Fuel

Running Head: Rising Fuel Costs and the Airline Industry Rising Fuel Costs and the Airline Industry Of all the changes that we have seen in the economy, fuel has to be at the top of the list as an item whose pricing affects more than just the price we see at the pump. In addition to increased prices at the gas pump, we have also seen products, services, and virtually every item sold increase due to the high cost of fuel.

Although fuel prices have dropped today versus what they were in the third and fourth quarter of 2008, businesses had to make quick decisions as to how they were going to handle the rising cost so that they could still return a profit. One of the industries that the increasing price of fuel has made a large impact on is the airline industry. Four of the top airlines: Southwest, American Airlines, Delta Airlines, and United Airlines have all had to institute changes within their organization to minimize the impact of rising fuel costs on their bottom line. Southwest Airlines

Last summer, when the price of crude oil increased at an astronomical rate, Southwest Airlines was praised as the airline that would make it through the crises. For years, Southwest used fuel hedging to keep their costs down (Reed, 2008). Fuel hedging consists of a future contract, and in this case, means that Southwest agrees today to pay a certain price per gallon for fuel in the future (Reed, 2008). When barrels of oil began increasing, Southwest was basically “locked-in” with their fuel pricing. That meant that they did not have the same sense of urgency that other airlines had at that moment in time.

Southwest could still charge the same low rates, and not have to plan on making any drastic changes. Southwest began fuel hedging over 14 years ago (Reed, 2008), and was profitable by doing so. The executives of the company at that time developed a strategy many years ago that had paid off for them for quite some time. However, by the end of 2008, when crude oil began dropping, Southwest was at the other end of the spectrum. They were now paying more for fuel than the current price of fuel. This caused Southwest, for the first time in 17 years, to post a loss for the quarter (Fuel contracts 2008).

However, Southwest still did not start charging customers for additional items as other airlines began doing. Currently, on their website, they still boast “Low Fares…no hidden fees” (Southwest, 2009). Instead, Southwest opted to make other changes to their organization. These changes went into effect before the oil prices starting dropping. Southwest decided to hedge only 10% of their fuel, in contrast to hedging approximately 75% of their fuel (Cochran, 2009). Although touted as some that Southwest knows what they are doing (Cochran, 2009), it must also be noted that Herb Keller, the former CEO of Southwest, retired last summer.

It is difficult to determine at this point if Southwest is as creative, and that is the reason they have dropped their fuel hedging, or if the new leadership is reluctant to take the risks that the former CEO was willing to take and institute into the corporation. It is also difficult to determine if the new CEO is possibly at the eighth stage of Kotter’s model, and trying to anchor new approaches to the Southwest culture (Kotter, 1996). Only time will tell if the CEO’s new approaches will be successful. American Airlines

When oil price increased sharply in the summer of 2008, American Airlines was the first major airline to start charging for the first piece of baggage (Johnsson, 2009). According to American Airlines CEO Gerard Arpey (2008), “Our company and industry simply cannot afford to sit by hoping for industry and market conditions to improve” (Maynard, 2008). Because American was the first to institute these fees, some saw the move as something that could backfire on American, and called the move “stupid” (Maynard 2008). However, within weeks after American started charging fees, many other airlines followed suit.

As of today, although fuel costs have dropped, the baggage fees are still in effect at both American and other major airlines. American Airlines, during this volatile time, took a risk and instituted a non-traditional idea (Kotter, 1996). This move increased their baggage revenue by $94. 1 million dollars in the quarter that they began charging fees. In addition to baggage fees, American also made additional changes in their business. From mid April to mid May in 2008, American Airlines raised their fare rates 14 times to offset the higher costs they were encountering Maynard, 2008). Announcements were also made that additional efforts to reduce losses, such as cutting approximately 300 flights, and retiring approximately 75 aircraft were also taking place (Maynard, 2008). However, despite all of these changes, and generating additional revenue, American Airlines still posted a loss of $341 Million in the last quarter of 2008, and lost another $375 Million in the first quarter of 2009 (Bigger Q1 loss, 2009). Although the loss was large, it was still better than analysts expected (Bigger Q1 loss, 2009).

However, no company can continue posting losses without a major overhaul of change occurring. Although American Airlines appears to be the airline that steps out of their comfort zone and makes changes, they still are not making money. Businesses simply cannot afford to stay in business if they do not make money; therefore, it is important the American Airlines move up their somewhat complacency level, move out of their comfort zone, and arrive at a plan that will boost their bottom line to a profit. Delta Airlines Last year, when oil prices jumped, Delta did not begin charging fees for the first bag.

However, they allowed a passenger’s first bag at no charge, but charged fifty (50) dollars each way for the second bag checked. This double in price (from the original $25), along with higher fees for the third, fourth, and up pieces of luggage was a move to help defray the fuel costs (Delta doubles, 2008). In addition, another move made by Delta to help defray the fuel costs was charging Sky Miles or World Perks fliers a $25 to $100 fuel surcharge (Delta doubles, 2008). With fuel costs still increasing, Delta felt that they still had to make additional changes to cover the rising costs.

Their fare increase had not been successful because it prevented them from staying competitive (Airlines upping fees, 2008) in the market. Therefore, Delta decided instead to charge frequent fliers, in addition to the $25 phone reservation fee, another $25 fee if the flight included another airline partner (Airlines upping fees, 2008). At this time, Delta also increased their charges for pets, oversized baggage fees, and unaccompanied minor fees (Airlines upping fees, 2008). Delta also announced last year that in 2009 they would reduce capacity six to eight percent, and ask for voluntary job cuts (Trubey, 2008).

The interesting information concerning Delta was the fact that after they purchased Northwest Airlines, they lowered or dropped some of their fees. Reservations made over the phone fees was lowered, and curb side administrative fees were dropped (Delta to charge, 2008). Delta Airlines is optimistic that the merger of Delta and Northwest, along with decreased fuel costs, will allow them to post a profit in 2009. Although Delta did not jump on the bandwagon initially with baggage fees, they did change their business plan very quickly in March 2008 (Grantham, 2008).

They did not wait around to see what would happen, and quickly arrived at a plan as to how they were going to handle the increase in fuel costs. Delta raised their fares, and also cut unprofitable flights from their schedules. Early in 2008, when fuel prices began increasing, the CEO of Delta remarked that Delta needed “to ramp up changes to its operations to deal with rising costs (Grantham, 2008)”. The CEO seemed to understand the urgency of the situation, and also had the power, as the CEO, to make those changes.

