Sociology

Introduction

The free movement of persons and goods within the European Union is an important pillar in fostering balanced economic growth and political cohesion among participating countries. Immigration policies therefore determine the scale of migrations with the objective of promoting harmony, security and development among migrant-sending counties with their transit and destination nations. The European Union has created a borderless Europe situation through the Schengen agreement (Boswell, 2003). This has led to emerging challenges related to external immigration among member states. The receptive capacity of countries of destination within the European Union is a priority issue in debating the immigration policy. Immigration policies in different European countries are differentiated and thus create conflicts with the objectives of the European Union. The process of enacting a common immigration policy for the entire European Union and its neighbors seeks to correct the fragmented national immigration laws.

The policy also takes into account the receptive capacity of migrant-receiving countries with respect to their social infrastructure and economic situation. The state of housing, educational facilities, health institutions and labor markets for instance is evaluated in order to prevent a situation where migrants become a burden in their countries of destination (Cole, Dale, 1999). A common immigration policy in the European Union involves independent actors working with various arms of the EU and government officials in strategic ministries such as the ministry of home and foreign affairs. Countries involved in such dialogue consist of the migrant-sending, transit and receiving nations.

Background

The common European Asylum System has emerged as a priority issue under the Treaty of Amsterdam and in view of the Kosovo refugee situation and related migration challenges. It is a major development towards the formation of an integrated immigration policy that cuts across the European Union and its neighbors. It actually creates an alternative to the Trans-governmental mode of co-operation between partner countries in the EU on asylum-related issues and refugee legislation (Cornelius, 2004). The Europeanization of the refugee policy addresses salient features of the legal frameworks in national constitutions relating to migration with a view of integrating them within the EU policy which seeks greater political cohesion. The common European Asylum system was developed by the EU executive leaders at the Tampere European Council. This was informed by the realities of the global migration trends.

Migration of workers, refugees and asylum seekers across international borders has increased in recent times. Legal and illegal migration appear to take place simultaneously with the task of making distinctions between the two being left with immigration officials of the countries involved. Illegal migration is on the increase because of the restrictions inherent in immigration policies of the migrant receiving countries. The European Union serves as the motor for not only economic integration but also political cohesion between member states (Corry, 1996). Refugees from African countries fleeing civil war and rampant political instability have joined other businessmen, students and professionals in mass exodus to Europe either in pursuit of greener pastures or safe havens.

International migration of Indian workers to Middle East has also been witnessed taking into perspective labor shortages in the countries of destination. There has also been substantial migration within Europe as a result of the political developments in Central and Eastern regions. Migrations from developing countries to European destinations serve to promote economic growth in countries of origin due to remittances which act as a tool of foreign exchange. Skilled workers returning to their countries of origin bring with enormous expertise and resources which contribute towards sustainable development and economic growth at home (Dell’ Olio, 2005). It should also be noted that most of the developing countries are plagued with political conflicts, increased population growth and limited employment opportunities. The situation has forced migrants from these nations to seek for either permanent or seasonal immigration status in Europe and other developed countries.

Pressures for a common EU immigration policy

Economic incentives

There is need for labor flexibility within Europe in order to promote economic growth. An increase in economic growth among European countries results in availability of jobs. The lack of sufficient skilled manpower to supply the native labor demand in European companies has occasioned the need for international labor migrations for economic reasons (Dickens, Eichengreen& Ulman, 1993). Migration of persons interested to work in lucrative EU labor markets has been complicated by the upsurge in unskilled labor taking advantage of illegal channels of migration. Policy measures around immigration are therefore centered on filtering out unskilled manpower while admitting skilled labor for purposes of promoting economic growth.

Illegal migrants are perceived to be a burden in their host countries since labor markets and the prevailing economic situation does not favor their integration into most of the EU states. Other categories of migrants include refugees, displaced people and relatives keen on family reunification with immigrants already living in EU countries. The problem of unskilled migration is compounded by the limited opportunities available in European labor markets for permanent and gainful employment (Geddes, 2003). Unskilled labor movements and illegal migrations are therefore closely related due to the restrictive immigration policies existent within EU states. The contribution of an increase in unskilled migrants on social and economic disruptions is therefore high taking into account their unemployment predicament and cultural constraints such as the language problem in host countries. The presence of high populations of illegal immigrants without a source of income in a foreign country may lead to an increase in criminality and social intolerance as a result of poor integration.

A common immigration policy is therefore necessary in fostering economic development and socio-political cohesion among member states through provisions that take into consideration the state of affairs in the nation-states. Developed nations continue to experience high demand for skilled labor occasioned by technological advancement, population aging and the prevailing shortage of native European labor to meet the demand (Joppke, 1999). The future needs in the labor markets cannot be sufficiently adequately met by the education system and the prevailing workforce in European countries. The European Union is therefore under obligation to establish necessary institutional frameworks to attract relevant skilled manpower from abroad to fill the gaps.

The underlying challenge lies in balancing the economy with a prolific mix of both skilled and unskilled labor in European companies for quality and sustainable output. It is understood that the excess demand for skilled workers by these companies reduces incentives for hiring unskilled labor (Kofman, Graham& Hardill, 2001). The nature of the European labor markets is such that lack of skilled labor decreases the availability of jobs for unskilled workers. Skilled workers enhance growth of the local industries which also creates opportunities for employment among the unskilled workforce. As such, the skilled and unskilled workers are interdependent. Due to the inability by the aging population and the educational system to supply adequate skilled manpower, the alternative lies on an organized immigration policy that attracts and integrates foreign skilled workers in Europe.

Labor migration facilitates the appropriate the transfer of factors of production into the host countries and associated benefits in trade and industry (Koppenfels, Stacher& Laczko, 2002). The expansion of the European Union has therefore created more employment opportunities which continue to attract immigrants from neighboring Central and Eastern regions basically to fill the gap in the skilled labor markets. The challenges lie in regulating illegal migration of unskilled workers, security concerns and matters to do with integration. A large number of immigrants already living in Europe are considered inappropriate for the domestic labor markets since they are not economic migrants. Most of these immigrants are dependants of previous economic migrants reunited with family while others are refugees and asylum seekers. These categories of people are not legally allowed to work in Europe since there are no economic incentives supporting such a cause.

Migration policies are designed based on variation in the economic situation of different regions. A comparison in earnings, the employment situation, standard of living and trading patterns determine migrations decisions between regions. In order to migrate to a different region, migrants have to estimate the risks and costs associated with the traveling costs, the distance and the psychological impact of separating from family members (Leal, Freeman& Givens, 2008). Immigration policy is therefore designed depending on the degree to which migrants can be integrated into the host nation’s economic, social and political setting.

Germany, Ireland and Italy have also benefited from the immigration of skilled labor such as in the information and technology sector towards economic development. The free movement of persons is therefore a factor for mutual growth and prosperity. A common EU immigration policy shall therefore enhance cohesive border controls for purposes of human and economic exchange. Properly managed immigration enhances social cohesion in host countries. It hampers the prospects for illegal migration, social insecurities and criminality through sustained border management and filtered immigration (Papa Gianni, 2006). Refugees and asylum seekers are granted immigration status on humanitarian grounds until peace and stability is restored in their home countries. The reception capacity of the host countries is paramount when considering admission and stay of refugees or asylum seekers in order to prevent a situation where they are regarded as a burden in their countries of destination.

