Sociology

Introduction

Numerous polls indicate that a majority of Americans, including Mexican-Americans, want the government to prevent the tidal wave of illegal aliens cascading over the border. A nation without borders is not a nation and this country has been losing control of the borders for many decades, losing prosperity, security and autonomy along with them. One of the most important issues of the White House and Congress should be securing the borders, but homeland security is all but non-existent.

This is a complex problem that is not being solved by the congressmen, who continuously fail to act in the country’s best interests. The massive numbers of illegal aliens pouring across mainly the southern border have and continues to cause substantial economic, social and physical harms to legal citizens. These harms occur predominantly to those who are among the most vulnerable segments of the population: minorities, children and the poor.

Amnesty for illegal aliens

Throughout the history of America, people of differing ideologies have generally agreed on immigration controls. Public opinion polls have continually shown an overwhelming opposition to illegal immigration as well as for the concept of amnesty. The most persuasive rationale to be in opposition to this latest bill again does not respect the rule of law. Amnesty for illegal aliens is merely a reward for law-breaking and by whatever name, causes ever escalating future illegal immigration.

“No system depending on a strict regard for the rule of law can treat law-breaking so casually”. Those who favor amnesty for illegal aliens, specifically those crossing the southern border do not seem to realize that a crime has been committed and not, as they might have you believe, one without a victim. The massive numbers of illegal aliens pouring across mainly the southern border has and continues to cause substantial economic, social and physical harm to legal citizens.

Examples of illegal immigrants

News reports have documented many examples of illegal immigrants who were detained by local police but instead of being deported, were allowed to go free to then commit heinous crimes. One such instance is the 2002 New York gang rape by five illegal aliens of a mother of two. The most infamous example was the Washington, D.C. area sniper Lee Malvo. The Jamaican-born man was apprehended by local law enforcement near Washington and was identified as an illegal alien prior to these tragic incidents.

He should have been deported at that time but was instead released by federal authorities, let free to kill innocent Americans at random. “Three of the September 11, 2001, hijackers, including ringleader Mohammed Atta, had been stopped and ticketed for significant traffic violations, such as driving without a license and speeding at 90 mph”. Why are illegal aliens allowed and now seemingly encouraged to take advantage of U.S. generosity? There are hundreds of thousands of illegal aliens who are currently under deportation orders of whom tens of thousands have been involved in criminal activity while in the country.

Illegal immigrants have already broken the law upon arrival into the country and a considerable number break more including selling drugs, theft, murder, rape, etc. while in the country. The cost to the federal court and prison system alone in 2002 attributed to illegal aliens was $1.6 billion. It costs Arizona, for example, $80 million to jail illegal aliens yearly. According to a 2002 report by Heather MacDonald of the City Journal, “In Los Angeles, 95 percent of all outstanding warrants for homicide (which total 1,200 to 1,500) target illegal aliens. Up to two-thirds of all fugitive felony warrants (17,000) are for illegal aliens”.

Depletion of social services by illegal aliens

Illegal aliens drain social services paid for by legal citizens, $2.5 billion from Medicaid, $2 billion from food aid programs and $2 billion in hospital care from the federal coffers in 2002 alone. States along the southern border pay out hundreds of millions of dollars every year providing social services for illegal aliens. The children of illegal aliens do not have to prove citizenship to attend public schools which have resulted in overcrowding – a tremendous sapping of resources. It takes more time to teach children that only speak Spanish which thus costs more money. California spends a staggering $8 billion every year just in educating the children of illegal aliens.

Conclusion

If Congress were to put the country’s interests ahead of its own, it would pass an illegal immigration bill that grants no amnesty. Congress should also pass legislation amending the Immigration and Nationality Act eradicating the idea that children born of illegal aliens are automatically citizens. That privilege should be reserved for children of legal immigrants. Congress should also criminalize illegal entry into the United States which would force government administrators and health workers to report these people to the authorities. Laws should be enacted that bring criminal charges against all those who aid illegal aliens to gain entry into the country and against those employers who hire them.

All social benefits, including medical care, education and welfare for illegal immigrants should be eliminated with the only exception being medical treatment given when first contacted before deporting the criminal. If the U.S. can’t secure its own borders, what confidence does this instill in the world’s view when it tries to police other areas of the globe? The U.S. can hardly be seen as credible when helping to solve other countries’ problems when it can’t solve its own immigration dilemma, a problem many other countries don’t seem to struggle with. Legislators should consider the net effect on society and encourage the immigration of high-skilled and well-educated people who will contribute to the economic health of the nation rather than low or no-skilled workers who are a heavy economic and social burden.

Works Cited

Erler, Edward J. (2004). “Amnesty for Illegal Aliens.” The Washington Times. Web.

“Illegal Immigrants Helpful or Harmful to America?” (2007). About Conservative Politics U.S. Web.

“Illegal Immigration is a Crime.” (2003). Federation for American Immigration Reform. Web.

McDonald, Heather. (2004). “The Illegal-Alien Crime Wave.” City Journal. New York: The Manhattan Institute. Web.

Schlafly, Phyllis. (2004). “No Argument Justifies Amnesty for Illegal Aliens.” Copley News Service. Web.