The CEO also announced that they (Delta) would share with the employees the changes that the company was going to make, and how they would make them without the sacrifice of the employees (Grantham, 2008). This move, in my opinion, showed that the CEO had a process for change, and was communicating this to the employees. With the price of fuel increasing so rapidly, it is apparent that most likely employees were nervous about losing their jobs. By the CEO communicating the vision of the change to the employees, it most likely kept the rumor mill down, and got employees to focus on the change itself, instead of unfounded fears.

Another move made by Delta to decrease their fuel cost was slowing the flight speed of planes approximately twenty (20) miles per hour. On a flight from Los Angeles to Atlanta, this would add an additional 6 minutes to the flying time. This small difference would not be noticeable to the customer, but would save gallons of fuel, which in turn would save thousands of dollars. Delta also replaced seats and carts with lighter equipment, and was also studying the concept of replacing manuals by electronic means (Chapman, 2008). Over 1. million gallons of fuel per year has been estimated to be saved by making these changes (Chapman, 2008). Delta appears to be very proactive on all of their changes that need to take place within their organization in order to turn a profit. United Airlines When the price of fuel increased last year, United Airlines made their changes in another form. United decided to lay off employees in an effort to maximize the profits on their bottom line. In June 2008, United announced that it would lay off approximately 1500 employees, remove 100 airplanes from their fleet, and also eliminated one of their divisions (United Airlines, 2008). 00 of the 1500 employees were offered voluntary retirement packages, and certain contingencies must have been met for an employee to be eligible (United Airlines, 2008). This layoff was simply the “first” of layoffs, as by the end of 2008, United had laid off 2500, or approximately 30% of their employees (United Airlines posts, 2009). After posting a loss in the fourth quarter of 2008, United announced another layoff of approximately 1000 employees by the end of 2009 (United Airlines posts, 2009). This layoff was attributed to the corporation fuel-hedging in 2008 (United Airlines posts, 2009).

United made a gamble that fuel would continue to rise, and when fuel prices dropped, they were locked in at higher rates. (United Airlines posts, 2009). This fuel hedging strategy actually backfired on the company, as when fuel prices dropped, the company was paying higher prices. Fuel hedging almost appears to be a gamble that a corporation is taking, and with the price of oil jumping back and forth so rapidly, it is difficult to understand the company’s objective hedging. It is almost as if they copied Southwest’s process, yet it backfired on them.

United also jumped on the bandwagon and began charging for the first piece of luggage in September 2008 and also increased the price of the second piece of luggage from $25 to $50 (United Airlines raises fee, 2008). Although this scenario may not be accurate, it is almost as if United Airlines has a hard time going through their own processes and create any kind of plan or urgency levels, and relies on other companies changes to help them get through their own problems. Although United appeared to follow lead in 2008, they have just announced a new “fat fee” for overweight passengers (Passengers requiring, n. . ). Perhaps the most humorous part about this is that even on United’s website they have stated that this policy was implemented to “align themselves with other major airlines seating policies (Passengers requiring, n. d. )”. Conclusion When fuel made its dramatic jump in 2008, many of the airlines scrambled to come up with a plan to help offset the increase. It appears that all were not successful, as in 2009, many are still operating at a loss, and still trying to make changes to their operations. Southwest appears to lead the pack with making the most significant successful changes.

Although Southwest did lose money for the first time, they attributed their loss to the fuel hedging. As mentioned earlier, organizations can not continue to lose money, and if the airline industry does not devise a plan with significant changes, and successfully implement these changes, we may either see a bail out from the government, or see airline after airline file for bankruptcy. Perhaps the other major airlines should take a closer look at Southwest’s eagerness to make and implement changes into their company, and apply that to their own organization.

Works Cited

1. Chapman, Mary (2008, June 11). To save fuel, airlines find no speck too small. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from The New York Times Web site: http://www. nytimes. com/2008/06/11/business/11air. html? _r=1
2. Cochran, Jason (2009, Jan 5). Southwest Airlines: Straightening up and flying right. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from Wallet Pop Web site: http://www. walletpop. com/blog/2009/01/05/southwest-airlines-straightening-up-and-flying-right? icid=sphere_blogsmith_inpage_bloggingstocks Grantham, Russell (2008, March 14).
3. Delta to make changes in response to rising fuel costs. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from AJC Web site: http://www. ajc. com/business/content/business/delta/stories/2008/03/14/delta_0315. html Johnsson, J (2009, March 2). U. S. airlines losing less luggage.
4. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from Chicago Tribune Web site: http://archives. chicagotribune. com/2009/mar/02/travel/chi-mon-lost-baggage-uaua-amr-mar02 Maxon, Terry (2008. 12,28). Southwest Airlines adjusts fuel-hedging strategy.
5. Dallas Morning News, Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://www. dallasnews. om/sharedcontent/dws/bus/industries/airlines/stories/122408dnbusssouthwest. 399369b. html (n. d. ) Passengers requiring extra space.
6. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from United Airlines Web site: http://www. united. com/page/article/0,6722,52985,00. html Reed, Dan (2008, July 24). Can fuel hedging keep Southwest in the money. USA Today,
7. Retrieved April 14, 2009, from http://www. usatoday. com/money/industries/travel/2008-07-23-southwest-jet-fuel_N. htm Reed, Dan (2008, May 21). American Airlines to cut about 300 flights.
8. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from USA Today Web site: http://www. satoday. com/travel/flights/2008-05-21-american-airlines-capacity-cuts_N. htm Trubey, J. S (2008, December 9).
9. Delta president: carrier to turn profit in ’09. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from The Business Review Web site: http://albany. bizjournals. com/albany/stories/2008/12/08/daily19. html (2008, April 2). Airlines upping fees to follow fuel costs.
10. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from CBS News Web site: http://www. cbsnews. com/stories/2008/04/02/travel/main3988490. shtml (2009, April 20). Bigger Q1 loss for American Airlines but still better than expected.
11. Retrieved April 20, 2009, from Travel blackboard Web site: http://www. etravelblackboard. com/showarticle. asp? id=91065=130 (2008, June 9).
12. United Airlines, Continental Airlines cutting jobs due to ATF price increase. Retrieved April 22, 2009, from DWS Aviation Web site: http://www. dancewithshadows. com/aviation/united-airlines-continental-airlines-cutting-jobs-due-to-atf-price-rise/ (2008, July 30). Delta doubles luggage fee.
13. Retrieved April 19, 2009, from The Seattle Times Web site: http://seattletimes. nwsource. com/html/businesstechnology/2008080585_deltafees

Thomas Graham studied the behavior of the diffusion of gases of unequal densities when placed in contact with each other, using air as his control. He wanted to numerically prove how the diffusion of the gas volumes was inversely proportional to the value of the density of the gas, under constant temperature and pressure.

