Sociology

Anybody who has gone through the works of Shakespeare, or even a little bit of it, can never forget the immortal characters created by him. No wonder anybody who has heard the name of Shakespeare has heard the name of ‘Othello, the Moore of Venice’, the main character of his tragic play which was named also after the main character, Othello (Rose 293-311). Othello as a play has many colors painted on it, almost all the colors which one can see around a man’s life in very recent days too. However, the most prominent color that comes out of the play is the issue of skin color or racism, as we call it today. This play evokes the essence of racial tension all over the text and it is racism, primarily, that incorporates jealousy among the characters and drives the play towards its eventuality. This is not a racist play but it possesses all the ingredients of racial conflict.

The main character of the noted Shakespearean play ‘Othello, the Moore of Venice’ is Othello, a General of the Venetian army who was Moorish in origin. The play portrays love, jealousy, conspiracy, betrayal, and racism, none of which is irrelevant in today’s world. All these colors together make Othello so relevant that the character fits the mental frame of today’s generation easily. A character like Lago is very much familiar in today’s world, which can go down to any level of conspiracy and betrayal to take revenge, lie to everybody to make them a puppet of his hands to serve his purpose, and use people’s emotions to satisfy his jealousy. But just as he revokes hatred in one’s mind, Othello finds a place of sympathy in people’s minds in spite of killing his wife out of suspicion. People feel for Othello deeply and Othello forces us to think, think about his agonies (Boose 360-374). The agony has its base in racial tension and the ultimate demise is the result of racial bias among the chief negative characters.

Othello possesses a distinct underlying touch of racism revolving around the play. First of all, Othello, the main character, “has been described as a Moor, a term use to refer to the dark-skinned people by the European people in general” (Rose 293-311). The term was often confused with Arab people also. The term reflects hatred for dark or black skin irrespective of the country to which the owner of the skin belongs. That could refer to any part of the world which was different from Europe and to any people who did not have snow white skin. Othello himself has been made to comment on his dark skin in the play such as “Haply for I am black” (Shakespeare 837). He found no other comparison to make with Desdemona’s imaginary adultery to express the immense depth of her sin except “black as mine own face”. Desdemona’s beauty and her white skin have been described in the play to contrast Othello’s black skin such that it appeared darker, “that whiter skin of hers than snow” (Shakespeare 852).

Lago has also shown his racial mind frame while commenting about Othello and he did not have any regard for his master. Though it is very much expected from a man like him to lack any kind of respect for the man under whom he worked, his disgust appears greater because he had to take commands from a man who was inferior to him regarding his skin color. He complained to Brabantio regarding his daughter’s elopement with Othello saying “an old black ram / is tupping your white ewe” (Shakespeare 819). It is him who referred to Othello as a barbarian. This gives an idea that Othello might have been originated with the inspiration from “Tawny” Othello.

Moors inhabited the coast of Barbary. Lago was so much in rage with Othello that he blasted out saying “hell and night / Must bring this monstrous birth to the world’s light” (Shakespeare 825). Roderigo also called Othello’s thick lips as an insult to him which gives an idea that Othello might have physically resembled sub – Saharan African people (Boose 360-374). Other characters who make racial comments are Brabantio, Desdemona’s father, and though for once only Emilia, Desdemona’s maid. Brabantio, out of rage, called Othello “lascivious moor” (Shakespeare 819). He did not accept his daughter’s relations with Othello. Emilia never made any comments to Othello throughout as he was her ‘Lord’ but lashed out at him on learning that he had killed Desdemona by saying “the more angel she, And you the blacker devil” (Shakespeare 854). She had never accepted that a beautiful white lady like Desdemona had married a black man like Othello.

The play Othello depicts the war between good and evil. Everywhere it is common to depict bad as black and good as white. But here Shakespeare has depicted it differently. Othello, the man with black skin represents the good, and Lago, the man with white skin represents evil. Othello has been shown as a great brave general. Still, then it is unfortunate that he has been marked as inferior in the society of white men. He has shown as a brave man, but his level of intelligence has been looked down upon, and he is also shown as an extremely impulsive man as an evil character like Lago has been able to cheat him constantly and was able to use him just like a puppet. It is quite strange that a clever general who was so strong in political position and achieved so much success through his own efforts could be tricked so easily by his ensign (Rose 293-311). Othello also believed his ensign so much that he lost all belief in his love. He did not think twice before suspecting his love and killing his wife. He had lost his humane nature due to the shock from the notion that his wife had betrayed him, but he has been portrayed as such a savage man probably to paint nature as a man who is different from the white people. It is debatable that had Othello been white if he had believed his wife or not but it points out the lack of sense of a black man who doesn’t make further investigations before taking such a drastic step (Boose 360-374).