The above graph shows the UK income distribution in 2005–06. It maps out the number of people living in households with at various income tiers, grouped into £10 income bands. The height of the bars is representative of the number of people in each income band. The graph shows the currently distorted levels of income distribution as while 64% of individuals have household incomes below the national average, the last bar of the graph shows that 1.8 million individuals (out of a private household population of about 57 million individuals) have incomes above £1,100 per week. In addition, according to this graph, there are approximately half a million individuals whose income is between zero and £10 a week (Brewer, et al., 2007).

While the New Labour Government has managed to reduce rates of child and pensioner poverty in recent years, it is said that income inequality in Britain is currently at its highest level as compared to the past 20 years. Income distribution has become more than a little skewed with incomes at the top has risen rapidly while those at the bottom have grown much more slowly. This can be attributed to the probability of the demand for educated workers has exceeded its supply, as well as the high rates and amounts of executive pay increases (Chote, 2004).

It was found that within companies, executives were given increases of 23% or more in their annual salary. The lower-level staff, however, got less than 4% raises. Income gaps are so massive that in a typical situation, the chief executive of an FTSE 100 company earns, on an average basis, 80 times more than one of his workers. Wage inequalities have particularly seen a sharp increase, and wages for skilled and unskilled workers are highly disparate (“Rising Inequality in the UK.”).

There can be several reasons for this. Due to the increase in technology usage, there is a specific demand for certain skills and qualifications. Other than that, in recent times, trade unions have also played a lesser powerful role as compared to their previous participation power. Inequality has also risen because while the rate of male participation in the labor market has decreased, female participation has increased in households with other working partners. Hence, the two-earner and zero-earner households are drifting further apart on the scales of income inequality. The health and wealth divide is widening at an identical rate as official figures reflect widening gaps in pay, assets, and life expectancy. Possible reasons for wealth inequality can be growth in national output, higher entrepreneurial incomes, and the housing price boom (Carvel, 2004; “Income Inequality”).

Health inequalities are also increasing even though the government is making attempts to bridge this gap. On accounts of infant mortality and life expectancy, there is a huge difference between the poorest and the population as a whole. The health secretary himself has been quoted as saying that a man born in Manchester would on average die nine years sooner than a man in Kensington and China (“Johnson vows to narrow health inequalities”). This is primarily because the poor do not have access to primary care and treatment. Lack of provision of health care services is a primary concern as ethnic minority groups living in low-income and low-education areas have no access to medical facilities or general practitioners. A focus on prevention rather than treatment is also needed to educate the masses about the prevention of chronic diseases like cancer, diabetes, and heart problems (“Health Inequality Gap Widening.”).

References

Brewer, et al. Poverty and Inequality in the UK: 2007. The Institute of Fiscal Studies.

Carvel, John. “Super-rich have doubled their money under Labor.” Guardian Unlimited.

Chote, Robert. “The UK’s Wage Poverty Paradox.” BBC News.

“Health Inequality Gap Widening.” BBC News.

“Income Inequality.” National Statistics Online. 2007. Web.

“Johnson vows to narrow health inequalities”. Yahoo! News. 2007. Web.

“Rising Inequality in the UK.” Anarchism Website. 2007.

Introduction

Slavery started soon after English colonialists settled in Virginia. Slave trade lasted until the thirteenth amendment of the united states constitution.

Main Text

The first American slave arrived as indentured servant via Jamestown, Virginia (1619). At this point in time a Dutch slave trader exchanged cargo of Africa (slaves) with food. Africans together with poor Englishmen became indentured servants (the term slave was not used until 1656). In (1661) slave trade was entered as law. Later in (1640’s to 1865) Africans would remain servants for life through Virginia’s law. Slaves charged with crime were tried under special non-jury courts created in (1692). legalization of African slavery came following success of tobacco planting in Virginia and Maryland marking the evolution of agrarian economy.

The face of American slavery from “tawny” Indian slaves to “blackamoor” Africans in the years (1650-1750) took transition with the lucrative nature of African slaves changing the focus to Africa based institutions. During this period of transition

in the early years of eighteenth century the number of the native Americans may have halved those of Africans. In 1730 millions of native Americans were enslaved by kidnapping or for crime and debts. All slaves would stay in communal living quarters where they shared the commonality of their experience in enslavement. in addition to working in the field they also shared myths and legends eventually engaging in marital practices. The intermarriages of Africans and Native Americans were facilitated by disproportion of African males and women to a ratio of (3:1) and discrimination of American Males by diseases enslavement and prolonged war with the colonies. (Roy, 1994)

A new generation of black-red people began and distinction between white and black became blur. Afro-Indians were realized. It is then that the (1740) slave code was enacted which indicated that any child born of a slave mother giving no regard to the father’s stand hence becomes an absolute The law of Virginia (1662,1692,1705)were enhanced to regulation on the sexual and reproductive lines of native Americans and black slaves. The growing institution of slavery and the construction of racism was rapid.

Penalties of law offender and punishment differed by gender. The law constituted that a slave as property, this carried with it the fact that a property cannot own property or be a party to any contract. With this as law a slaves marriage by any chance as not recognized as legal. all codes i.e. (1662, 1692, 1705) regulated free blacks who were helped through employment from movement and could only live the state by emancipation. The continued demand for African slaves’ labour arose from the development of agricultural plantations, the long-term rise in consumption of sugar and demand for diamond miners in Brazil, house servants, and tobacco firms in Virginia.