The significance of this experiment was that in led to a reevaluation of the concept of the movement of matter, realizing that diffusion dealt with small immeasurable elements of matter, as opposed to large volumes of air, as perceived in the corpuscular theory, shedding light into the study of the behavior and structure of matter. Graham’s initial objective was to establish a numerical value regarding the gas density and its diffusiveness for ten different gases, establishing that the greater the gas’s density the smaller the value and rate of diffusiveness compared to air.

He predicted that gases moved by diffusion when placed together in the form of minute volumes, were the heavier gas would tend to accumulate on one side while the lighter gas displaced towards the denser gas until a uniform mixture was achieved. In light of this, he predicted that if controlling temperature and pressure he would achieve the gases to diffuse and establish a numerical value. However no hypothesis was established based on the limited information at their disposal of matter.

However seeing how gases diffused proportionately despite the aperture size, Graham perceived that diffusion dealt with minute particles as opposed to large volumes. The gas’s diffusion volume was achieved once the gas inside the stucco container was entirely replaced by external air, being this new volume the equivalent volume of diffusion. Once established the volume, he used his law of diffusion to provide a numerical value and verify the exactness of his formula.

This was achieved by observing the change in height of the level of mercury. The use of a stucco plug channel containers was suitable to lessen the effect of gas absorption by the material and avoid the gas’s expansion or contraction when atmospheric conditions varied; in addition to this the fact that temperature and pressure were kept constant meant the movement of the gases was because of simple diffusion and not by an external force.

Using air as a unit measure, meant variations in duplicability of results due to the air’s heterogeneous nature making the experiment inconclusive. They used air as their measure unit since they did not have the technology to test the direct interaction of single separate samples of gases, being unable to study properly their behavior. This experiment was accurate when comparing the results with the theoretical values, and consistent to previous experimental observations.

The results showed to be always below the theory value explained by means of their materials absorption nature and slight variations in conditions and instrument’s precision. Despite this Graham was able to establish a clear numerical relationship using equivalent diffusion volumes, however with slight exceptions to certain gases that had to be further tested. Graham’s prediction of being density a factor, which determined the diffusiveness of gas, was corroborated at the sight that lighter gases than air such as hydrogen diffused more easily.

In addition the accuracy of the results helped to determine the value of the gas’s gravity, which would further provide evidence for the study of matter. In addition the fact that intermixture of gases was achieved under controlled conditions, despite the size of contact surface, provided evidence of minute particle diffusion and led Graham to speculated further on the constituents of matter, not explained through the corpuscular theory, would lead to development of the colloid theory in the future.

In conclusion this research paper showed that Graham verified a numerical value for the diffusion of gases with varying densities. However Graham’s observations led him to further speculate on the idea that diffusion was related to immeasurable elements, as opposed to sensible volumes. This paper provides valuable evidence on how the study and discovery of minute particles evolved as the corpuscular theory failed to explain the nature of matter.

Background of the Study

With the air pollution level rising day by day caused by the emission from conventional vehicles, many government bodies have put in effort to enforce emission control policy since the late of 1960, and it is becoming strict with the EURO committee being the leader until today, where their emission policy and grading system being accepted or referenced worldwide even in Malaysia. The grading system based of emission cleanliness as of today is from Euro 1 to Euro 6, where Euro 1 being the worst emission standard and Euro 6 being the environmental friendly.

This is the scene where most modern vehicles are fitted with catalytic converter since late 1975, a simple device that can reduce the harmful emission such as un-burn hydrocarbon and carbon monoxide by converting them into cleaner substances such as oxygen and hydrogen through chemical catalyst effect within (Tony & Andrew, 2006). The effect of this is that the rise of the awareness of fuel efficiency, as many will further relate that if fuel efficiency can be increased, then the emission can be further improved, as well as to reduce wastage.

Many automobile makers has since then began development of fuel efficient engine in order to make a stand, and consequently lead to the trend of Hybrid Electric Vehicle (HEV).

Problem Statement

However, emission is only one environmental factor as there is other factor which bothers a driver financial aspect, the fuel and its prices. No matter the fuel is expensive and cheap, if one can travel further with a given set amount of fuel, then one can certainly save him/her some money (Tony & Andrew, 2006).

And back to the environmental area, fossil fuel is non-renewable energy resources and depletion is certainly inevitable. This is why in recent years, many western automobile makers started to look into building fuel efficient vehicles, by building fuel efficient engines through various ways, most notably by downsizing the engine displacement and compensate it with force induction such as low pressure turbocharger. The effect of this implementation is that using a smaller capacity engine but can achieve the power delivery of a high capacity engine, yet with lower fuel consumption.

However back in the eastern automobile industry, where the Japanese being the leader they had something else in mind, not only they wanted fuel efficiency but at the same time they wished to maximize the go green concept. Henceforth they come up with the idea of hybrid vehicle, where in general terms a vehicle is powered by 2 sources of input, which is a normal internal combustion engine, supported by an additional electric motor which requires special battery pack.

The advantages of this implementation is that the fuel consumption and emission is superior over the formal, while the drawback is the maintenance and cost of replacement for faulty battery pack is very expensive. With the hybrid being the hot trend now given the promising sales figures from European countries and the USA, generally the maintenance factor is not an issue for them, however in this research we need to find out the factors hat influence a buyer into considering, buying a hybrid vehicle over here in Malaysia, as the hybrid trend is still very new here in Malaysia, generally starting on the year of 2006 where Honda introduces Civic Hybrid. However with the recent tax exemption on hybrid vehicles from the Malaysia government, the trend seems to be changing positively and now we have several models from Honda and Toyota to offer in response to the policy.

Research Objectives

1. What are the factors that influence consumer into considering a hybrid vehicle?
2. What are the factors that support consumer into buying a hybrid vehicle?
3. What are the factors that consumer worries about when purchasing a hybrid vehicle?