Pressures against a common EU immigration policy

Sovereignty

Member states have expressed concerns regarding their sovereignty, security issues and the conflicting refugee status. The creation of borderless Europe is likely to create loopholes in the national security of signatory countries leading to acts of terrorism, drug trafficking and other crimes (Spencer, 1997). Member states are concerned that the free movement of persons across borders is likely to be exploited by terrorists and criminals disguised as international students or businessmen to gain entry into targeted countries. Border controls are therefore sustained in view of territorial integrity and security considerations.

Border control and the task of managing migrations are traditionally considered to be the responsibility of individual countries. National governments are elected into office by their citizens in order to protect the lives of their people, their property and their esteemed sovereignty. The international humanitarian concept of granting refugees and asylum seekers immigration status is acceptable by most Member states even though measured against the receptive capacity in host nations (Thompson, 1996). The process of framing a common European asylum policy has been characterized by competing viewpoints due to controversies on the proper definition of a “refugee” and the subsequent conditions under which the said refugee deserved protection. Refugees are therefore limited to persons fleeing from third countries with exceptional political turmoil.

The refugee problem arose from the effects of the Second World War and the fall of the Soviet Union which led to rapid increase of migrants seeking asylum in Western European countries such as Germany and Italy. Decolonization of previous empires in Africa, Asia and South America led to readmission of citizens back into European destinations. As such, there was pronounced increase in national populations beyond the rate at which the economy was growing. However, subsequent gradual development in European economies improved the employment situation. The Kosovo crisis and other cases of political instability in African countries experiencing civil war forced massive migrations of refugees into Europe. Most of these refugees were unskilled to work into in their industries.

The refugees could not therefore be accommodated enmasse in Western Europe since they were also in need of humanitarian support. The problem of integrating refugees in the host country societies is further constrained by language barrier, racial and cultural differences (Watt& Galgóczi, 2009). Admission of refugee in one country within borderless European Union could render neighboring states porous compromising national securities of the entire region. Participating countries in the EU therefore maintain their solidarity and political cooperation as far as law enforcement and border management is concerned.

Xenophobia and racism

There still remains the problem of reconciling different cultures towards a politically integrated and cohesive society. The increase in number of foreigners has subsequently led to an upsurge in cases of racism and xenophobia which has also been experienced on the political scene (Boswell, 2003). The events surrounding the 9/11 terrorist attacks in the US have further extended the problem of racism and xenophobia with respect to the interaction between Muslims with other religions and cultures. The ascension of Bulgaria and Romania has consequently complicated the culture problem with the inclusion of the Roma people among EU citizens.

The Roma people have been considered racial and discriminatory among fellow Europeans and other people. The development of the common EU immigration policies are therefore constrained by racism, xenophobia and anti-Semitism across Europe (Cole& Dale, 1999). The growing apathy and discontent among European citizens has a background in colonialism and imperialism aspects that the continent has had with other parts of the world. The underlying social problem is the difficulties of European political institutions to integrate huge populations of foreign workers into their mainstream society. Immigration challenges are therefore a product of irreconcilable cultures with respect to actors pressing for preservation of European identity.

It is apparent that the push for a common European immigration policy was meant for exclusive EU citizens with limitations to the rest of the world. The process of implementing an immigration policy for EU citizens took quite substantial time to be enforced among member states. It is therefore difficult for non-European nationals to benefit from the intergovernmental frame, international human rights provisions not withstanding. The manner in which migrants fare in their countries of destination also contributes to their degree of integration in the host societies. The extent to which the sending and receiving nations are related economically and socially determines the degree to which migrants get assimilated in host countries (Cornelius, 2004).

As such, the process of interaction and integration among migrants in their countries of destination is therefore dependent on their level of education, proficiency in host language and economic similarities. The success of the common migration policy is therefore a product of the competing national interests, geographical distance and economic inequalities that exist between the EU member states and migrant sending countries. However, host country sovereignty remains a thorny issue in the process of transferring immigration laws into the supranational framework under the EU. Independent EU member states continue to evaluate the economic, social and political situation in their countries in order to determine their compliance to the common immigration policy (Corry, 1996). Work-related immigration is largely dependant on domestic labor markets and economic situation.

Family reunification

The provision for family reunification with migrants settled among European member states is also an impediment to the common immigration policy. Skilled workers are privileged with work permits and other allowances meant to promote their integration into European countries. However, the admission and stay of skilled workers from third countries is separated from the aspect of family reunification. The skilled workers are allowed to stay with a limited number of family members in some European countries such as Britain and German. It is generally understood that young children who are still dependent on their parents working abroad need their sustained moral and economic support till they mature.

As such, children and spouses of immigrants legally living and working in Europe should be reunited unconditionally (Dell’ Olio, 2005). Lack of cooperation by most European on this aspect is based on economic factors. The notion is that family dependents may not contribute to the development of the economy which is why the skilled migration was institutionalized. They are perceived to increase the burden on social and economic infrastructure if they are not skilled in some profession or keen on developing their careers through the native education system for the mutual benefit. However, family reunification is considered to an important step towards promoting the integration of foreign workers in European destinations. Family members are psychologically and emotionally attached such that long and distant separation could frustrate integration of skilled workers. Persons seeking asylum in Europe may not also contribute positively to the economic development of their host countries.

Conclusion

There are significant pressures towards inclusion of the beneficial aspects of the common immigration policy into national migration legislations. The process of designing a common migration for the European Union is therefore dependent on the degree to which competing national interests are integrated into the supranational legislations and policies in order to harmonize the benefits of migrations across all the participating countries. Essentially, migrations shall continue to exist as long as the levels of prosperity become more dynamic in different regions of the world (Geddes, 2003). Controversial issues that hamper the successful enactment and implementation of a common EU migration policy can be effectively repaired through collaborative deliberations and mutual respect among participating countries. The fundamental issues relating to national security and the sovereignty of the nation-state should therefore be balanced against humanitarian concerns and economic migrations within the European Union.

References

Boswell, C. (2003). European migration policies in flux: changing patterns of inclusion and exclusion. Chatham House papers. Berlin: Wiley-Blackwell.

Cole, M. & Dale, G. (1999). The European Union and migrant labor. Lisbon: Berg Publishers.

Cornelius, W. (2004).Controlling Immigration; a global Perspective. New York: Stanford University Press.

Corry, D. (1996). Economics and European Union migration policy. Washington: Institute for Public Policy Research.

Dell’ Olio, F. (2005). The Europeanization of citizenship: between the ideology of nationality, immigration, and European identity. New York: Ash gate Publishing Ltd.

Dickens, W.T., Eichengreen, B. J. & Ulman, L. (1993). Labor and an integrated Europe. Washington: Brookings Institution Press.

Geddes, A. (2003). The politics of migration and immigration in Europe. Sage politics texts. London: SAGE.

Joppke, C. (1999). Immigration and the nation-state: the United States, Germany, and Great Britain. London: Oxford University Press.

Kofman, E., Graham, D. T. & Hardill, I. (2001). Human geography of the UK: an introduction. London: Rout ledge.

Koppenfels, A. K., Stacher, I. & Laczko, F. (2002). New challenges for migration policy in Central and Eastern Europe. Birmingham: Cambridge University Press.

Leal, D.L., Freeman, G. P. & Givens, T. E. (2008). Immigration policy and security: U.S., European, and Commonwealth perspectives. Berlin: Taylor & Francis.

Papa Gianni, G. (2006).Title Institutional and policy dynamics of EU migration law Volume 10 of Immigration and asylum law and policy in Europe. New York: Martinus Nijhoff Publishers.

Spencer, I. R. G. (1997). British immigration policy since 1939: the making of multi- racial Britain. London: Rout ledge.