According to James (1988) American slavery was racial, with few exemption cases all slaves were Africans and almost all Africans were slaves thus inferiority of black man and his culture. Black being branded inferior made it extremely had to liberate from the state of slavery. For the American natives, it was easier to gain freedom and attain high standard in society. The freed black also labeled inferior and they had taken to the inferiority complex. The black group was identified as sub-human inferior and destined to servitude.

Slave Master laid great emphasis to education and training on the ideal ways to put deep sense of helplessness and independence, sense of own inferiority, belief in master superior power, acceptance of masters standards and strict discipline. One Arkansas slaveholder of the time said that trying to persuade a Negro to work through reward and incentives was not right, he must be made to work and always understand if he fails to perform his duty he must be punished for it. (James, 1988)

In the 1770s Europeans had put much effort in trying to monopolize slave trade. The coasts of west Africa had three main divisions controlled by the Europeans the bid to monopolize Slave trade these were Senegambia, Upper Guinea and Lower Guinea.

The Mortality rate of the slaves was very high, large group of slaves died when being captured 14% died when being transported to America and 20% died when being prepared for servitude bringing the rate to about 50%.

The slave trade in Africa is said to have taken approximately twenty million people from their habitat and moved them to America. the transatlantic slave trade producing the largest forced migration in human history. this is rated from 16th to mid 19th-century shipping approximately eleven million Africans. Africans cooperated with the European in the slave trade and some of the slaves were already serving as slaves in Africa before being transported to America. The 1780 Massachusetts constitution of declared all men born free and equal , thus abolishing slavery in Massachusetts. (James, 1988)

Back in 1790 the first census done listed 697,897 slaves in the united states, the population of the United States was four million of who sixty thousands were freed blacks. (1790-1810) was a successful slave revolution free coloured occupied whites’ manners and dress. These coloured were obliged to to file for a permit to conduct trade but not farming, they were denied right of assembly, refused noble status and kept out of legal military. Slaves formed the core of the early labour force, working on the construction of of private and public building almost as frequently as they served as household servants.

Government embarked on public works and also sort for labour from slaves. government treasury either paid masters money for the use of their slaves services. in the bid to restrict illegal slavery transactions special tax on nonresident slave labour. some slaves would work together with their masters, commissioners only rented slaves as labourer but never trained them on skilled labour.

President Washington by 1797 had concluded the slavery was absolutely incompatible with the principle of the new nation and could even sense the division. He later addressed the legislature of Virginia appealing for a gradual abolishment of slave trade.

In (1799) the second awakening was experienced when many slaves were converted to Christianity in the same period Cane Ridge camp meeting embraced Africa-Americans. Five years later south Carolina resumed importing slaves this was because of boom in the cotton and it’s demand for more labor input. at this point the long lived slave trade that was holding the economy of united state had stated being seen from a different perspective especially by religious group in the united states. Empowering of the president to returning slaves who are illegally imported from Africa was passed, the foreign slave trade was declared as piracy this could result to death penalty to the involved party and or forfeiture of the vessel for all united states citizens engaged in slaves importation. (Frederick, 1971)

At around 1845 the Baptist Church and other denominations split into Northern and Southern organizations. With the Southern Baptist Convention being formed on the stand that Holy Bible sanctions slavery. they argued the it was accordingly for Christian to own slaves. the southern Baptist later re-announced their stand in the twentieth century. On the other hand the Northern Baptists opposed slavery. In 1844, the Home Mission society

declared that a person could not be in the missionary and still own slaves and subject them to the role of slavery. Methodists and presbetarian churches by the time had also divided into north and south. Democratic Party was the only institution by 1850s national institution. This party later split in 1860 with the presidential election. The electorate split into four divisions. Southern Democrats who endorsed slave ownership. The Republicans who denounced slavery. some of the Northern Democrats who argued that democracy required the people themselves to decide on slavery themselves. The last was Constitutional Union Party who saw the survival of the Union was at stake, and everything else should be compromised.(Frederick, 1971)

In (1843-1859) the anti-slavery Africa squadron of the united states navy was sent to patrol west Africa and camped at their base at cape Verde. This plan did not yield much as only very few slavers were caught and very light penalties to the offenders were put. At around (1830-1850) Great Britain united states had also joined hand in the suppression of slave trade from Africa. The emigration of freed blacks to sierra Leone, Africa from NYC was organized for the first time.

Abolitionist in the united states history advocated for compulsory emancipation of Africa American slaves from(1830) to (1860). From (1820) though (1830) the american colonization society (ACS) was given the Authority to returning black Americans to Liberia. this was supported massively by the whites. The Americo-Liberians ruled Liberia from the time till the military coup in (1980).

Summary

Slave rebellion was an armed uprising by the slaves this was a responses to the long lived endurance from the slave masters. slave were hardened by the harsh conditions from their masters which made them to start resisting their masters power. Some of the radical abolitionists like John Brown lend rebellion at Harpers Ferry in (1859). The August 15th 1906 Niagara movement lend by an Author and scholar W.E.D Dobois was the greatest meeting ever held by American Negroes.

References

Frederick, L. Ethnic Voters and the Election of Lincoln. Louisiana State University Press 1971.