Significance of the Study

This study into the factors that affect the buying decision of hybrid vehicles in Malaysia could project the trend and acceptance of hybrid vehicles here in Malaysia. With that information, local automobile makers can consider into developing our own hybrid vehicles to offer the local markets a broader choice, as well as to stay competitive in the market. Additionally, this will be a good catalyst to spark off “Go Green” concept into consumers’ mind that is beneficial to the restoration and perseverance of the environment. Scope of the Study In this research, we will first take a general look and introduction into both the low pressure force induction technology and the hybrid technology further then compare and contrast the pros and cons in detail. With both concept understood, we will begin to focus on the trend of hybrid vehicles here in Malaysia, finding out the factors that support or deter the acceptance of hybrid vehicle through questionnaire aimed at hybrid owners and potential hybrid owners, from then we can know what are the main factors and concern of buyer upon making a decision for a hybrid vehicle, and then onclude what can be done to further increase the acceptance level of hybrid vehicles.

Literature Review

According to Markel & Simpson (2006), the implementation of hybrid electric vehicles can effectively reduce petroleum consumption up to 30% when compared to conventional vehicle, however a fully plug-in hybrid electric vehicle shall be undergo development to further improve the savings and reduce the wastage, as current hybrid electric vehicles uses electric motor powered by battery pack to assist the engine, which is costly when one needs to replace, and it did not provide much desired power.

The manufacturer can of course put in a bigger battery pack to punch out better power and durability, but with every 15% of improvement the cost is nearly doubled.

This issue is also mentioned before way back in year 2001, where the development of hybrid vehicles began with the aim in providing a superior fuel efficiency vehicles with minimal wastage and pollutants emitted, in prior to address two major problems (Allella et al, 2001):

• Consumption of fuel : World petroleum reserves and residues are unlikely able to sustain against the ever growing necessity of consumption
• Pollution : Generally referred to the harmful emission that can damage the environmental health

The most common hybrid vehicle design is found within the famous Japanese automobile makers, respectively the Honda & the Toyota. The idea is to fit an electric motor powered by a battery pack that will recharge itself using the lost energy during the braking procedure, to assist a smaller capacity conventional engine in acceleration. With the motor assistant, the engine need not work and rev up that hard to get the vehicle moving therefore fuel consumption can be lowered. When certain conditions are met, the vehicles may also run solely on the electric motor itself most probably during low speed cruising.

Putting the vehicle design aside, as stated by Kuo & Wang (2011), the disciplinary in driving, as well as the climate is major factor in reducing fuel consumption. Kuo & Wang pointed out that in countries that have tropical climate, such as those near to the equator, tend to have higher fuel consumption index compared to other countries with 4 seasons climate, this is mainly due to the fact that fuel burns better and more efficient when the air temperature is colder, as colder air is more dense and henceforth carries more oxygen molecules.

Other than that, since the temperature is generally high throughout the year for tropical climate countries, drivers tend to switch on the air-conditioner (A/C) most of the time to withstand the hot weather, and A/C draws power from the engine to power up the compressor and cooling coil, therefore it results in loss of power from engine and leads to higher fuel consumption. On the disciplinary side, traveling below or way above the optimum speed of a vehicle, usually around 90KM/H to 110KM/H will affect the fuel consumption, where most drivers tend to speed when the chances arise.

One should also try to plan their traveling route ahead, in order to avoid unnecessary traffic congestion which can result in poor fuel consumption, as start-stop driving proven to have 60% increased fuel consumption compared to smooth non-stop driving. This is generally experienced by most drivers that they can achieve better mileage if they travel on the highway often.

References

1. Allella et al, (2001), Negative Log-gamma Distribution for Data Uncertainty Modeling in Reliability Analysis of Complex System Methodology and Robustness, International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, Vol. 18, Napoli, Italy.
2. Allela et al, (2005), Optimal Reliability Allocation Under Uncertain Conditions With Application to Hybrid Vehicle Design [Online], International Journal of Quality and Reliability Management, Vol. 22, Napoli, Italy. Available from (www. meraldinsight. com/0265-671X. htm) [Accessed June 6 2011]
3. Apaydin O. & Gonullu MT, (2008), Emission Control With Route Optimization In Solid Waste Collection Process, Vol. 33, Sadhana.
4. Davis S. & Diegel S, (2004), Transportation Energy Databook, 24th Edition.
5. Duval M, (2004), Advanced Batteries for Electric Drive Vehicles, EPRI.
6. Hirsch et al, (2005), Peaking of World Oil Production: Impracts, Risks, and Mitigation.
7. Kuo Y. & Wang CC, (2011), Optimizing the VRP by Minimizing Fuel Consumption [Online], International Journal of Management of Environmental Quality, Vol. 2. Available from (www. emeraldinsight. com/1477-7835. htm) [Accessed 8 June 2011]
8. Markel T. & Simpson A, (2005), Energy Storage Considerations for Grid-Charged Hybrid Electric Vehicles, IEEE Vehicular Technologies Conference, Chicago, IL.
9. Markel T. & Simpson A, (2006), Plug-In Hybrid Electric Vehicle Energy Storage System Design [Online], National Renewable Energy Laboratory, available from (http://www. nrel. gov/vehiclesandfuels/vsa/pdfs/39614. pdf) [Accessed 8 June 2011]

The world is faced with growing conservation problems daily, most of which are caused by an increasing population. In order to deal with the problems of overpopulation, the world needs to consider minimizing consumption, lowering waste byproducts, and keeping a hand on land management. Consumption is the act of using resources at an uncontrolled rate. It is mainly the result of overpopulation. The population of the world is growing by approximately 212,970 people per day and is said to reach nine billion people by 2040 (World Population).

As the population increases at this rapid rate, the demand for food, water, and shelter will also rise just as quickly. Since the demand for goods like electricity and fuels also increase, we should consider using a more conservational method to create these items by using more abundant and replaceable resources. Water is the most abundant resources on the planet. Instead of using petroleum based fuels to run cars, we should use water. Scientists have already developed hydrogen powered vehicles such as cars, busses, scooters, and tractors (NREL).

Another alternative for fueling cars are crops like corn that produce ethanol. Electricity is going to one of the most demanded items as the population grows. In some places, fuels are being used to create energy. Instead, abundant resources like sunlight, wind, and water should be used to generate all the electricity that is consumed. But, even with these methods of producing a “cleaner” energy supply, the general population will have to contribute to the conservation of the energy.