Thompson, H. (1996). The British conservative government and the European exchange rate mechanism, 1979-1994. London: Rout ledge.

Watt, A. & Galgóczi, B. (2009).EU labor migration since enlargement: trends, impacts and policies. New York: Ash gate Publishing, L

Introduction

Education is an important element of every society. It is through education that individuals learn to face various challenges in life. There have been many research studies intended for improving education. The main objective of these studies is to overcome the challenges in education and make it more fruitful in people’s lives. One area of research in the recent past has been on the influence of socialization on education. Social class socialization affects the teachers’ and students’ approaches to education.

Overview on socialization

In conventional terms, socialization is defined as how an individual learns to be a member of a certain society. It consists of the process through which an individual acquires ideologies, customs, and norms of a certain society. The term “Socialization” is, however, used differently by individuals in different fields or in different contexts. Socialists, politicians, anthropologist educationalists, and social psychologists use the term according to their context. Socialization is also used to refer to social interaction among individuals. Socialization seeks to retain certain beliefs, norms, and values in a certain society (Germov & Poole, 2007, p. 136). However, the process may be different for different individuals. An individual in a certain society may be socialized differently from another individual in the same settings. The phenomenon is in agreement with many social-political theories that claim that socialization determines only part of an individual’s behaviors and beliefs.

Social-political theorists have identified various types of socialization. Primary, developmental, secondary, and anticipatory socialization have been identified. Primary socialization is the fundamental socialization process where a child learns to be a member of a certain society (Kerckhoff, 1992, p. 37). The family in which a child is born and brought up has a great influence on this socialization. Secondary socialization occurs after primary socialization and involves learning to be a member of a small group such as a profession. Developmental and anticipatory socialization are consciously learned behaviors intended to make an individual fit in certain social settings.

Social class socialization in Education

Socialization, especially socialization in childhood, has been known to affect the way of life of an individual. Family, race, gender, schools, peer groups, workplace, and mass media have been identified as the common agents of socialization. These agents play an important role in forming the social life of an individual. Social class is another major socialization factor in the recent past. Being brought up in a certain social class has a great influence on how one views certain issues and influences an individual’s way of life (Kerckhoff, 1992, p. 28). Our society is strongly stratified according to social classes. Individuals can belong to lower, middle or upper social classes. Socialization within social classes is very evident in the society. The tendency of individuals to take up occupations or way of lives similar to their parents is a clear evidence of social class socialization. Social class socialization has great influence on education. Many studies in the recent past have shown strong correlation between social class and education achievement. The socialization affects the way in which an individual student responds education (Woolfolk, & Holy, 1990, p.289). It also influences the relationship between a teacher and students and how the teacher is able to be effective in his or her duties.

Socialization has great influence on choice of a career. An individual tend to choose a career that is in agreement with the ideologies, values or expectations received from a certain society. Teaching career has for long been associated with middle class individuals. An individual brought up in the middle social class may be more prepared to be an educator than other individuals from other social classes. Individuals in the middle class are brought up seeing teachers within their neighborhood. Some of the middle class individuals have teachers as their parents and learn from them that teaching can be taken as career. On the other hand, there are less teachers from the lower and upper classes.

The social class of a teacher can affect his or performance. The social class socialization affects the drive behind a teacher taking the teaching career. An individual from the lower social class may take teaching a necessity rather than passion for teaching. The financial gain from teaching can motivate an individual to take a career in a field that he or she does not enjoy. Lack of passion and self drive in such cases can affect a teacher’s job motivation and performance. Individuals in the middle social class may be influenced by social and family expectations to take careers in teaching. The influence may have negative effect on a teacher’s performance especially when the teacher does not have other positive motivations to teaching. When an individual from the upper class takes teaching as a career, it is mostly out of their free choice. The free choice of a career can have positive effect on the performance of a teacher. A teacher that chooses teaching out of passion for teaching may be more dedicated and invest more on the career (Kerckhoff, 1992, p. 31-37).

Social class has great influence to the development of self-identity. Social class determines the experiences and the things which an individual is exposed to. In consequence, social class influences the way an individual views the world and how they respond to various aspects in their surrounding. Social class constrains the opportunities that an individual has in life. It also influences the decisions that an individual can make in life and how they make the decisions. An individual in the upper social class may have more opportunities in life. The individual can have more opportunities to travel, make purchases and experience many things in life. On the other hand an individual in the lower or middle class do not have as many opportunities in their lives. An individual in the upper class also has a wider range of choices to careers and other aspects (Germov & Poole, 2007, p. 137). Opportunities and experiences have great influence to teaching. In teaching, a teacher is likely to use his or her experiences to capture the students’ attentions. The teacher’s attitude, language and examples are strongly influenced by their socialization. A teacher can use his experiences to capture the students’ attention or motivate them towards certain subject. However, the success of this is determined by the socialization of the teacher and the students. For example, narrating personal experiences in international travels may have positive effects on upper class students but fail to motivate students from lower class.

Social class socialization influence the way in which a student respond to education. Family is a major agent in socialization. The family instills value, attitude and expectation over an issue. Although socialization in families may differ from one family to the other, there is high influence of social class. Research studies have shown differences in the way in which parents have faith and support schools. The attitude of the parents, in consequence, influence the way students respond to education (Woolfolk, & Holy, 1990, p.281). In families that wholehearted support education and school, the students from such homes are more likely to respond positively to education. Such students are more likely to accept the values instilled on them and cooperate in educational activities. Parental influence on attitude to education has been observed to have social class elements. The upper-middle-class has been observed to be great believers in education. They believe that education is important and view it as a solution to social problems. On the other hand, the upper-lower class and lower-middle class have a different attitude towards education. Most families in this category view education just as a means to adulthood. These families expect the schools to provide their children with necessary skills to help them in their lives (Woolfolk, & Holy, 1990, p.285). Many families in the lower class, on the other hand, have negative attitude towards schools and education. There is general suspicion, distrust and rejection of education in lower class families. In class management, students from middle and upper class are more likely to be more cooperative that those from lower class. On the other hand, students from the lower class are more likely to exhibit negative class behaviors such as inattention and absenteeism.

Conclusion

Education system determines the success or failure of a society. The education system should provide the members of a society with necessary skills to face their day-to-day challenges. Socialization is important factor that influences education. The kind of socialization can either promote or inhibit education. Social class socialization has become more prevalent in education systems. To respond to effects of social class socialization, a teacher must be able to respond positively to social class stereotypes.

Reference

Germov, J. & Poole, M. (2007). Public sociology: an introduction to Australian society. Crows Nest: Allen & Unwin.

Kerckhoff, A. (1992). Socialization and social class. New York: Barnes & Noble.

Woolfolk, A. & Holy, W. (1990). Socialization of Student Teachers. American Educational Research Journal 27(2), pp 279-300.

The article discusses the role and impact of working women on society and its culture. Since married women in our society are viewed as occupying a social position defined by their husband’s occupation, those characteristics, and processes that lead to a woman’s later position in the stratification system are likely to be different from those relevant to men. The author vividly portrays positive and negative consequences of work outside the home and their impact on culture and values.

The main problem identified by the author is social changes and social problems faced by societies “where women work outside their homes” (159). Differences in the basis for assigning a position to men and women are intimately associated with definitions of what is appropriate male and female behavior, and girls and boys are treated differently and are expected to behave differently from a very early age.