Reinhard H. The First Lincoln Campaign, London: oxford University 1944.

James M. Battle Cry of Freedom: The Civil ,New York: Prentice Hall 1988.

Roy, F. The Disruption of American Democracy , New York: Prentice Hall, 1994.

Parks, H. John Bell of Tennessee Louisiana State University Press, 1950.

In the modern world today many people are opting to lead a homosexual life, where people of the same sex get married and have a same-sex relationship. Today many children are living with gay parents. Research has shown that in 1990 about 6-14 million kids in the United States of America had a gay parent (Baker V. 1999).

The majority of the states in America through the agencies of the states and the courts of law had passed laws that legalize lesbians and gays to adopt children.

Despite the controversy that surrounds the issue of gay adoption, studies done indicate that children raised with gay parents led a successful life like the others raised by heterosexual parents.

However, the issue of gay adoption today is faced with a lot of controversies. The contentions issue is whether children raised by gay parents will be negatively affected in life or they will grow up just like normal children. The issues that are raised concern sex confusion among those children in the future, or what will be their sexual orientations. (http://abacus.oxy.edu/QRD/www/orgs/alpci/home.htm.)

Different associations in the USA like the American psychological association, the Child Welfare League of America contend that gay parents are fit as the heterosexual ones in raising children. Many disagree with this and argue that basing on moral perspectives they are not equal with heterosexual parents.

In the USA the number of children who are being adopted by gay parents has been on the rise. Many states had legalized and allowed children adoption by gay parents by either private or state-owned adoption agencies. However, they are other states that disallow children adoption by gay parents, for example, Florida through passing Florida’s 1977’s law. There are other states that have or are considering disallowing gay couples to adopt children.

Adoption of children by gay parents should be allowed because many types of research that have been done show that gay qualifies and make good parents. Children who are raised by gay parents enjoy the service and emotional attachment provided.

Gay parents have a very good chance to provide full-time parenting which is even better than raising the children as single parents as they may have a very solid and stable financial background than straight couples. Financial strength is a very important aspect of maintaining stability and love in the family. Children raised by gay parents in this case feel more secure in their lovely home as gay parents are capable in such situations to have well-balanced kids. (Sullivan 34-41)

Today many children grow up in homes that are headed by a single parent. Mostly the homes are disadvantageous as the single parent may lack financial stability, have lower educational backgrounds. In such cases, children are not successful in life and tend to acquire bad behaviors. Such cases are very rare in children raised by gay parents who offer full-time parenting roles to the adopted kids. Through improved science and technology it is now possible for lesbian couples to bear children through the use of artificial insemination. This provides opportunities for such parents to have and maintain a family with balanced kids of their choice.

Gay adoption should be allowed because gays are normal people fast like others. Disallowing them to be a parent is a form of discrimination oriented in sexual bases.

There exists no difference between a gay and a straight person they are the same. It is argued that if the children who end up being homosexuals have been raised by straight parents then, gays should be allowed to adopt and raise children who will eventually become straight in the future.

Gay adoption creates an opportunity where children who don’t have parents can be adopted. In the United States, there is a shortage of adopters and such children lack permanent homes. Estimates show that there are about 100,000 to be adopted. Children who do not have permanent homes suffer most as they are sometimes placed in substandard foster homes. Such children are prone to have many problems in life. (Mallon 67)

There has been some empirical evidence from studies that shows that the parent’s sexual orientation does not affect in any way the children’s sexual orientation in the future. Children raised by gay parents do not have to become gay in the future.

The adoptive parents are well established financially and are more committed in their relationship than found in heterosexual relations. This makes them fit to adopt children who need care and love as the process of adoption ensures that only suitable adopters adopt the children and can provide good parentage roles. Sexual orientations are the same among the children of gay and those of heterosexual parents. Gay parent’s children lead a normal life and are very healthy like the others in heterosexual relationships.

There has been no evidence that shows gay parents becoming unfit to take the role of parentage. The kind of environment they provide makes it more suitable for child development. Children raised by gay parents have a good opportunity to achieve a lot of achievements in life as gay parents are more determined and willing to take care of all child’s needs.

Like heterosexual parents, gay parents have all the abilities to maintain a home that is characterized by love, mutual trust; in this case, good parenting doesn’t depend on the sexual orientations of the parents.

Many people against gay adoption argue that children raised by gay parents will have some psychological problems in the future. This is wrong as according to researches done on adopted children, have shown that no difference exists in the psychological development of children raised by gay parents and those from heterosexual families.

Gay parents provide a good opportunity to enhance children growing stronger, enduring hardships of life. This is because there is a high probability of such children in school being regarded as out-groups by other kids. This makes them gain a lot of experience about life thus making them able to cope with any social problem in future. (McWhorter 2006)

Arguments given by those who oppose gay adoption claim that children adopted will also become gay. They do not have to become gay just because their parents are gay.

Studies have shown that gay children grow up into maturity without experiencing any difficulty in regarding themselves to be heterosexual. Gay couples should be given the freedom to adopt children at their will because; we live in a free world, not a world free for heterosexuals only. Equal opportunities must be provided to same-sex partners like heterosexual partners.