Some simple things that people can do is :lower thermostats, use energy efficient bulbs, use drip irrigation to water flowers and fruits, use solar energy to dry clothes, and create a compost to dispose of that waste instead of throwing it away. As the population is growing, the amount of waste that is produced from the consumption will increase at a much more rapid pace. Each person per day produces about 4. 4 pounds of waste. The majority of this waste is thrown away in the trashcan, which is set at the curb to be picked up by a diesel truck polluting the air and using energy, only to end up in a andfill. With the increase in needs of food and other items, more and more trash will result. Recycling is the best way to fix this problem and keep 95% of trash out of landfills. It is projected that Americans will throw away over 11 million tons of glass bottles and jars 1 million tons of aluminum cans and foil more than1 million tons of aluminum cans and foil, over 4 and a half million tons of paper and nearly 10 million tons of newspaper (Center).

Almost all of this material could be recycled, saving millions of trees and over 100% combined energy that is used to make new products. Businesses can also play their part in recycling things such as cooking oil that could be used as fuel in a vehicle. If we do not engage in actions to clean up the present landfills and prevent future ones, we could possibly be looking at problems such as contaminated water and soil. Land management goes along side of both consumption and waste.

As the population increases, more space will be needed for houses, hospitals, schools and businesses. As a result, we must make room by methods such as destroying forest and filling in lakes, rivers, and streams. To us we may only see trees and dirty, microorganism infested water, but these two ecosystem house millions of species of animals and plants that are vital to our survival on Earth. Research states that the earth was once covered by 5. 8 million to 6. 2 million square miles of forest. Today only 2. million to 3 million square miles of forest still remains (Nielsen). By destroying these bionetworks, plants and animals become endangered and maybe even extinct. As a result, this causes entire ecosystems to collapse. Without plants, animals die and without plants and animals, the human species can no longer eat or breathe, therefore, becoming extinct itself. Humans can take control of this growing problem by considering options like apartment buildings or larger skyscrapers to things like online schools and e-shopping.

Without a doubt, the population of the world is going to continue to grow, but that does not mean that the problems dealing with consumption, waste, and land management has to also. If we could use nature made goods like sunlight, water, and wind, we could reduce the amount of energy consumed, decrease the amount of waste produced, and decrease the amount of land destroyed that is needed to serve the population.

Works Cited

1. Environmental Problems that were Worse than we Thought. 3 Feb 2008. 23 Feb 2010 . Alexander, Kathleen.
2. Tree Benefits. 23 Feb 2010 . Bureau, U. S. Census. “Global Population Growth. ” 2002. 23 Feb 2010 . Center, University of Colorado Environmental. CU Environmental Center. 2008. 23 Feb 2010 .
3. National Renewable Energy Laboratory. NREL – Hydrogen and Fuel Cell Research. 29 Sept 2009. 24 Feb 2010. Nielsen, Ron. The Little Green Handbook: Seven Trends Shaping the Future of Our Planet. New York: Picador, 2006.
4. Today’s Top Global Environment Issues. 23 Feb 2010 . World Population Prospects-The 2008 Revision Population Database. 2008. 24 Feb 2010

Covered in this Report This report covers the present scenario and the growth prospects of the Global Hybrid Perpetration Systems market for the period 2014-2018. Hybrid perpetration systems are mainly used In Have, PHs, and Eves and these three segments are considered In this report. The report also presents the vendor landscape and a corresponding detailed analysis of the leading vendors In the market. In addition, It discusses the major drivers that influence the growth of Global Hybrid Perpetration

Systems market. It also outlines the challenges faced by the market, as well as the key trends that are emerging in the market. View our full TCO here Key Regions MEME OPAC Americas Key vendors Allison Transmission Busch Group Gumbo Eaton Corp.. Siemens GAG Other Prominent Vendors BABE Systems Continental Delphi Automotive Getter Magnetic Marcela Nanjing Punch Perpetration Booth Voss SF Key Market Driver Fuel Economy For a full, detailed list, view our report. Key Market Challenge Battery Issues Key Market Trend

Growing Environmental Concerns Key Questions Answered in this Report What will the market size be in 2018 and what will the growth rate be? What are the key market trends? What is driving this market? What are the challenges to market growth? Who are the key vendors in this market space? What are the market opportunities and threats faced by the key vendors? What are the strengths and weaknesses of the key vendors? For more insights, view our Global Hybrid Perpetration Systems Market 2014-2018 report.

Many factors influence the automotive design process. Some of these include the target price, workload intended for the vehicle, safety in crashes, aesthetic appeal in design, fuel economy or fuel efficiency, ergonomics, and mechanical design. These factors deeply affect the vehicular design procedure. This paper will travel into each of these aspects and deeper to explain why they are so influential.

DECIDING ON A VEHICLE TYPE

The first step in the development of an automobile is to decide what kind of vehicle it will be. A truck is most useful for construction, moving, farm work, and things of those natures. However, people employ a minivan or sedan in transporting families or taking vacations. There are sports cars, designed only to get its passengers there fast and in style. The engineers cannot even initiate more complex design phases until the car’s basic style is decided, thus making it one of the most important steps in the entire process.

PRICE

Price appears at the same stage in development as choosing the car type. Money is a major factor in the development of any new technology or product. Not only will the price have to be suitable for the consumer, it must also be feasible to put the amount of funding required into the project. Developing a new automobile takes thousands of hours of work and millions of dollars in funding to make a reality. Companies must make sure that they are putting their millions of dollars into a worthy cause, as most concept cars never see the assembly line. Before designing the car’s performance and feature list, the engineers must know in what price range the car is to be sold. Budgets have to be set, and they assist in determining the outcome of the car.

FUEL EFFICIENCY

Along the same general lines as price is the fuel economy of the vehicle. Manufacturers must meet certain emission standards to make their creations street-legal. Drag exerted on the vehicle greatly affects fuel economy. Engineers use the drag coefficient formula to determine how much force drag applies on their design. The formula for the drag coefficient is where FD is the drag force. P is the density of the medium through which the object is traveling. In automobile design, this medium is the air, whose density is a relative constant. U is the speed of the body journeying through the medium (which in this case is air), and L is the scale of the body measured in square units1. This formula is used to calculate the drag coefficient of a vehicle.