It will not be possible to consider all aspects of differential socialization by sex, but some attention will be given to differences that are associated with adult placement in the stratification system. The author presents two sets of arguments, for and against work for women outside their homes. On the one hand, work helps women to obtain independence and become equal to men, earn for living and develop themselves. On the other hand, religion states that the role of women is to stay at home and keep a family. The author underlines that women and men are different both mentally and physically. They cannot perform the same jobs such as “working with heavy machinery and bricklaying” (160). In a society that is as aware of differences like this one and in which there are massive differences in the distribution of jobs in the stratification system, identity is certainly relevant to the topic at hand. There are some jobs assigned for women only: “nursing, raising children and housework” (160). An adequate treatment of that problem, however, would require a much more extended discussion than is possible here. One of the difficult issues in such a discussion would be the distinction between men and women. These differences are caused by emotional and intelligence differences: “women are much better suited for the patience and kindness involved in raising children” (160).

Special attention is given to the role of religion and previous views on women’s position in society. “God made men to take care of women” (160). The main problem caused by women working outside the home is that they take jobs from men. Unemployment and low wages are a direct result of women being involved in the labor market. In its turn, it leads to increased crime rates and negative impacts on children, high divorce rates, and declining morality. The author concludes that “having women work outside the home is morally wrong” (161)

The article presents problems from a religious point of view only. It is possible to say that it is subjective because the author omits historical and social facts which led women to work outside their homes. Historically, the woman was placed at a legal and social disadvantage and usually not educated to develop her true talents. But these did flower when circumstances permitted and were demonstrated in female work and whenever men and women had marriages that rose above household partnership to intellectual companionship and joint spiritual pursuits. Religion, the Bible, and Koran stipulate that women should work at home, but this position and perception of women was caused by the low social position of women in society and their secondary roles. Women were seen as unimportant citizens unable to work and develop their selves. Throughout the ages, there have always been women who showed what women were capable of, but now, in the mid-nineteenth century, women had the possibility of removing the traditional barriers that had always held most women back. Work outside the home allows women to receive education and develop unique skills, obtain a leadership position and earn for living.

Educated women would have a beneficial influence on public opinion. And, finally, marriages will be happier when each of two persons, instead of being nothing, is something. The author is biased against women stating that they are suited for nursing and homework only. Women leaders and female presidents are an example of good skills and high level of professionalism possessed by many women. Human beings are affected by their environment, but they are also uniquely affected by social conditions. The fact that women are supported by men has distorted how women have developed. Therefore, women have developed exaggerated secondary sex characteristics. Historically, males have become more important for society than females have because they have interests in industry, commerce, science, manufacture. Women have had to concentrate on their sexual role and role as consumers. Only recently the rise of a group of working women who earn a wage begun to change this aspect of society, which has had centuries to pit the instinct of self-preservation against the instinct of race preservation.

The main limitation and weakness of the arguments are that women take jobs of the men and unemployment leads to crimes. Industrial development has created new opportunities for women and new jobs for them. Industrialization itself influences society in this direction: an industrial society promotes peace without any sacrifice because it needs it. I disagree with the following statement: “As women become more and more a part of the men’s world, their association with men results in immoral acts” (161). Not all men are immoral and not all women commit crimes. on the contrary, homework permits the dominance of men and stipulates secondary roles of women because of their financial dependence and poor education.

So when, as a result of social and economic changes, large numbers of women decided to change their lives in the sixties and early seventies, it was relatively easy for them to make a social revolution. Entry-level jobs opened up for educated articulate women willing to work for little more than what they needed for child care and carfare. Training courses became available for women whose education had been interrupted by marriage. Peripheral household services became more available as less time was spent at home by the lady of the house.

If people believe things that are not so about their lives, sooner or later reality will make at least partial converts of them. When a woman’s well-being is defined by her being a mother, that is an incentive for her to have several children so that she could continue in that occupation over the years. If women stayed at home and raise children, the men would treat women as sex objects and servants, a treatment that is all the more galling because the women in question are generally student colleagues who are their social, educational, and intellectual equals. Links to the Bible and the Koran are irrelevant in this article because the author cites only one position but ignores its historical context. It is a known fact that both the Bible and Koran treat a woman as a “thing” and a possession of men (father and a husband). Probably, any modern woman would want to be treated like a thing deprived of human rights and freedoms.

If discussing what each person in a marriage wants makes them understand each other better, romance is enhanced, not killed. What a sex-role revolution can do in a marriage is to make friends and partners out of people who were almost strangers and turn what were grudgingly accepted as duties into voluntary commitments. When it became the exception and not the rule for a woman with children to stay home to care for them, young families faced a problem: who would care for the children? There were several alternatives: some sort of daycare, some sort of live-in help, or some sort of the change in the nature or timing of a woman’s work (flexible time, job sharing, home office, entrepreneurship, alternating going to work and staying home). All of these required some sort of change like the father’s work, too. Several companies have included more flexibility in working arrangements among the “child-care benefits” they offer. These include job sharing, part-time schedules, “flextime” and “telecommuting” programs, as well as time off to care for sick children.

In sum, the article proposes interesting views on the role of women in society but it does not address real lie problems and examples, benefits, and opportunities for women who work outside their homes. American business has realized that it needs an increasing number of women employees in management to continue to expand. This realization has changed the workplace in irrevocable ways.

Works Cited

Should a Woman Work outside the Home? pp. 159-161.

Introduction

It is not secret that there is and always has been gender discrimination in the workplace. Females are treated differently in the workplace, they are kept from occupying executive posts in an organization, they are delegated less responsibility, and most importantly, they are paid less than their male counterparts.

This paper will revolve around the question of discrimination in the workplace. Are women paid less than men? The paper will prove the hypothesis that women are indeed paid less in the workplace and are discriminated against. First, this will be illustrated by giving statistical information about differences in earnings. After this, reasons for such differences will be discussed and it will be evaluated why there is discrimination in the workplace.

Discussion

According to an economist’s definition, discrimination in the workplace is when two people have equal productivity but different outcomes. These people are most likely to be a part of different groups. Like I mentioned earlier, it is a well known fact that women have been a target of discrimination in the workplace. Evidence of discrimination in the workplace is subtle. They can be analyzed by either direct testimonies or by studying statistical employment patterns (Jacobsen, 2007).

Some people say that because of this discrimination they are also paid less in earnings than the men in same or similar organizations. Why so? There must be a reason women are the subject of discrimination and not men. Men, obviously, are stronger; physically and sometimes, even mentally. Men are good in crisis. Most men have the attributes of natural leaders, for example, strong mindedness etcetera.

Therefore, we understand the position of men as employees in the society. But, we also know that women should be given an equal chance also, so that they can really prove what all they are capable of. The truth is that women have never really had this chance. This trend is, however, changing now.

Gender Differences in Earnings

In earlier times, the gap between the pay of men and women was large. In recent times, this gap has narrowed to a great extent. What is this gap? This is when men and women earnings are measured, a woman’s earnings is always less than that of a man. Men earnings are used as a standard to measure female pays (Facts on Working Women, 2004).

In 1992, women’s median hourly earning was 79.4 percent of men’s. While the female median wage or salary rate was 75.4 percent of their male equivalents. Annual women earnings in 1992 were 70.6 percent of men earnings (Facts on Working Women, 2004). These figures (adapted by the Bureau of Labor Statistics) prove that women are paid less. They were paid even less 40 years earlier than 1992. In these years, from early 1950s, women earnings have grown by 1.3 percent each year while men earnings have only grown by a 1.1 percent annually. This shows that the earnings gap narrowed in these 40 so years and continues to do so.

The widest gap in earnings was found in sales job in the late 1990s. Only one out of every ten women was employed in such an occupation (BLS, 2008). The following graph is adapted from the Bureau of Labor Statistics. It shows women’s earnings as a percentage of men earnings over the last 28 years, by age.