Some argue that gays are more prone to abuse children than they adopt. But even child molestations still exist in heterosexual relationships. Child abuse is a personal choice by the fact we are all humans. A person can decide to abuse a child or not. There is a high possibility that children adopted by same-sex partners will be under good custody because, during the adoption process, the adopters are carefully scrutinized on their history. This ensures gay parents with proper morals are the only granted children to adopt.

On the other hand, some arguments do not support gay adoption. There are many reasons which have been given. These are mostly based on the idea that marriage is supposed to be consisting of the father, mother, and children. These attributes are not found in gay families.

Every child needs to grow up in a well-balanced family, consisting of a man and a woman. Their role modeling forms a very important part of her life, and all they require is their role to be modeled by both father and mother a fact that cannot be experienced in gay relationships.

Those against gay adoption also look at issues of religion.

For example, Christians believe that gay relationships are sin and that God intended man and woman to stay together and have a family that consists of even children. This argument faces criticism because not all people are religious. Those against gay adoption try to see the moral perspective of gay life.

It is argued that the rate of commission of suicide among homosexuals is high. Gay people are assumed to be more depressed and violent thus unsuitable to raise children. However, this is untrue as more cases of suicide and depression are also experienced in heterosexual families.

Researchers have shown that the sexual orientation of gay parents does not affect the general wellbeing of a child. Proper child development depends on the kind of environment a child grows in.

Proponents against gay adoption argue that a child raised by gay parents does not develop fully into taking the role of either mother or father in the future as they lack proper role models and same-sex parents cannot make to be good parents.

Many people hold the views that gays cannot maintain stable relationships and do not have any idea of how to be good parents. It is believed that children that are brought up by gays have high chances of being gay in the future because they are given a parental model which is one-sided. This argument is inadequate as many gays have been brought up by heterosexual parents. So the way a child is raised doesn’t determine so much if in the future he/she will become gay or not.

Another argument put forward by those opposing gay adoption is that gay being is an abnormal way of life. Gay combination of the same sex is strange and they should not adopt children because in the first place they cannot have any. This argument is discriminating because there are even heterosexual couples who cannot get children but are allowed to adopt. Society doesn’t see anything morally wrong with it. Also, the same case applies to gay partners they should get equal treatment and be allowed to adopt. ( Mallon 87)

Children are most likely to develop and succeed in life in more stable heterosexual-based families. This argument seems to be one-sided as even in same-sex marriages, children adopted grow normally just like children in heterosexual families.

According to America, psychological Association gay is seen as a kind of disorder in terms of emotions that create a break down thus should not be allowed to adopt children. Children need to be supervised and guided appropriately to grow up to become an adult who upholds moral values.

They see gays as people who are sick and cannot be good custodians to uphold good morals and values to the children.

Gays are normal people like any other and should not be discriminated against, they should be granted equal rights like the heterosexuals they should be allowed t adopt.

Gay relationships do not last for long. This can deny the children a chance to live in a stable environment. This is according to those who oppose gay adoption. However, this cannot be taken as true as most heterosexual relations are mostly unstable ones. Many separations are occurring today giving rise to the children who don’t have parents and seek to be adopted. Gay parents have a very good chance to provide an environment that is suitable for such children to grow.

Most people argue that children’s adoption by gay places them in a very bad situation because of the kind of life that they are exposed to. They hold that the characters of gay parents are not appropriate for child development because being gay is seen as abnormal behavior. However, this argument is not valid as a child raised by heterosexual parents can be also exposed to a bad life.

The sexual orientation of the parents should not be a factor to be considered so much in child development. There is a lot of evidence that children raised by heterosexual parents have the same kind of social development first as those raised by gay parents.

Gay should be allowed to adopt children because they are regarded to be good guardians who can take care of the children. They can provide better arrangements for the children provisions of all needs. Gays are more determined to care for and love children like others and they should not be discriminated against because of their sexual orientations. Denying gay adoption on religious grounds is wrong. Every person has a right to live the kind of life they desire. If one chooses to be gay it’s fine.

Gay parents can help in rescuing children who have in the past experienced a life characterized by domestic abuse through adoption. This can save them from the traumas they had experienced if they are adopted by gay parents. They are many children today who do not have parents and if someone decides to save them from living a difficult life they should be allowed even if they are gays.

Gay couples are even more committed in their relationship and have goals in life just like heterosexual parents. They give unconditional love to the children and cater to all their needs. The fact that there are so many children who have no parents or needs to be adopted shows how many heterosexual families have failed. (Burns 123)

A household that is characterized by love is the most important thing in life than considering the sexual orientations of the parents. A child needs to be loved and well attended to and if gay parents can provide a better life to the children they should be given that opportunity to adopt. Gay should be accorded the same chance as others to adopt.

Works Cited

Ann Sullivan and Peirce. Issues in Gay and Lesbians Adoption. Warwick Adoption symposium. 1994.

Brette McWhorter S. Gay and Lesbian Parenting Choices: From adopting or using a surrogate to choosing the perfect Father.2006.

Gerald Mallon P. Gay Men Choosing Parenthood. 2004.

Kate Burns. Gay and Lesbians families. 2004.

“Gay adoption”. 2008. Web.

Introduction

It can be accurately stated that along with women, children are the most abused group of people, and child labor is one of the most degrading and exploitive labor practices. The paper argues that Child labor is not only ethically wrong but also harms the Child’s health and has a detrimental on children’s lives. The paper presumes that the term child labor includes children of both genders.