Though it possesses a lot of racial elements the aim of the play by Shakespeare was not to spread any racist message. But he had definitely tried to make a statement that the union of a black and a white person in that society of his time was not possible. Even if that union took place it would get ruined, either naturally or by people like Lago as the black and white union was considered as completely wrong by the then society.

References

Boose, Lynda. Othello s Handkerchief: “The Recognizance and Pledge of Love”. English Literary Renaissance, 5.3, (1974): 360-374.

Rose, Mark. Othello’s Occupation: Shakespeare and the Romance of Chivalry. English Literary Renaissance, 35.7, (2009): 293-311.

Shakespeare, William. The Complete Works of Shakespeare, Vol. 11. Auckland: Classic Books Company, 2001.

Parents all over the world face pressure to control their teenage sons and daughters. They are crying for help to save their wards from the peer pressures. As soon as the children leave their school and step into high school they find themselves in a kind of glamour world. They intend to perform some odd jobs just because either their friends are doing it or it becomes a matter of showing self standard. Among these are the vices of taking up smoking and alcohol. This mainly happens especially when it is a matter of showing off in front of peers. In order to keep up with this trend students become rebellious and their parents feel helpless. Thus, the cause lies in responding to peer pressure by creating an identity in front of the peer group and the effect is the inclination towards various vices during teens. (Hill, 89)

Man has been known to be a social being and isolation can lead to detrimental side effects. With this in mind, it can be argued that groups play an important role in the life of man because they offer mutual support. For instance, counseling groups have been known to be effective tools in offering mutual support and the rehabilitation of various social problems. This social problem in the context is peer pressure. This more often leads to alcohol addition. The result of peer pressure or social problem for this research consists of high school children who are addicted to alcohol. The youth have been known to be prone to various addictions for instance alcohol due to various reasons for instance peer pressure. This has led to various negative implications in their lives which are not limited to social evils like crime and dissolved moral ethics. On the other hand, effective group therapy is available to ensure that such youths who suffer alcohol addiction get help. Group therapy will not only help such youth get well but it will help such youth to refrain from relapse due to lack of mutual support.

But this is the way out. The issue in this context is alcoholism due to peer pressure. The society considers alcohol addition on high school students a great threat because the youth are the future leaders of tomorrow. Hence, alcohol addiction amongst the youth is a major concern for the society. On the other hand, the work force also gets affected if the youth get addicted to alcoholism. For instance, students addicted to alcohol are not expected to perform well in schools because alcohol reduces their output. Alcohol has become an integral part of their lives in such a way that it is affecting their performance in their studies. Consecutively, the problem of alcoholism also posses a major threat to their relationships with their families. The problem of alcoholism cannot be tied to a person or a certain race and this means that any youth can be addicted to the problem.

This is at the centre of the grievous problem, now taking on endemic proportions. The tragedy of Britain’s young drinking themselves to near death is giving rise to a generation of people who are going to do themselves even more harm, in later life. The damage to their bodies will be revealed in later life even though it may not be apparent now. The National Health Service is taking a huge toll with doctors reporting facilities strained to the limit with the traffic of grievously injured youngsters who felt compelled to drink their brains numb.

A lot of research has been done and findings documented on the subject of alcohol addiction among the youth. According to the research done by the National center on addiction and substance abuse at Columbia University found out that 3.8 million full time students regularly abuse drugs (Pauline Vu, 1). This shows that the problem of alcoholism is rampart and needs to be addressed urgently because it keeps on increasing from one day to another. For instance in March 2007, the US surgeon general issued a call to action to stem underage drinking with recommendations for the alcohol industry, the government, colleges, communities, schools and parents (Pauline Vu, 1). Subsequently, the need to counter the problem of alcohol abuse keeps on increasing owing to the rise of addiction problems which is a major threat to the success of high school education.