The independent variables in the above equation are measured using a wind tunnel and other standard measuring techniques. The higher the drag coefficient is the more drag is exerted on the car and the worse its fuel economy would be. Lowered fuel economy is, naturally, undesirable and makes the consumer less likely to purchase the vehicle. With the rising fuel issues, a growing interest in creating new environmentally friendly engines has become known. Millions of dollars are being poured into projects that will lead to highly efficient motors to power the world’s automotive force. This is another section, and alternate engines will be discussed later in the paper.

As previously acknowledged, cars are tested in wind tunnels to assist in measuring the drag forces on the vehicle. Wind tunnels are essentially large tubes with an enormous fan at one end. The object to be tested is placed in the wind tunnel, and the fan is started, causing air particles to accelerate and generate wind. The wind then reaches the object to be tested. However, the human eye cannot see exactly where the wind goes when hitting the object. Therefore, wind tunnel technologists use smoke to view the airflow around their subjects2. Automotive engineers use the data gathered in wind tunnel testing to calculate the drag on the vehicles.

Another factor of the fuel economy of a vehicle is its weight. Generally, lighter cars boast better fuel efficiency. Engineers wage a constant war between lightweight and heavyweight vehicles. Lightweight vehicles are more efficient than their heavyweight counterparts are, but they are also considered less safe. Lighter vehicles also maintain their tires better, further increasing their efficiency. In recent years and through most of automobile history, the clear choice has been to go with the safer vehicles and simply postpone the efficiency until better technologies exist to improve upon it.

During the 1980s, however, the trend of producing smaller, more compact cars was introduced. A standard called the Corporate Average Fuel Economy Standard (CAFE) was set at 27.5 miles per gallon, forcing automotive manufacturers to create smaller, less safe cars to meet the optional CAFE standard3. This standard has been blamed for many deaths because lighter cars are more insecure. Safety issues will be discussed later.

The 1990s brought back the era of the large vehicle, and we have since been seeing monstrous SUVs rule the market. Perhaps one day, engineers will unearth the perfect balance between efficiency and safety. As for now, great strides are being made in improving the safety of the smaller vehicles and more and more sports cars are being made small. Plastics are making it possible to create safe, lightweight vehicles. From body panels to interior parts, plastic may very well be the future of automotive design. The tires on a vehicle also contribute to fuel efficiency, so the lighter cars have yet another advantage in the efficiency department4.

AESTHETIC APPEAL

The overall look of a car is sometimes enough to sell a buyer on purchasing a certain vehicle. Thusly, the design of the vehicle’s exterior is a major concern in the designing of a vehicle. The curves of a car are what define it and give it its personality. A vehicle with personality is appealing to the consumer, and they are sometimes able to identify with the vehicle. Many people would consider their vehicle to be an extension of themselves. People judge one another by what kind of car they drive and even recognize each other as they travel. A person’s vehicle can tell an entire story about its owner. Therefore, it is nearly unnecessary to state that the exterior styling of an automobile is of paramount importance because nobody wants a vehicle that is going to reflect poorly upon them and their lifestyle.

Concept cars usually feature aggressive lines and bold design features. Why is it then that if all the cars on the road were once a concept are there relatively few aggressively styled vehicles on the road? The answer is simple: the manufacturers of the automobiles must get the most value out of their designs, and that involves toning down the design’s outrageous factors in many cases. The aggressive and bold lines are attractive, however, and demand attention from the heads of companies. The sad truth is that sometimes the extreme designs are simply infeasible due to another section to be later discussed, compatibility with current configurations at the plant that builds the vehicles. However, innovations in design must occur at some rate because if progression stops, so does the automotive industry.

Progression is the force that keeps the world moving. Companies make slight changes to their vehicles annually, and every so often, a completely new vehicle on a completely new framework can be introduced into the market. New cars often share the chassis of a similar car to avoid the need to create a new frame for the car. When a company finally does introduce a radical new vehicle into the market, the manufacturers must have made sure that the investment was worth it, because the vehicle could be a complete failure in the rough and tough world of commerce. Style is not an objective concept. Different people from varying backgrounds have differing opinions about what looks good. The artists involved in styling the vehicle’s exterior must take into account the target audience of the product.

Before production, they must implant their idea of style into the public’s mind to take note of the reactions, usually done at auto shows. There are, for example, several styles of trucks: big and powerful trucks, small and sporty trucks, and family-oriented trucks. Obviously, a family with young children would not find the styling of the large, tall, powerful truck to be appealing because their children would not be able to enjoy fully their investment of an automobile, which is more than likely unsatisfactory.

ERGONOMICS OF THE INTERIOR

The interior of a vehicle is just as important in the design of an automobile as the exterior styling of the vehicle. Many times, a test drive will turn away customers. If the consumers do not like to be in the vehicle, they are far less likely to purchase the vehicle than if the interior is pleasing. Many drivers like to have a full range of features at their disposal, while others like to keep their dashboards as free of clutter as possible. Design engineers keep this in mind when developing the interior of their creations.

Cheaper cars tend to have far fewer luxurious devices, while the more expensive vehicles have gadgets galore. This is most likely because it is the gadgets that increase the price, making a costly car what it is-expensive. To keep the market moving forward, as it must, new car parts need to be invented annually and implemented either in concept vehicles or in reincarnations of old vehicles.

Comfortable seats are a necessity in a vehicle. In a car, the seats must be adjustable to accommodate the differently sized people who use them, because it is unfair to discriminate against either short or tall people. In trucks, designers have been paying attention to this as well, and have developed power foot pedals since the seat in a truck is often nonadjustable. There is an entire science dedicated to creating comfortable seats. Companies pour hundreds of thousands of dollars into designing and producing comfortable chairs for automobiles.

Therefore, there are numerous products on sale across the world claiming to give the most comfortable trip possible. They range from gel pads to masterfully designed and engineered pads built into the seat. In mathematics, the letter r is used to represent confidence in an arithmetical estimation. Through extensive research, engineers have developed formulas to measure comfort. They have experimented and have found r to be as high as .638 when they asked two questions of a subject: Does this provide lower back support? Is this chair comfortable? Researchers believe that lower back support is the key to extreme comfort. Pressure should be evenly distributed and not focused on any particular region. No pressure should be put on the sciatic nerve, or discomfort will surely ensue.