About Child Labor

According to ILO (ILO, 18 October 2007), there are more than 250 million children worldwide who are made to work as child laborers. ILO has defined child labor as “When children under fifteen are made to do work that is physically or mentally harmful and which interrupts their education or social development”.

The minimum age for child labor differs from country to country and it is generally fixed between 14 and 15 years. The report by ILO says that almost 96% of these children belong to developing countries such as China, India, Latin America, and Africa.

The break up is that there are more than 60 million children in the age groups between five and eleven and children in the age group of 11 to 14 make up the rest. The report has listed a number of activities in which children are regularly employed and these include: domestic help, garment and apparel industry, scrap munitions recovery from defense firing ranges, open-pit mining, agriculture, sex trade, and child prostitution, trafficking, bonded labor, and many others.

Kovasevic (2007) has written that child labor is cheap as many children work for less than 10$ per month, putting in more than 12 hours of work every day, even on weekends. They are not fed properly and are beaten and chained when they cannot work or are too tired to do any physical work. Children also tend to be more docile and do not put up any resistance when subjected to beatings and being forced to work in sweaty and polluted environments. Iwanow (2005) has written that the real culprits are large retailers, apparel, and shoe manufacturers who find it very profitable when they outsource the work to third-world countries. Units that take up the outsourced work employ young children at very low rates and extended working hours to break even and make profits.

Harmful Effects of child labor on Health and Life Expectancy

The harmful effects of child labor are discussed in this section. There are two facets to this discussion: child labor mortality where children actually die during the years of employment and effects of intensive labor on the health of adults who have been working from the age of five.

Child labor Mortality Rates

Roggero (28 December 2006) has written about the mortality and dangers caused to the health and lives of children who have to work as child laborers. Among the sample surveys conducted by the authors, children suffer from diseases such as tuberculosis, undernourishment, malnutrition, respiratory problems, amputation of limbs, poisoning due to mercury, lead and toxic chemicals, and diseases of the skin. Children also fall prey to sexual predators such as supervisors, adult co-workers, business owners, HIV/ Aids, and others. Please refer to the following graph that shows incidences of mortality among child laborers.

The above graph shows the correlation between mortality among boys and girls aged 10 to 14 years and child labor prevalence. According to the study, it is obvious that mortality is as high as 2.5 in areas where the child labor prevalence is higher. What this means is that for every 1000 children employed, 25 children die because of adverse working conditions.

Health problems for young adults who worked as child laborers

Straub (October 2007) has conducted extensive research into the effects on the health of adults who worked as child laborers. The author comments that “the deleterious health effects of child labor might take time to produce and they are likely to become apparent later during the life of the individual”. While many of the health risks of child work threaten immediate damage to health, others are likely to develop over many years and might only become manifest in adulthood.

Exposures to pesticides, chemicals, dust, and carcinogenic agents increase the risk of developing bronchial complaints, cancers, and a wide variety of diseases. Individuals working in childhood are doubly vulnerable to chronic health problems—they are exposed to risk factors for longer periods and the biological process of rapid cell growth reduces the latency period of some diseases. Child work also has a long-term impact on health through forgone education, and subsequently reduced lifetime earnings and constrained knowledge of health production mechanisms. Evidence on the trade-off between child work and schooling is mixed but, on balance, supports the crowding-out hypothesis.

The following table provides results of a sample survey conducted by the authors on a group of young adults – men and females, who had worked as child laborers in plantations, mines, cities, and other areas. The sample size was 68.

Table 1. Health and other problems for young adults who worked as child laborers (Straub, October 2007).

The above table shows the health problems and mortality among young adults who worked as child laborers. As it can be seen, 38% of adults suffered problems such as chronic coughing, respiratory problems, and others while 42 percent suffered from problems such as skin diseases, eyesight problems, mental psychosis, and so on. The data for girl children is much more alarming as almost 45 percent of the young adult females were sexually exploited and suffered from HIV/ Aids or had taken up prostitution. The study has also concluded that often children conceive due to lack of use of contraceptives and the severely malnourished girl children give birth to undernourished premature births and often the babies have congenital defects.

Other Reports of Child Labor and Health

Craig (17 December 2007) has stated that the pathetic working conditions of young children who work in the sweatshops of the Chinese toy industry. The authors have pointed out the in many of these units, rows, and rows of children, some younger than 10, work at tiny desks assembling toys. The workshops are placed in giant warehouse-like buildings with poor ventilation and where chemicals and toxins never escape. China produces 75 percent of the world’s toys with exports worth more than $15 billion a year. While fewer than 4 percent of the world’s children are American, they consume 40 percent of the world’s toys.

Boskabady (et all, October 2007) have reported about the respiratory problems caused to children who work in the carpet industry of Iran. The authors evaluated respiratory and allergic symptoms in 66 Iranian carpet weavers using a questionnaire including questions on work-related respiratory symptoms in the past year, allergies, smoking habits, and work exposure duration. A total of 28 carpet weavers or 42% reported work-related respiratory symptoms. Incidences of all respiratory symptoms and most allergic symptoms were significantly higher in carpet weavers than in controls. Moreover, most respiratory and allergic symptoms in carpet weavers were significantly more prominent during working hours.