Drugs are another effect of peer pressure. The first step to drugs is a very common symptom of this issue. This may lead to addiction and ending up into rehabilitation center. It is impossible to idealize what peer pressure can make one perform. Different criminal activities or teen sexual acts are common outcome of this pressure. The cause of this peer pressure starts with the search of self-identity and it lies in the path of development of self-belief. Once a teen is out the of the emotional and physical shelter of the parents it becomes obvious that there waits a competitive world to face and environment of high school provides the first step of this outer world. Under such conditions, it becomes necessary to make a mark of ones existence in the real world, in front of the peer group and to oneself at the same time.

However, the best and easy way in this tough world, or in the peer group, is to prove oneself as a rebellious teen. Sure, being an exceptional student is always a better choice any day, anywhere. Nevertheless, to achieve this goal needs a hard and arduous schedule to follow and the result is not quick either. Thus, to achieve importance in the peer group it needs rebellious image. Creating a tough image is the best and the easiest way out. (Brown, 7) It is a common practice in Oxford for the new students to attend drinking parties in local pubs. It is an act of binge drinking that is supposed to be proof of toughness in front of peers and worthy of admission in the student community. (Hill, 104)

In order to create a tough and rebellious image the elements needed are always wrong. These are smoking and alcohol, drugs and teen sexual activities. Sure, most of the time the peer group is directly not putting the pressure on the student or handing out a well formulated manifesto with lists of vices to be followed but simple gestures with indication of the student being a ‘good’ but ‘boring’ fellow makes the student afraid of identity crisis or popularity loss. (Hill, 103) Both of these elements are fearful to a student and thus the student feels that in order to be recognized it is important to indulge in activities related smoking and alcohol, drugs and teen sexual acts. Thus, it is quite obvious that if the elements of peer pressure is taken into consideration as the ‘cause’ then the indulgence into these vices are the ‘effects’ of this ‘cause’.

Works Cited

Brown, B. “The cultural context of family-peer linkages in adolescence.” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 27.116 (2007): 1-15.

Hill, Martha S. “Timing of childhood events and early-adult household formation.” New Directions for Child and Adolescent Development 19.71 (2001): 87-109.

Pauline Vu, (2007). Colleges go on offense against binge drinking. Stateline. 2007. Stateline website.

Patterns of racial relations in American history have been punctuated with extreme racial segregation. Such relationship depicted in the manner by which the white community controls policymaking in successive administrations, the existence of deliberate formal and informal rules that discriminate against nonwhites in good-paying and prestigious occupations, the existence of extreme social differences between whites and non-whites, and others. However, there is a marked improvement of racial relations in the US since the end of the Civil War. This paper looks at the contributions gained through the Civil Rights movement through peaceful demonstrations, violence, and civil unrests, and the end of segregation as evidence of improvement of racial relations in the US since the Civil War end.

Race Relations in the Twentieth Century

Civil Rights Movement

The events of the 1960s portrayed enduring scenarios that overwhelmingly changed the course of United States history. This memorable period commenced with the election of enigmatic John Kennedy as President, and his subsequent assassination thereafter (“These United States” 135). This period was quite dramatic as it heralded political innovation which profoundly led to the expansion of the size, functions, and responsibilities of the federal government for the welfare of American citizens. As a result, the period saw the emergence of a relentless, national, and powerful civil rights movement that specifically assisted in curtailing the Jim Crow system constructed in the late 19^th century. It was during this period that the American senate passed a comprehensive Civil Rights bill (“These United States” 120).

Civil Rights pressed further to agitate for their voting rights. In 1964, many black and white civil rights workers from the north and south matched through the south to agitate for black voter registration and involvement. This received a violent reaction from Southern whites. Three of the freedom workers activists were mercilessly killed by the Ku Klux Klan group with the assistance of the police and others. Later in 1965, King convened a major demonstration in Selma, Alabama to agitate for the rights of blacks to be enlisted to vote. The local police brutally attacked the demonstrators that horrified many people across the American nation. The ensued outrage forced President Lyndon Johnson to push through the passage of the Civil rights Act of 1965, referred to as the Voting Rights Act. This Act gave blacks federal protection who wished to exercise their rights to participate in an election. However, this alone failed to fulfill the rising expectations of the black community as they shifted their focus from political to economic matters (“These United States” 136).