The graph shows that women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s has generally increased over the last thirty years. The earnings gap has narrowed for all age groups. However, we must remember that employment patters consistently illustrate that women largely occupy lower-paid jobs than men, even after providing for changes in tastes and productivity.

Analysis – Reasons for Gender Differences in the Workplace & Earnings

In this section, reasons for why there is discrimination in the workplace will be examined. Some people believe that men are willing to work for longer hours in the office and have lesser desire to spend time with their families. Women give more preference to family and it is because of this preference that they make choices such as part-time jobs which lead to lower earnings. This has been called the Preference Theory (Giele & Stebbins, 2003).

Also, the human capital approach cannot be overlooked when we talk about the differences in gender. This approach shows that some of the differences in female earnings are because of individual attributes. These may include lesser or lower education, lesser experience and other similar attributes (which will be discussed in detail in the following paragraphs). It is said that the human capital theory can account for the narrowing of the gap from 1970 to 1995, when in 25 years; women’s average pay relative to their male counterparts grew by 15 percent (Giele & Stebbins, 2003).

Feminists may believe that earning inequalities rise as a result of authorities giving preferences to men by the virtue of being men. They are given more privileges only because they are men. This is an extreme point of view, known as the ‘patriarchal approach’, but one that many opponents of the earnings gap hold.

Education is a factor that directly influences earnings. How so? Employers look for education and experience essentially when recruiting employees. Women earn less sometimes because of their own choices, as mentioned earlier. While at other times, their earnings depend on the employer’s decision. If women are not educated enough, they are likely to get lower pays. Unfortunately, men are more educated than women only because they have more opportunities. In developing countries where women get married at an early age have no other option but to forego their educations to care for their families. As a result, they get paid likewise.

Experience is another important aspect that employers look for when recruiting. Women generally have less experience because not many opportunities come their way. The more opportunities you get, the more experience you acquire. Women, in the past, have not been given the chance, and this will therefore influence their experience as a whole. This leads to a penalty in their earnings.

Another part of a human’s capital is the time that is spent on the job. As discussed earlier, women generally spend less time. They look for part-time jobs rather than full-time occupations so that they can look after their families at the same time. Even if women do notg o back home to look after their families, they have more interruptions in the course of their lives such as child bearing. Therefore, the total number of hours that women spend in their workplace is significantly lower than the time that men spend working. This will be even more evident when the compensation method used is a wage-rate system.

Because women have more interruptions and longer breaks, this leads to another important issue. It is because of these interruptions that some employers shy away from investing into females in the form of training and other programs. They feel they will get a higher return if instead they train men, who will be absent for relatively and significantly shorter periods of time (Giele & Stebbins, 2003).

Finally, the skills required for different jobs vary. Some occupations are more suitable for women such as catering while other are more appropriate for men such as flying. If this is a determining cause for the differences in earnings, then it suggests that not many jobs are made for women and are more suitable for men. This is fascinating because some occupations are labeled as female occupations and others as male-occupations and this is the same all over the world.

Effects of Gender Discrimination

What effects does gender discrimination have? These effects are mostly negative by nature. Such discrimination causes sex segregation in the workplace. Because of this segregation, it becomes harder to work in teams. Men feel that they have a competitive edge because they are getting more earnings than the females. They use this to their advantage. Ultimately, this results in lower male and female productivity.

Female productivity suffers because they are de-motivated by the fact that even if they have the same productivity levels as men, they get paid less. They know about how there is discrimination in the workplace and this puts them off. They also see men getting promoted to higher positions while they remain in the same.

As a consequence of gender differences in earnings, women are forced to work lesser hours because they feel that no matter how hard they work, they will still be paid less. However, it is important to notice how globalization is making the whole world one big place without any boundaries. The times and trends are changing and there will come a time when women will be needed to be paid as much as men because the competition will be so intense. If there is continual discrimination, it will become all the more difficult for women to step forward and compete.

Conclusion

It is remarkable how employers employ men more. This means that the burden of feeding their families is on them along with supporting their economies. They do their jobs astonishingly. However, it is important that this burden be shared. Companies could really benefit if they ever gave women the chance to lead executive teams and gave them higher positions in the office. Women have some great attributes such as emotional understanding which could make them great leaders. They should be given the chance and companies should try on their part to narrow the earnings gap as much as they can.

Works Cited

“Earnings Differences Between Women And Men”. Facts on Working Women. 2004. U.S. DOL. 14. 2008. Web.

Giele, Janet and Stebbins, Leslie. Women and Equality in the Workplace. ABC-CLIO, 2003.

Jacobsen, Joyce. The Economics of Gender. Blackwell Publishing, 2007.

“Women’s earnings as a percentage of men’s, 1979-2007” Bureau of Labor Statistics. 2008. US Department of Labor. Web.

Introduction

I have chosen “Families and Households” as the topic of my essay. Through this essay, we will first point to the definition of families and households, Gender, how everyone expects to do his part in a family or household as being a “Boy” or “a Girl”. and how this normative construction affects the levels of society?

According,”how countries define “family” varies considerably from nation to nation”.

I totally agree with that. Every nation and culture has its own definition and aspects for Families and Households, the composition of families, the relationship of household members to each other, and the role of gender inside the family and in the society.

These perspectives do not only differ according to the nation but also differ from certain society to another in the same nation, even in the same city or state. These depend on many other givens as culture, nativity, ability to speak English, age, disability status, earnings, educational level, employment status, household size, industry, labor force status, language spoken at home, occupation,..etc.

Family, as defined by the U.S. Census Bureau

“A family includes a householder and one or more people living in the same household who are related to the householder by birth, marriage, or adoption. All people in a household who are related to the householder are regarded as members of his or her family.

In the U.S., a “household” is everyone who lives in a dwelling, be it an apartment, house, whatever. Everyone who lives together is a “household,” but they are not always a family.

Not all households contain families since a household may comprise a group of unrelated people or one person living alone.”

Through a nice question on; Ever wondered why men are known for loving sports and women are known for loving to talk? Or why do we try so hard to predict a baby’s gender?

It turns out there’s actually science and research behind many of our ideas about what it means to be masculine or feminine. But that’s not all gender means. When it comes down to your gender identity, it depends on whether or not you strive to meet society’s expectations or defiantly blaze your own trail.

On (www.edchange.org, An Overview for Adolescence, Sexual Orientation & Identity By Warren J. Blumenfeld ) state a clear definition for gender and gender role.

Gender Identity

This is the individual’s innermost concept of self as “male” or “female” — what we perceive and call ourselves. Individuals develop this generally between the ages of 18 months and 3 years.

Gender Role

This is the set of socially defined roles and behaviors assigned to females and males. This can vary from culture to culture. Our society recognizes basically two distinct gender roles. One is the “masculine”: having the qualities or characteristics attributed to males. The other is the “feminine”: having the qualities or characteristics attributed to females.

(www.allacademic.com, The Body: Reconstructing Judith Butler’s Theory of Sex/Gender ) says that:”A body is both dependent upon others and subject to violation by another, by others. Through our bodies, we always remain exposed to others, and our very vulnerability ties us to others (2004b: 20, 22). In this sense, and only in this sense, we find something primary about the body, something fundamental, undeniable.”