Bhukuth (et all, 2006) have reported that the children of poor families often have to take up domestic help jobs or work in industries since the wages add to the income of the family. The father in such families is often an alcoholic and the mother herself goes out to work. Hence the child is forced to work from a very young age, forfeiting their childhood.

Associated Press (AP, 20 September 1998) has reported that even US industries are gross violators of child labor policies. The report points out that 80% of the Vineyards from California are guilty of violating labor policies related to fair salary, underage employment, violation of safety rules, and other aspects.

Conclusion

The paper has discussed the harmful effects on the health of children who work as child laborers. These children have a higher mortality rate and they also fall prey to diseases and ailments that cripple them when they become adults. Data has been presented and analyzed about the effects of intense labor on children and how it affects them.

References

AP. 1998. Federal probe finds most of California vineyards violate labor laws. The Associated Press: The Grand Rapids Press. pp: A12.

Bhukuth Augendra. Je´roˆme Ballet. 2006. Is child labour a substitute for adult labour? International Journal of Social Economics. Volume 33. Issue 8. pp: 594-500.

Boskabady Mohammad Hossein. Karimiani Ehsagh Ghayoor. Respiratory Symptoms and Pulmonary Function Changes among Carpet Weavers in Iran. Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. Volume 13. Issue 4. pp: 369-376.

Craig. Marc Kielburger. 2007. Children in China pay price for our cheap toys. Toronto Star Newspaper. pp: AA 2.

Fassa Anaclaudia G. 1999. Child Labor and Health: Problems and Perspectives. International Journal of Occupational and Environmental Health. Research Paper No. 160.

Fyfe Alec. 2007. The Worldwide Movement Against Child Labour Progress and Future Directions. Geneva, International Labour Office. ISBN 978-92-2-120018-5.

ILO. 2007. Child Labor Statistics. Web.

Iwanow H. 2005. The influence of ethical trading policies on consumer apparel purchase decisions: A focus on The Gap Inc. Volume. 33. Issue 5. pp: 371-387.

Kovasevic Natasa. 2007. Child Slavery. Harvard International Review. Cambridge. pp: 36-40.

Roggero Paola. Mangiaterra Viviana. 2006. The Health Impact of Child Labor in Developing Countries: Evidence From Cross-Country Data. American Journal of Public Health. Volume 97. Issue 2. pp: 271-275.

Straub Roland. 2007. Does work during childhood affect the health of Guatemalan adults? Journal of Economic Household Health. Volume 5. pp: 83-94.

Corporate social responsibility (CSR) and investor activism have become more commonplace in modern corporations and central to the core of emerging companies. Aspects such as political participation, climate change, diversity, and human rights are among some of these issues which can take on various forms depending on the industry or sector in which a company operates (Serafeim, 2016). Social responsibility can have a profound positive impact on a company’s long-term sustainability, public image, and operational capacities as shareholders and firms invest in the future, rather than short-term profit.

There are numerous advantages to CSR, particularly implemented on a large scale across industries. It establishes and promotes ethical behavior in organizational practices, limiting aspects of labor and consumer exploitation, bribery and corruption, and destruction of the environment among some of these outcomes. This creates a higher standard for corporations, increasing accountability while exposing any companies which choose to use unfair practices. The implementation of CSR is beneficial from a business perspective, influencing reputation, employee satisfaction, and branding, all of which attract greater public support, consumers, and business-friendly legislation. In turn, it allows for increased profitability and growth in the long term. However, there are existent criticisms of the CSR approach which are merited. The primary concern is the additional costs of bureaucracy, oversight, and meeting standards. It results in decreased profitability in the short term as to costs of operation increase to the point of being financially unsustainable. This could potentially suffocate the market and economic growth, limiting access to emerging companies. Another concern is that the reporting and CSR criteria vary significantly based on industry, country, and culture, all of which are continuously evolving (Geethamani, 2017).

Effective implementation of CSR in company policy requires the support of managers and employees. Manager attitudes towards social responsibility are critical for the broad acceptance and practice change across the company operations. Managers participate in a variety of vital decision-making activities in distinct departments such as marketing, procurement, sales, and production. CSR is more than a general company policy but is reflected in the direct operations and processes involved. Manager attitudes and understanding of social responsibility strongly affect the ability to create practical change. Without a proper attitude alignment, CSR can be affected by mismanagement, poor leadership, and lack of resources allocated for the initiative (Baba Abugre, 2014). Creating a network of support, providing adequate incentives, and ensuring that sustainability is beneficial not only for the world but for the company and its employees are some methods that can be used to influence manager attitudes toward acceptance of CSR (Wickert & de Bakker, 2019).

In my opinion, social responsibility is beneficial for corporations and results in long-term returns. It sets up a company to become more sustainable and innovative in its processes and operations, potentially gaining a competitive advantage in the future. Social responsibility prepares an organization for challenges by creating a solid foundation of private and public support as well as a greater awareness of global events and issues. Finally, it helps to make companies leaner and more efficient by reducing waste, competently utilizing human capital, and becoming focused on greed-driven practices of capital acquisition at any cost, which has often proven to backfire financially. My personal position is in support of social responsibility, largely due to the ethical implications. There is a myriad of challenges that the world faces, from labor exploitation to climate change. Many of these are caused by corporations acting socially irresponsible. Therefore, companies can not only correct the negative impacts but use their significant financial resources in cooperation with governments and non-profits to drive sustainable and meaningful change.