For quite some time in the 21^st century, the US black population faced a major demographic change; the issue of racial injustice no longer concentrated in Southern and rural, by the 1960s as it had been before. 69 % of African Americans had moved to the metropolis by 1966 and 45% outside the South (“These United States” 121). During this period, the economy for the majority of Americans was improving; however, conditions in poor urban communities where the black community was concentrated, conditions deteriorated. Black unemployment was twice higher than that of whites (“These United States” 136). The issue of race shifted from the South to the rest of American. There were issues of school segregation that were viciously fought across America. Further, African American leaders fought against job discrimination. They demanded employers to denounce negative measures of denying blacks employment. This culminated in the adoption of affirmative action in 1965 (“These United States” 122). The attention shifted to housing and employment discrimination in industrial cities in the North. Civil Rights activists launched these campaigns in Chicago. This met heavy resistance from white residents of Chicago. This campaign failed to achieve its intended purpose, thus led to many frustrations.

Violence and Civil Unrests

The problem of the urban poor had captured the attention of the whole nation even before the Chicago campaigns. This was a result of the outbreak of violence in black neighborhoods in major American towns. The first race riot happened in Los Angeles. During the same period, a white traffic police officer clobbered a protesting black bystander, sparking anger and violence all over the country. The orgy was immense, people attached white motorists, stores were looted, buildings burnt, and other violent elements. Reports of the violence alarmed everyone and created a sense of many whites embracing the cause of racial justice. A commission (Commission on Civil disorders) was created and it recommended government spending to eliminate poor living conditions among the poor.

Abolition of Segregation

This spirited campaign by the Civil Rights movement assisted in exposing social problems and racial grievances that were not easy to solve. Their sustained pressure helped in the abolition of legalized segregation and disfranchisement; however, it activated high expectations of social and economic equality that mere legislation could not satisfy and that remained to a large extent not resolved. What started as a peaceful interracial crusade of the 1960s soon transformed into a vicious militant, antagonistic, and divided separatist movement toward the end of the decade (“These United States” 136).

The killing of king Jr. brought about a lot of racial upheavals in US history (“These United States” 129). His death produced a lot of anger among the black American population. There were major riots all over American cities. About 43 people lost their dear lives, over 3000 sustained various injuries, and as many as over 27000 people were placed in custody. Two months after the king’s assassination, Robert Kennedy who identified his hopes with the underclass such as, the Hispanics, blacks, Native Americans, and the poor, was also killed in cold blood. He was also aligned with many American liberals who considered the underclass as people who required attention. The late Robert Kennedy had a fervent commitment to using government to aid the less fortunate (“These United States” 129).

In sum, Americans confronted two profound tasks in the wake of the Civil War; the attainment of healing and justice dispensation. These two situations had to occur, but they never developed in historical balance. The imagination of American political culture was overwhelmed by the sectional reunion compatible with black freedom and equality. A century later today, America still faces though on small scale, much of this dilemma. Overall, racial relations have undoubtedly improved in the US.

Works Cited

“These United States.” COR100 United States Issues, Ideas, and Institutions. The College of Staten Island by McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. Learning Solutions 2007.

The use of prescription drugs not recommended medically in schools and colleges is arising concern across the US. Several research studies have discovered that abuse of drug prescription is more prevalent than any other illegal drug consumption aside from the use of marijuana. An MTF survey in 2004 estimated 7.4 percent of students enrolled in college consumed Vicodin, a prescription pain reliever, for non-medical uses that period, an increase of over 6.9 percent using the drug in 2002 (Flowers, 2009). A similar rise was found in the use of other opioid drugs, sedatives, and stimulants.

Statistics indicate that as many as one in four students at some schools and colleges across the US have reported abusing stimulants. A 2001 survey by MTF of 10,904 students in 119 institutions of higher learning admitted use of a stimulant without a prescription at least on one occasion within the prior year (Flowers, 2009). The study also revealed: Ritalin, Dexedrine, and Adderall were abused twice as often by male students as female students; stimulant medication was abused by White students more often than African Americans or Asian students; it is more likely for sorority or fraternity members to abuse students than non-members; and a higher incidence of using marijuana, smoking cigarettes, use of cocaine and ecstasy, and drinking problems is common to abusers of drug abusers.

Other statistics also indicate worrying numbers of students abusing prescription drugs. In a study conducted at a large college in the Midwest of 9,161, an estimated 9 percent of students had consumed prescription pain-relieving medication on one occasion without a doctor’s recommendation (NIDA, 2007). Sixteen percent admitted they had ever abused medications. From this group, more than half admitted getting these drugs from friends, with about one in five getting prescription drugs from family members.