Site (www.blackwell-synergy.com) states that Gender is related to about a third of these task meanings. Consistent with the feminine care hypothesis, women consider baby care and laundry especially good, potent, and active and consider meal preparation particularly powerful, although contrary to this hypothesis women evaluate washing dishes less positively than men. Consistent with the masculine care hypothesis, men consider auto work and yard work especially good and powerful. When paid and unpaid work patterns are controlled, however, 9 of the 12 gender differences become nonsignificant and 4 new gender differences are identified, suggesting that work patterns both mediate and suppress some gender differences in task meanings. Gender also moderates the relationship between work and 12 task meanings. In several of these equations, women’s proportion of nonmasculine work is negatively related to the goodness or the power they associate with a nonmasculine task.

While (findarticles.com) says that several studies find that women’s attitudes and behavior determine the division of labor (Antill & Cotton, 1988; Hardesty & Bokemeier, 1989), others demonstrate that men’s attitudes have a greater impact (Ross, 1987). Indeed, husbands’ prerogatives continue to have a more pronounced effect on marital role bargains than do wives’ employment status or other family characteristics (Hiller & Philliber, 1986).

parents are guilty of perpetuating one of the most sexist stereotypes out there (at least I think so): we expect our daughters to do more housework than our sons, and when the boys do lend a hand, we are more likely to pay them for their effort than we are the girls.

Gender does not only affect our role in our families or household but for sure also affects a wider range around us in our society.

Act Like a Man

what does it mean to “Act Like a Man” in sports, business, on a date, etc.).

What does it mean to act like a man? What words or expectations come to mind? (e.g., men don’t cry, men are tough, men are strong).

Be Ladylike

What does it mean to be ladylike? What words or expectations do you think of? (e.g., girls are polite, girls are neat, girls are passive).

attitudes and behaviors that boys are pressured to adopt in the process of becoming men in our society. Men and boys are not born this way; these roles are learned.

Women also learn to conform to very specific role expectations as they grow up being female in our society.

Where do we learn these gender roles?

Where do women learn these messages?

What other people influence our learning of gender roles? Where else in society do we find these messages?

A stereotype rigidly confirms the belief that if you are a girl or a boy, or a woman or a man, you must perform these specific roles, and do them well. This belief takes away our personal choices in determining our own interests and skills. It also discourages men from participating in “women’s work” (such as flower arranging and child care) and it restricts women from choosing roles that are traditional “male” (such as engineering and science).

(www.findarticles.com)states that, “For the past two decades, we have witnessed dramatic shifts in gender roles within the family and the workplace. Due to increasing rates of women’s labor force participation, the traditional, single-earner family has become the exception rather than the norm”.

We are all real people and we can experience the full range of emotions, including happiness and sadness, love and anger. We learn these attitudes and behaviors through the stereotypes of what our society thinks it means.

This is not to say that it’s wrong for guys to like sports or fix cars or for girls to enjoy cooking that we are told that we must perform these roles in order to fit in. It is important for all of us to make our own decisions about what we do.

Introduction

The use of animals in laboratory research and experimentations has drawn mixed reactions since its inception. The testing of medications and the use of animals to discover drugs for human illnesses have had its benefits on society. On the one hand, it has led to the discovery and testing of new drugs which have helped reduce mortality in humans. Therefore the role played by these experiments has been of core benefit to human health. However, on the other side of the coin, animals used in these experiments end up dying and therefore having a negative impact on the ecological aspect of human existence. The health of the universe is therefore threatened by the use of animals in experiments.

Thesis Statement

Should animals be used for scientific research? Is it humanly? The use of animals in scientific research has evolved a lot of mixed reactions. From the advocates of the use to those concerned with its effects together with the ones opposed to it, the question of animal use has become highly contentious. As a matter of fact, the use of animals in scientific research has profound benefits for human health. Most of the experiments involve the testing of drugs and their effectiveness to work in curing human illnesses. Therefore the use of animals in their programs has been of many benefits to human health. The constructiveness of this endeavor cannot be discounted. However, the ecological impact of the continuous use of animals in research has a tremendously negative effect on humanity and health in general. Bearing in mind that most of these animals die sooner or later, the consequences of this program are equally great. The moral aspect consequently raises its head. Moralists question the cruel treatment subjected to these animals in the name of research and experimentation. They pay more attention to the effects of the experiments on the health and lives of these animals. In their opinion therefore it is inhuman to test drugs and perform research at the expense of animals’ health and life in general. It is against this background that the use of animals in research and experiments has become an issue of controversy.

The Danger of Using Animals for Research

The danger of using animals for research is wide and rampant. In fact, the effects of this kind of practice are directly reflected the human side (Greenhaven, 1987). First and foremost is the moral concept, the subjecting of animals to poisonous elements, operations, and ultimate death violates their rights as animals. It is not ethical to expose animals to such kind of danger just for the sake of man. Animals deserve better treatment than this exposure to dangerous elements. As much as the use of animals in laboratory research has its profound benefits on human health the manner in which animals are treated is questionable. In the process of experiments, animals are injected with poisonous elements, subjected to operations, and sometimes injected with disease-causing elements. This greatly affects the life and health of the animals with some succumbing to them. Many animals contract diseases and illnesses from such experiments making their lives a hell of living. As much as the experimentalists argue that they obtain approval from various regulatory bodies, the treatment given to these animals is inhuman and unethical. Furthermore, these regulatory bodies are driven by economic interests in their decisions and not the ethical aspects. They are therefore ignorant of the effects of these experiments on the lives and health of these animals (Singer 2006).

The ecological perspective is also of much essence as far as the use of animals for experiments is concerned. In this argument, anything that affects the life and health of animals has a direct or indirect effect on humans specifically health. The pain and distress subjected to the animals in the course of the experiments cause illnesses amongst them, more often this leads to the death of the animals. As far as all this is done in the name of finding drugs for human illnesses it is counterproductive in essence. The health of animals is directly reflected in that of humans. Humans are fed of animals and therefore if they decrease in number due to death as a result of experiments then humans will lack food and their health will be in limbo.

The number of animals used in laboratory testing has been increasing year in year out. This has threatened the ecological balance in the ecosystem. This is a direct threat to human existence. As a society, we risk subjecting all our animals to this kind of exercise and this can have negative consequences. In the days of yore, medicine was derived from herbs and barks of a tree and they were effective. It doesn’t need to take harm so as to discover drugs. How come in the past drugs were effective even without the subjecting of the ecosystem into danger? The unethical subjection of animals to harmful experiments cannot be justified as seeking a solution for human health.

The risk lies in the continuous subjection of our animals to the inhuman experiments which debase animals to objects of study. Animals have a critical role to play in the ecological system of the universe. Furthermore the animals are more useful to human health when they are in perfect health and are so subjected to ethical conditions. It is not viable to argue that the health of the animals should be endangered so as to save that of humans. If anything the health of both humans and animals should go hand in hand. Only a complimentary approach will provide a worthy solution to the danger of health that plagues humanity. A haphazard approach like the one being used by the laboratories will only provide a short term solution. In the short term the use of animals for laboratory tests seems to be bearing positive fruits specifically in the discovery and testing of medications but its consequences will soon overwhelm humanity. The use of animals therefore is not a sustainable way to approach the entire issues of human health and its medication. A different approach should be sought which guarantees success on both sides. It is not sustainable therefore to continually subject animals to pain and distress in the name of discovering and testing drug samples. The risks greatly outnumber the benefits and as such the practice should be stopped (Carlson, 1994). Alternative methods of approach should be designed which guarantee not only the health of humans but also that of animals and the ecosystem at large.

The following table illustrates the use of animals in laboratory test and the degree of pain and distress underwent by the animals.

