging gradually more as one of the most challenging. The expression “experiential learning” is frequently used both to differentiate this continuing meaning-making from conjectural knowledge, and non-controlled “informal” experience from “formal” learning.

When brought into the horizon of the educationalist the concept of “experiential learning” has been allowed to select the lot from kinesthetic controlled educative activities to unique workplace undertakings combined with ‘critical dialogue’ guided by a facilitator, to knowledge generated by means of public action engagements, and even to team-building initiatives. In existing premise as well as application, experiential learning appears primarily viewed as thoughtful building of significance with scrupulous importance being laid on ‘critical reflection’ and conversational activities. This formulation was made popular by various researchers and a noteworthy body of speculation and evaluation has emerged to discuss just how reflection-on-experience opens out in diverse contexts to generate knowledge.

Nevertheless, alternate standpoints about the temperament of cognition, and the associations among experience, circumstance, psyche and education give rise to key issues about the suppositions and principles of the reflective perception. (Caffarella, 2007)

In conclusion it should be stated that Adult education theories of self-directed, transformative and experiential learning are in particularly significant to bring about thriving renovation in adults for the reason that they concentrate on generating a more participatory education process. These theories suggest that the process should construct opportunities for participants to understand disorienting problems, significantly mull over on their postulations and make possible the cognition of how to learn instead of merely focusing on what to learn.

References

Caffarella, R.S. (2007). Self-directed learning. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2007(57), 25-35.

Merriam, S.B. (2008). Andragogy and Self-Directed Learning: Pillars of Adult Learning Theory. New Directions for Adult and Continuing Education, 2008(89), 3-14.

Merriam, S. B., Caffarella, R. S., Baumgartner, L.M. (2007). Learning in adulthood a comprehensive guide. SanFrancisco, Ca: John Wiley & Sons.

Ross-Gordon, J. (2005). Adult Learners in the Classroom. New Directions for Student Services, 2005(38), 43-57.