This pressure is diverted to other areas by the clever usage of curves in the chair and padding. This diversion also reduces blocked blood flow, leaving the user comfortable. However, simply designing a rigid yet ideal structure for the seat in an automobile is not enough, because people are naturally disproportionate to one another. Active comfort systems are being designed to conform to each person individually, rather than setting a standard in which everyone should fit. 5

ELECTRONICS SYSTEM

According to Bayerische Motoren Werke (BMW), the electronics system accounts for more than 30% of the overall design cost for a new vehicle6. Currently, the mechanical design of automobiles is the core, but it is predicted that the electronic components will become the nucleus, and mechanical innovations will grow fewer and fewer. Some future electronic innovations projected to arrive in the automotive market are more complex power train management systems, Electronic Control Units (ECU) that control dashboard displays, and the ability to communicate wirelessly with other vehicles and road signs. Designers must take extreme care in designing such electrical systems because the more complex a system is the more room for error exists.

Power and drive train and management systems currently exist and manufacturers commonly implement them. Traction control and limited slip differentials are excellent examples of such systems. In the future, ignition control systems will be used to create more efficiency in the ignition process. An ECU will be used to regulate the amount of fuel injected into the engine’s cylinders. This will assist in fuel economy because no fuel will be wasted, and will increase the power of the engine. There will be systems to utilize more effectively the weight distribution of the vehicle in steering and braking. Automotive corporations are developing more intricate and advanced systems to transmit the power to the wheels that permit absolutely no loss of grip during acceleration or braking.

Dashboard controls have an effect on the overall effectiveness of the gauges in a vehicle. If a device could cull what gauges were relevant, more gauges would with less clutter than the typical dash of today, provided the gauges are displayed digitally. The coding necessary for such an electronic display would likely exceed 45,000 lines and take more than 262,800 man-hours to develop fully. Such an effort would probably need millions of dollars in financial backing, and currently nobody has been willing to invest so much money in something that would probably not gain as much as it costs.

According to OSEK (In English, Open Systems and the Corresponding Interfaces for Automotive Electronics), “Vehicle manufacturers traditionally focus on production cost rather than on development cost-the sensors and the actuators, along with the bare ECU, represent almost the entire cost for electronics in the car. ” However, although software does not have a “production” cost, it is not for free! The software development costs are skyrocketing: today, they are about twice as much as the development costs for hardware.”

New technologies such as bluetooth will allow vehicles to interact with both people and their electronic objects. For instance, a cellular phone is inserted into a jack in a vehicle. The vehicle downloads the phone’s data such as addresses, phone numbers, and other information. The car’s own speakers deliver any phone calls that come through the line, and this allows the driver’s hands to remain free while they talk on the phone. This technology exists, and is readily available. Design engineers are always keeping up with the times, and realize that cellular phones are now of utmost importance to many people. Possible future technologies will allow vehicles to communicate with one another and will assist in stop and go traffic. Perhaps an adaptive cruise control will be designed that monitors traffic and can alter its setting on the fly, allowing greater functionality of the cruise control unit.

Bad electrical design can lead to exceedingly dangerous situations. Design engineers have finally realized the human mid has its limitations and cannot process an infinite amount of information at one time. Having to fumble around to find the right button to change the radio station is not only dangerous, it is annoying. BMW has integrated stereo systems into its steering wheel, and is interested in “x-by-wire” technology. It will remove the mechanical linkages in the steering wheel, brake system, and shifting mechanisms, creating new phrases like steer-by-wire, brake-by-wire, and shift-by-wire. They think that the steering wheel will only turn 160�. This will allow for vastly enhanced maneuverability in parking and other situations7.

General Motors has also shown great interest in the x-by-wire technology and debuted its Autonomy in late 2002, a vehicle that is essentially a flat board attached to wheels. While they have created a drivable version, they admit that the technology to actually produce such a vehicle is still years in the working. They will surely verify the electrical integrity of the x-by-wire electrical system before allowing it to be released into the market, or else they risk endangering citizens and being sued. One new safety feature already available is the lane departure system from Siemens VDO Automotive. Upon the vehicle changing lanes without signaling, it will beep, informing the driver of the unintentional lane change. This will be monumental in the field of driving safety and is made possible by the electrical engineers who work on such projects.

PERFORMANCE DESIGN

Automotive designers must take into account the mechanical design of their vehicles. They must decide whether to use an existing frame for the vehicle or design a new one from scratch. If they do decide to design a totally new vehicle, they must decide at what caliber performance the vehicle will be created. The specific needs of the vehicle to be created decide what performance features will be implemented in the vehicle. An offroad vehicle will likely require an active suspension and four-wheel drive, among other things.

A sports car should have rack and pinion steering and an aerodynamic body to create downforce and reduce drag and should be lightweight to allow for high-speed maneuvering. New technologies in performance engineering are always developing. Vehicles are becoming more well rounded and are suiting many needs. For example, a truck can now be used to haul freight or haul a family of five. In the past, trucks were meant only to drive offroad and carry cargo. Still, there is the need for specific performance standards in vehicles.

Horsepower reigned king in the day of the muscle car, but now new technologies in gearing and energy transmission allow less horsepower to do more work toward the ultimate goal of propelling a vehicle into motion. It is incontrovertible that the engine is one of the most vital components of any automobile. The transmission is able to harness more of the engine’s power with our new, advanced technology. Nowadays, greater measures have been taken in engineering safety measures, allowing vehicles to travel faster while increasing previous safety standards. A smaller vehicle does not necessitate a large engine being installed. However, what may be a vivacious engine for a lightweight vehicle may prove to be a sluggish one for larger vehicles such as trucks and some sports cars.

Many new engine types are being developed. There have been diesel powered engines for a long period, and they get slightly improve fuel efficiency over their gasoline counterparts. In recent years, engineers have been pushing hybrid electric-fuel engines. The Honda Insight is likely the most well received hybrid vehicle. It boasts sixty mile per gallon on the city streets and sixty-six on the highway. It has an electric engine that uses regenerative braking to recharge itself, allowing for the vast improvements in gas mileage. The Insight is an excellent model for engineers to follow, as everything related to it is state of the art8. Also introduced recently is the hydrogen motor. It is just as promising as the hybrid motor, and one day it will probably replace the outdated, fossil-fuel burning engines.