The Role of Government and Society

Blame for this cruel and inhuman act of subjecting animals to such treatment squarely lies with society and the government. Various companies and laboratories have invested hugely in the in this program most of which have economic interest in the production of drugs for human illnesses. There are also those research programs that are funded by the government. It is a saddening thing for the taxpayer’s money to be employed in such heinous acts against the animal fraternity. Animals just like humans should be accorded the right treatment at all times (Bender D, 1987).The government being the custodian of rights and freedoms should be the first one to realize the immorality of such acts and therefore discourage. However for the economic gains and sheer disregard for animal welfare it has gone ahead to fund such program. It is time that society stood up for the rights of animals. Various business organizations have set up laboratories in which animals are subjected to poisoning operations and other acts that cause injury, harm, disease and eventual death to them. Such activities should not be tolerated in the name of economic gain. The apathy of the government is a cause of great annoyance bearing in mind that some of the projects are not only authorized but also funded by the government (Turner, 1983). Lack of government regulation and guidelines on how to approach the issue is hurting ecology hardly. This is due to the fact that the death of these animals causes lack of food to humans as well as ecological imbalance.

The Significance of the Research

The scientific testing of drugs on animals is of great importance as far as the development and testing of new drugs is concerned. In fact it is a breakthrough in health science where new drugs are developed to tackle the increasing danger of human health. Therefore it is not practical to develop new drugs without the use of animals. Apart from the development of drugs, many other processes require the use of animals. For instance the study of how the brain works its defects, behavior and strokes. These are not possible to determine without animal testing. Therefore as much as this testing brings about the suffering and death of some animals it is not done purely for the purpose of injuring tem. The inconvenience thus caused is resultant and not intended. No scientist therefore plans or intends to inflict pain and suffering to the animal. Further more the scientific research area is highly regulated, regulatory bodies and ethics committees have various requirements met first before approving the projects. The living conditions of the animals for instance are considered prior to the inception of any experiment. Animals which are used for experiment are henceforth taken good care of, given proper housing, treated when sick and kept comfortably (Rowan, 1984).

However contrary to theses assertions the life and health of theses animal is ever at risk since they are subjected to irreversible body harm. Furthermore the idea of discovering and testing drugs and medication on animals does not make sense at all. This is so because during the ancient days medicine was extracted from herbs, vegetation and barks of trees. There was no need to harm an animal in the process yet these medicines were effective. Therefore there are more sustainable methods of addressing the risk of diseases and illnesses of humans than subjecting animals to inhuman conditions. Cruelty and apathy towards animals and their welfare cannot therefore be tolerated in the name of discovery of drugs.

Another point worth noting is the assertion that theses research agencies obtain approval from regulatory bodies. This makes no sense since the bodies are not driven by values but by economic interests. These are not guided by the ethos and welfare of animals and ecology at large and therefore have no moral authority to issues such permits. Therefore such approval is not reliable and this practice must be stopped by all means. The government is in fact apathetic the plight of these animals and also to the future impact of this practice to the ecosystem. The congress in particular has failed to enact legislations that protect the welfare of animals. The congress has consequently failed to spearhead the protection of the ecosystem bearing in mind that this act of using animals in experiments undermines ecology (Nussbaum & Sunstein, 2005).

Conclusion

The use of animals in the laboratory experiments has been in practice for a long time now. However it has been subject to many debates therefore evolving a mixture of reactions. The importance of the use of animals in the experiments cannot be underestimated. This practice has profound benefits on the health of humans and society at large. With increasing attack of illnesses and diseases there is need for more research to be done so as to save mankind from the brink of extinction. Therefore the laboratory exercise of discovery and testing of drugs samples and their effectiveness is integral for human health. However there are concerns about the moral and ethical implications of these experiments. The fact that animals are cruelly treated sometimes dying in the process has raised a lot of concerns. Moralists argue that cruelty against animals cannot be justified in the name of the discovery and testing of drugs. The fact remains that animals bear the brunt of misery and agony during the process of testing. This is reflected in the injection of poisonous substances in the animal bodies coupled with a series of operations. These cause diseases among the animals which eventually lead to death. Therefore the ethical question if more significant bearing in mind that animal deserves to be treated well. The other aspect of the debate is the effect of mistreating animals in the process of experimenting. It is deemed that harming animals in the process of seeking health solutions for humans is counterproductive. This endeavor is self defeating bearing in mind that the ecological imbalance is greatly skewed in this kind of process. Therefore the consequences of this practice will definitely affect human health in the long run. Furthermore finding medical solution for human illnesses need not be a painful experience for animals. This can be proven by the fact that in the ancient days, medicine was extracted from vegetation without harming animals. Yet this medicine was effective in its treatment of human illnesses. So this rubbishes the claim by the scientists that it is necessary for the animals to go through the process.

References

Bender, David. (1987). Biomedical Ethics–opposing Viewpoints: Should animals be used in scientific research? Pennsylvania: Greenhaven Press.

Carlson, Neil. (1994). Physiology of Behavior. Michigan: University of Michigan.

Greenhaven, F. (1987). Should Animals Be Used in Scientific Research? Pennsylvania: Greenhaven Press.

Nussbaum, Martha and Sustein, Cass, (2005). Animal rights: current debates and new directions. Washington: Oxford University Press.

Rowan, Andrew. (1984). Of mice, models, and men: a critical evaluation of animal research. New York: SUNY Press.

Singer, Peter. (2006). In defense of animals: the second wave. Wiley-Blackwell.

Turner, Paul. (1983). Animals in scientific research, an effective substitute for man?: proceedings of a symposium held in April 1982 under the auspices of the Humane Research Trust. Michigan: University of Michigan.

Introduction

The final decade of the twentieth century was a period that experienced instability in regard to the developments concerning the drug policy front. However, the decade came to an end leaving those who wanted to have reforms that were significant in a mood of disappointment. Taking the case in Canada, as on one hand the 1990s started with a fledging Canadian Drug Strategy that seemed to separate itself from the war on drugs fought by the United States of America, on the other hand just after the middle of the 1990s there was proclamation of the controlled Drugs and the completion of the Substances Act (Erickson 275).

At this point, the research carried out on drugs that was done in the period starting from the year 1969 up to the year 1973 (Le Dain Commission) was disregarded. This brought in a contradiction. Canada as a country has a very powerful public health practice and this country has always been seen to bring down the level of social conflicts by way of facilitating and enabling equal opportunity for people to have access to health care, social services, and still of most importance, equal opportunity to access education.

Among those nations which subjected contemporary criminal drug prohibition to critical examination in terms of both its nature and extend, Canada was among the first ones and this country made keen consideration in carrying out major reforms on the laws it had put in place (Erickson 275).

According to Hathaway and Erickson (468), in spite of the clearly seen similarities between the United States of America and Canada in their stern prohibitionist position originally, there has been a great divergence in the readiness of these countries to put in to consideration the harm reduction approach. Canada opted for the harm reduction model. This paper is going to look at what led to the adoption of harm reduction in Canada as an approach to drug policy.

Canada and the United States of America Dealing With Drug Abuse

According to Grant (655), the American as well as the Canadian societies has experienced the affliction from substance abuse on a continual basis to a high level. This has brought about adverse effects to both the victims as well as to their families and even to the society at large. Taking the case in the United States of America, more than 50 percent of those people in federal prisons are the ones charged with offenses related to drugs. In a similar manner, beginning from the start of the 1970s, the crimes related to drugs in Canada represent more than thirty percent in the increase of the number of people who are imprisoned. Beginning from the 1980s there has been an increase in the imprisonment by 1000 percent. More so, in the United States of America, in the year 2000 the approximate economic cost stood at around 181 US dollars in relation to drug abuse. On the other hand, in Canada, this cost was estimated to be about 40 billion dollars per year.