References

Baba Abugre, J. (2014). Managerial role in organizational CSR: Empirical lessons from Ghana. Corporate Governance, 14(1), 104-119. Web.

Geethamani, S. (2017). Advantages and disadvantages of corporate social responsibility. International Journal of Applied of Research, 3(3), 372-374. Web.

Serafeim, G. (2016). The fastest-growing cause for shareholders is sustainability. Harvard Business Review. Web.

Wickert, C., & de Bakker, F. G. A. (2019). How CSR managers can inspire other leaders to act on sustainability. Harvard Business Review. Web.

Introduction

The unearthing in the existence of classes in modern society by Karl Max is a sense of direction to extricate the exploitation classes from the yoke of bourgeois class. In response to the rejoinder, Karl Marx explored the possibility of

1. that the existence of classes is only bound up with particular historical forms of struggle in the development of production,
2. that the class struggle inevitably leads to the dictatorship of the proletariat;
3. that this dictatorship itself only constitutes the transition to the abolition of all classes and the establishment of a classless society.

Class Contradiction from Marxist Point of View

The bourgeois class is masterminding plan for the correct strategy of the working class in its struggle with capitalism. It could differentiate that private property and the power of capital remain untouchable; to this extent the democratic form of government does not change the essence of the matter. The democratic dispensation with the preservation of capitalist exploitation will always be democracy for the minority, democracy for the propertied. It will prioritize always the exploitation and subjugation of the great mass of the working people.

There is a contradiction between government and working class lead to the path of logical culmination. State machinery is continuing domination of one class over another. It is paradigm of the ruling class having most powerful means of suppression and coercion.

One of the most potential sociological clarifications of social conflict is that of Karl Marx, who pointed out a class struggle between proletariat and bourgeoisie intrinsic to capitalist, industrial society. In outlining this view of social conflict and relating it to the conflict twist. Marx outlined the structure of society in relation to its major classes. There is struggle between them as the engine of change in this structure. It was a conflict view of modem society.

Economic Emancipation by Marxist Guideline

Marxist-Leninist theory has been considered as a law of form and content. The first content is the class nature of law. Each and every law is the law of the ruling class. The social relationship which transcends class society that lead either to superficial categorization of diverse phenomena.. The second content is the determinant significance of production relationships that is implemented by law. The safeguarding of class interests reflects their relationship to the means of production.

The relationship of property plays a vital role in the characterization of a specific legal order. In the communist society, the classes will disappear; there is no economic disparity among the different citizens. The labor becomes the primary want that will be from each according to his abilities. The third content is that the functioning of a legal superstructure demands a coercive apparatus.

The provisions in bourgeois society not only safeguarding the facilitation of exchange, but also supports and consolidate the unequal distribution of property. It will unleash the monopoly of the capitalist in production. The property of bourgeois society is not exhausted by the relationships between commodity owners. These consolidated nexus by exchange and the contractual relationship is the form of this exchange.

Sociologist analytical Viewpoint

The social inequality detonated a condition for the members of a society who have different amounts of wealth, prestige, or power. Sociologists Richard T. Schaefer refer that if a system of social inequality is based on a hierarchy of groups, it is a structured ranking of entire groups of people that perpetuates unequal economic rewards and power in a society.

In the view of Richard T. Schaefer, the society must distribute its members among a variety of social positions. He argue that it is social inequality is necessary so that people will be motivated to fill functionally important positions. However, critics note if inequality is inevitable, the functionalist explanation for differential rewards does not explain the wide disparity between the rich and the poor.

Ultimate Salvation

Marx observed the developments of class conflict, the struggle among different classes were initially confined to individual factories. Eventually, it led to the maturing of capitalism. The growing disparity between life conditions of bourgeoisie and proletariat, and individual struggles become generalized to coalitions across factories. The class-consciousness is increased, common interests and policies are organized, and the struggle for political power is being launched. The classes become political forces. The dispensation of political power is determined by power over production (i.e., capital).

The capital bestows political power, which the bourgeois class uses to legitimatize and safeguard their property and consequent social relations. The intellectual basis of state rule justifying the use of state power and its distribution, are those of the ruling class. The division between classes will widen. The condition of the exploited worker will deteriorate and the social structure collapses. The class struggle is converted into a proletarian revolution. The workers’ triumph will eliminate the basis of class division in property through public ownership of the means of production.. Marx opined that the exploitation of the proletariat will inevitably lead to the destruction of the capitalist system. At the final stage, the proletariat will overthrow the regime of the bourgeoisie and establish exploitation free society.

Biography

Pashukanisby, E., (1932), The Marxist Theory of State and Law, 2^nd edition, Progressive publisher, Moscow.

Richard T. S. (1990), Sociology Matters, 3rd edition, Lawrence and Wishart, London.

DeLue, S. M. (2002) Political Thinking, Political Theory and Civil Society, Boston: Alllyn and Bacon.

Marx, K. and Engels, F., (1974), The German Ideology, Arthur, C.J. (ed.), Lawrence and Wishart, London.