Lightweight materials such as fiberglass are making it possible for the automotive industry to make large cars lightweight. The Chevrolet Corvette is a prime example of fiberglass body panels. As stated earlier in this paper, lightweight vehicles are more efficient and can lead to higher performance levels.

Advances in suspension are evident in recent past. Independent suspensions have been installed in many Ford vehicles. The independent suspension system allows each half of an axle to be affected by the road free of its counterpart. With each wheel acting freely, the vehicle rides much more smoothly. Engineers must consider what type of terrain on which their vehicle is intended to be driven. They must exceed these expectations as they need their vehicle to be able to stand up to more than is expected and repeat customers will exist. Going beyond what is expected is something most automotive and design engineers take great pride in.

CONCLUSION

The vehicle type is of utmost importance in the automotive design process. People do not wish to drive a two-person vehicle if they need to take their family on vacation. Therefore, a suitable marketing scheme must also be derived.

The price of the vehicle may attract or turn away some buyers. The price should not be set too high if the company wishes for the vehicle to be its marquee attraction because most people do not have unlimited amounts of money to invest in a vehicle.

In these days of soaring oil prices, the automotive design process is greatly affected by the fuel efficiency of a vehicle. Fuel is a precious commodity and the industry realizes that. Therefore, we are seeing an increase in the fuel economy of all vehicles.

Cars must be attractive to be sold. Sometimes a company must make an audacious move in the field of styling, but they always weigh the chances of it flopping once it reaches the market. Bold styling is a necessity, however because of the key word to all industry-progression.

The interior must be both electronically tuned and comfortable to be in. Safety is of great concern here, and airbags should be installed. There should be as low as possible of a chance of fire due to electrical failure, and electrical engineers are responsible for assuring this.

All new vehicles must be able to perform well and travel along the roads without slowing down the rest of the traffic flow. Certain vehicles are designed to perform, while others are designed to be as simple as possible while still meeting all standards and codes set by the government.

The automobile industry is a vastly complex and ever changing one. New technologies are being developed constantly that can change the industry’s outlook on the future. It is factual that any industry cannot survive if it does not continually progress and adapt to the changing markets and desires of its patrons. New software is developed to more accurately model and simulate situations that will occur in automobiles. Technologies in this field have become so advanced that the need for real-world prototyping is almost eliminated.

Now, the prototypes are merely displays for the public to catch a glimpse of the future of transportation; all the real work is done virtually. From wind tunnels to test tracks, the automotive design process is one that encompasses many varying disciplines and each field must work together to create a final product that is desirable, functional, efficient, and aesthetically pleasing to its consumers.

Abstract

Air and water pollution has become a great problem in society today. Pollution is not only effecting humans but it is effecting plants, trees and animals and the earth’s natural water supply. This document will give various examples of air pollution and water pollution and how it’s affecting the environment as a whole.

Air and water Pollution

The earth is constantly working hard to repair itself for man made pollution such as carbon monoxide, nitric oxide, sulfur oxides, volatile organic compounds and particulate matter. All of the above named pollutants are what is known as primary pollutions; the main reason that they are called primary pollutions is because they are directly released into the earth’s atmosphere and it has adverse affects on everything such as the uman anatomy, the reservoirs as well as animals and even the way major cities sky’s look. But the main things that will be discussed and analyzed are black carbon pollution and smog. The other matters that will be addressed is two types of water pollution such as, Oil spills and trash being dumped into oceans.

Black Carbon Pollution

According to lbl. gov, ” Black carbon pollution is the release of tiny particles into the air from burning fuel for energy. Air pollution caused by such particulates has been a major problem since the beginning of the industrial revolution and the development of the internal combustion engine.

Scientific publications dealing with the analysis of soot and smoke date back as early as 1896. Mankind has become so dependent on the burning of fossil fuels (petroleum products, coal, and natural gas) that the sum total of all combustion-related emissions now constitutes a serious and widespread problem, not only to human health, but also to the entire global environment”. This type of pollution is called primary pollution, because of the fact that the toxins from the fuel are released directly into the air.

The adverse affects on humans from back carbon pollution can be asthma, and acute allergies. Black carbon pollution plays a major role in global warming “Scripps Institution of Oceanography at UC San Diego atmospheric scientist V. Ramanathan and University of Iowa chemical engineer Greg Carmichael, said that soot and other forms of black carbon could have as much as 60 percent of the current global warming effect of carbon dioxide, more than that of any greenhouse gas besides CO2”.

Smog pollution

A smog (2010), according to Smog-Definition, A form of air pollution produced by the photochemical reaction of sunlight with hydrocarbons and nitrogen oxides that have been released into the atmosphere, especially by automotive emissions. Most smog in the world come from industrial plants such as power plants and emotions from cars. This type of pollutions is also called primary pollution as well. Smog effects the atmosphere in such a harsh way and causes things such as acid rain. Which destroys plants and some of the world water supplies and this is a very harmful.

Smog also contributes to the overcast in some major cities such as New York, Los Angeles and all other major cities. This affects not only American cities but countries outside of the United States of America. Basically smog can be anywhere any major city is.

Water Pollution

Pollution is the world water way and water supplies is an ongoing problem because of a various reasons but some of the major reason are, oil drilling. Oil is one of the world natural resources and a great majority of it is found in oceans around the world.

Now oil is a resources that is needed in society today but, it is also destroying ocean life and causing clean and fresh water to be continually contaminated. Another type of pollution in the water is the dumping of trash into the ocean; as far as the authors opinion trash dumping is one of the worse types of pollution because when different types of fish see the trash in the water the eat it. For example plastic bags are some of the most common things that, get dumped into the ocean and get mistaken for jellfish.

Also, fish always get caught in old fish nets and find it hard to get out. These two types of water pollution’s are known as secondary pollution because they are not directly released in to the atmosphere but indirectly from a second source.

Conclusion

Pollution is and always will be a never ending problem and will continue to effect the world, unless the leaders of today’s society decides that the earth in which humans have to live on and get their resources from is important; pollution will always be a problem.

References

1.  lbl. gov. (n. d. ). Black carbon pollution. Retrieved from http://www. lbl. gov/Education/ELSI/pollution-main. html University of California – San Diego. (2008, March 24).
2. Black carbon pollution emerges as major player IngGlobal warming. Science daily. Retrieved from http://www. sciencedaily. com/releases/2008/03/080323210225. htm Smog. (2010).
3. In Smog-Defenition. Retrieved from http://www. thefreedictionary. com/smog