However, the approaches used by these two countries to deal with drug abuse are not similar. The approaches are quite different from one another. For the case of the United States of America; this country employs the criminalization model of regulation. This is on the basis that addiction is regarded as a crime and this model is employed to carry out the prohibition of those drugs that are regarded as not being legal.

On the other hand, in Canada, this country bases on the model of harm reduction as a drug policy. This model is employed to bring down the levels of the serious health effects, as well as economic and social effects that are brought in by abusing the drugs. This model does not require the abstinence from the consumption of the drug use (Erickson [c] 240).

History of the Drug Problem in Canada

This history can be traced back in the year 1908 at the time the federal government initially banned the production and trading of smoking opium. There was criminalization of a psychoactive drug, encountering an intense change in drug control policy. This was something that had never happened before in the history of Canada. Soon thereafter, there was as well the prohibition of cocaine (Erickson [b] 157). More so, there was swiftly inclusion of cannabis (marijuana) in the schedule in the year 1923 after the House of Commons approving without engaging in any debate. Therefore, this led to the prohibition of three drugs at that time which included opium, cocaine, and cannabis.

According to Hathaway and Erickson (468), those people who used cocaine and heroin were believed to be in a position to turn out to be mad and dangerous and could easily engage in criminal activities. More so, those people who were addicted from the use of marijuana were believed to easily get involved in any form of violence and could easily harm other people. In general terms, in those days, people of Canada were not very much familiar with marijuana and therefore such beliefs that were instilled in the people of Canada did not face any opposition.

Therefore, these drugs which included marijuana, cocaine, and opium were then regarded as a social problem and any person who could use them was to face harsh punishment. This went on for more than five decades without anybody bringing in any opposition up to the time a rapid increase of recreational drug consumption among the youths called for government attention to set up a commission and this also occurred in many other nations.

At the beginning of the 1970s, at the time when there had been public hearings for three years and after comprehensive research being carried out on the issue, recommendations made by the government inquiry in to non-medical use of drugs indicated that there was need for removal of criminal punishment that brought in banning of one being in possession of cannabis. There was instant rejection of the proposal made by the Le Dain Commission by the Canadian government. Even in the presence of many calls that are underway for carrying out legislative reforms by the experts in the modern days, there has always been the overlooking and rejection of the recommendation to flex the penalties associated with being in possession of marijuana in several nations.

Harm Reduction

The harm reduction movement originated from to the coming up of AIDS in the course of the 1990s. This movement developed in the field of drug abuse. There were great fears among people that those people who abused drugs posed a great danger of bringing in infection of this disease to other people who were healthy and not users of the drugs (Inciardi and Harrison ix).

Harm reduction considers drug use as a fact that can not be avoided and does not take it as a moral issue. Harm reduction further involves bringing down the level of costs, both social and individual, instead of doing away with the use of drugs. In essence, harm reduction deals with specific issues in terms of behaviors in actual conditions of cost-benefit analysis and not in terms of beliefs.

The specific goal for Canada coming up with a national drug strategy in the year 1987 was to bring down the level of harm to people, their families as well as to the society in general that stems from people abusing drugs. The Canada Drug Strategy came up with a determined direction for the drug policy of Canada and this served to provide an indication of departing from the United States of American war on drugs.

Canada Dealing With Harm Reduction (Example of Methadone)

There was broad establishment of methadone treatment in the course of the second half of the 1960s. This was regarded as the most effective way of treating opiate addiction in Canada. In the early 1970s, there was an increase in the number of those programs that were concerned with methadone treatment that were approved. The number increased up to about 23. This increase in the number of programs in Canada matched with the increase in the United States of America in the course of the 1960s and during the initial years of the 1970s.

There was appreciation of the concerns about methadone having the potential to bring in addiction, and more particular to those people who had not acquired complete dependence on opiates. However, there were strong arguments presented by the Le Dain Commission from rapid increase of methadone treatment to be there in Canada and these arguments originated from the prospect of deviating prescribed methadone to illegal markets and the treatment of methadone potential effect that did not encourage actual treatment attempts that were oriented towards self-restraint. This commission did not see any other alternative other than having continual availing of methadone maintenance to highest number of those people addicted from opiate use possible. The commission went ahead and recommended that the methadone programs were supposed to be established in all the regions within the country.

There was the revision of the guidelines that had been put in place in regard to the methadone treatment in the year 1992. This revision did not involve departing from the restrictive regulations that had been set up twenty years earlier on. These altered guidelines gave stipulation of 100mg of methadone as a dose for each day and there was need for federal exemptions if amounts larger than this were required (Fischer 200).

The use of the methadone treatment has been following an oscillating pattern in which its acceptance has been followed by another era of resistance of its use. In the current times, there is drastic use of this treatment in Canada (Fischer 206).

Fischer (206) recommends that the further destiny of this treatment is a basic challenge to policy makers in the public health sector to get a policy balance that gives allowance to the intense accessibility and efficiency to the people who may derive benefit from it as well as making sure there is highest level of quality and safety of treatment.

Conclusion

As it has been looked at, Canada has adopted the harm reduction approach to deal with the issue of drugs. This is not the case in the US where as they rely on the prohibition approach. The specific goal for Canada coming up with the approach of harm reduction bring down the level of harm to people, their families as well as to the society in general that stems from people abusing drugs. The Canada Drug Strategy came up with a determined direction for the drug policy of Canada and this served to provide an indication of departing from the United States of American war on drugs.

Several issues have been raised by different people in several countries in regard to the issue of harm reduction. Among these people, there are those who have a belief that by taking people to jail, this is as well a way of reducing harm. However, there is need for careful clarification of the nature of harm reduction in order to avoid any confusion. There should be ensuring that harms reduced are those that are relevant and not harms that are deemed to be morally or politically correct. Harm reduction should concern itself in maintaining or raising the quality of human life.

Following the fact that the United States of America has been employing its approach of war on drugs, the level of crimes related to drugs is higher as compared to the level of such crimes in Canada. Therefore, this is an indication that if this policy adopted by Canada in regard to drugs can be keenly considered and the possible weaknesses be improved upon, it can be a helpful policy and can be even be adopted by other countries in dealing with drugs.

References

Erickson, Patricia (a). “A persistent paradox: Drug law and policy in Canada.” Canadian Journal of Criminology; 41, 2; Canadian Periodicals pg 275, 1999.

Erickson, Patricia (b). “The Harm Minimization Option for Cannabis: History and Prospects in Canadian Drug Policy.” In Harm Reduction: National and International Perspectives, edited by James Inciardi and Lana Harrison. Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications, 2000. Print.

Erickson, Patricia (c). Recent trends in Canadian drug policy: The decline and resurgence of prohibition. Daedalus; Summer 1992; 121; 31 Research Library. Pg 239. 1992.

Fischer, Benedikt. “Prescriptions, power, and politics: The turbulent history of methadone maintenance in Canada.” Journal of public health policy, Vol. 21, No. 2, pp. 187 – 210. 2000.

Grant, Judith. “Profile of substance abuse, gender, crime, and drug policy in the United States and Canada.” Journal of Offender Rehabilitation. 48(8), 654-668, 2009

Hathaway, and Erickson Patricia. “Drug reform principles and policy debates: harm reduction prospects for cannabis in Canada.” Journal of Drug Issues; 33: 467–496, 2003

Inciardi, James, and Harrison Lana. Introduction: Concept of Harm reduction. California: Sage Publications, 2000. Print.