College students abuse prescriptions for many reasons. According to the National Institute on Drug Abuse’s (NIDA) department of Epidemiology, “students abuse medications to get high, to self-medicate to relieve pain episodes, to assist concentrate during exam time, and try to relieve stress”. Some evidence also suggests that the majority of students attending college believe falsely that using medically prescribed drugs is harmless, irrespective of whom the drug was prescribed for; or they are “brain steroids” that are safe and “help maximize performance with less risk. However, dosages prescribed by a medical doctor for one individual are not necessarily appropriate for another, and drug prescription abusers are potentially taking a serious risk. The risks of prescription drugs increase even more when such drugs are used with other illicit drugs or alcohol (NIDA, 2007).

The American society can today benefit immensely from improved use of pain killers hence relieved from chronic pains. This is attributed to the growing advancement in pharmacotherapy (ONDC, 2008). When these drugs are misused, however, they can affect brain activity and can result in dependence or addiction (NIDA, 2007). NIDA (2007) defines drug abuse as the use of illicit drugs. Illegal drugs are classified as marijuana, hallucinogen, stimulants, inhalants, phencyclidine, and narcotics. While most illegal drugs are procured from the street, some of the dangerous illegal drugs are found in familial medical cupboards. Notably, there is an increase in the abuse of prescription drugs in America today especially prescribed narcotics which are intended to relieve both chronic and acute pain (Novak, 2004). This in turn has significantly contributed to drug abuse and dependency (NSDUH, 2007). Medline Plus (2008) states that prescription or over-the-counter drugs may be abused if one takes more than the normal amount of the drug, or when one uses them for illegal purposes.

Prescription drugs include a broad category of psychotherapeutic medicines that includes pain relievers, sedatives, tranquilizers, and stimulants available by prescription (Medline Plus, 2008). Prescribed drugs have been developed, tested, and approved for legal medical uses, and are generally prescribed by medical doctors to treat a range of medical and psychological maladies. Illegal use of drugs may be declining among US teenagers, but prescription drug abuse has risen sharply, with prescription pain relievers leading the list of misused, misappropriated, or diverted substances (NIDA, 2007). Emergency medicine providers and other clinicians must reverse this dangerous trend.

A Review of Related Literature

Prevalence of Prescription Drug abuse among adolescents

Students in high school and colleges, particularly those who experience difficulties with a reasonable preparatory schedule to get work done, tend to cram for exams or to complete term papers at school. These students some In some cases, turn to use drugs that enable them to stay awake for longer periods hence helping them accomplish what needs to be covered in a relatively short time. Moreover, they may also derive they may use the same drug for recreational purposes. Several surveys indicate an alarming prevalence of abuse of prescribed medications among young people.

The studies carried out by McCabe and colleagues revealed prevalence of non-medical prescription stimulant use was 6.9 percent, compared to the past year’s prevalence of 4.1%. In their estimates:

“A total of 5.8% of males and 2.9% of females reported annual use of non-prescribed stimulants. Relatively, White students were likely to use stimulants compared to African American, Asian, or other groups of students, that is, annual use being; 4.1% compared to 1.6%, 1.3%, and 3.1% respectively” (Flowers, 2009).

According to NSDUH (2006), data estimates, “15.6% of young adults of ages 18 to 25, equivalent of about 5.1 million people across the US, abused prescription drugs annually during the period. Prescription drug misuse among young adults in California shows a slightly lower rate of just below 12% and an estimate of 456,000 Californians. In a comparison of the two percentages, and total numbers, prescription drug abuse among young adults is higher than prescription drug abuse among youth, by a factor of about two to one”.

The majority of parents were once worried about drugs such as Marijuana, heroin, and cocaine. These statistics show overwhelming numbers of students turning to prescription drugs, which are accessed with ease through peer groups (classmates) who get them from parents’ medical prescriptions. According to NSDUH (2006), a number of these students have developed ways on how to get these prescribed drugs by fibbing to physicians and then act as “candy men” who deliver medication to classmates. An increasing number of teenagers indulge in such vices while in peer parties, where bowls of prescription drugs are distributed around. Each kid picks a few pills from the “trail mix” (SAMHSA, 2006).

For adults, often indulge in a cycle of prescription drug abuse due to pain or are struggling with anxiety, lack of sleep, or difficulty in focusing or staying alert. In most cases, based on advertisements for the drugs in question, that specific pharmaceuticals will assist, and they receive the medications either through their doctor or on their own. Then they end up requiring more and more or continue to want to use the drug after their symptoms have been cured. In the teen’s dimension, however, it’s sometimes just the question of getting high, for those who are hooked; it’s about staying high, no matter the consequences. Other teens feel nothing wrong with taking a Ritalin when they need to stay up late studying or with taking a Valium when they have anxiety before an exam. This type of prescription drug abuse is sometimes referred to as self-medication.

Following these statistics, therefore, adolescent, college-aged young adults; medicate themselves with prescription drugs without help from a medical physician. These youth illegally receive or offer out non-prescribed medications and take them to try to modulate mood, self treat depression or anxiety, combat insomnia, or stay awake later at night. This practice is illegal but not often prosecuted (Burtler, 2007). Pain killers are the most commonly abused prescription drugs by young adults. Stimulants are also more common among college students (SAMHSA, 2006). The problem is more pronounced in young girls compared to boys. This problem of prescription drug abuse in adolescents has had everyone worried. The media has been awash with direct consumer ads, proffering a pill for every sickness. The fact is that most of the time, adolescents who use these pills need can easily get them in their parent’s prescribed medication. Many parents are increasingly taking home bottles of antidepressants, painkillers, stimulants, and sedatives. Doctors are also guilty of being quick to prescribe one of these drugs to someone as a first resort.

Clark Wesley, the director for substance abuse therapy at Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration, asserts that “young adults, even teens…do not seem to realize that this misuse can lead to serious problems and addiction” (SAMHSA, 2006). Some kids end up dying because of a lack of knowledge that even FDA-recommended prescription drugs can lead to death when misused or administered in combination with each other or with alcohol (NIDA, 2007).

Parents have a responsibility to let their kids the dangers and availability of prescription drugs. They should let their children know that these prescription drugs are probably going to be available to them and that they will face considerable pressure to test these drugs. Teens should be informed that prescription and over-the-counter (OTC) drugs can be very dangerous when misused (ONDDCP, 2008). Pre-cooked or OxyContin narcotics, for instance, can slow the heart to dangerously low rates if taken in overdose or combination with alcohol or benzodiazepines. Parents should also point out that stimulants such as Ritalin have been known for causing death when abused, particularly when they are crushed and injected, or snorted. If parents happen to have any of these medications in the house, they should monitor them carefully and be sure to dispose of unused pills in a place where their children won’t find them (Paulozzi, 2006).

Dependency on Prescription Drug among Adolescents

Many parents and teachers are surprised to hear how easily students get drugs. Through surveys, they come to learn that drugs are prevalent everywhere. Special attention is provided to the school and college-going students because most of them are likely to experiment with drugs. The majority of them who experiment get hooked up or addicted or dependent during their lifetime. In the US, quite a several people have undergone treatment for substance dependence.

It is not easy to estimate dependence among students. Students especially may conceal their drug usage and may not be willing to reveal it to anyone if think they have a dependency problem. According to NIDA (2007), of those 1.7 million people who sought assistance from public programs in 2003, about 8.5% were students in school; and 6.5% attended college. In other surveys by the National Survey on Drug Use and Health (NSDUH) on persons aged 12 and above in 2002, an estimated 29.6 million Americans depended on pain relievers not prescribed by medical doctors. The number had risen to 32.7 million by 2005 (Maxwell, 2006). NSDUH (2002) revealed that “Un-prescribed use of prescription pain relievers was next only the use of marijuana use compared to past year use: un-prescribed pain reliever users were 11.3 million as compared to 25.5 million marijuana consumers in the past year”. In the period 1991 and 1994, the use of opioids rose from 44,518 to 99,317, an increase of 123% increase in use (NIDA, 2007).

According to NSDUH (2007),” it was determined that 57.7% of individuals who first used pain relievers un-prescribed in the past year used hydrocodone products and 21.7% used oxycodone products in a combination of data from 2002 to 2005”

In another survey by SAMHSA (2007), shows the rate of prescription drug abuse as more prevalent among youths aged 12 to 17 who are school going. About 2,500 abused prescribed pain relievers every day (SAMHSA, 2007). Additionally, prescription drugs tended to be preferred drugs among 12 and 13-year-olds. The office of the National Drug Control Policy in 2008, reported that many teenagers were abusing prescription drugs more than illegal drugs apart from marijuana. Additionally, more than 2.1 adolescents abused prescription drugs (ONDCP, 2008). Adolescents are leaving street drugs and using prescription drugs to get high. This trend of users of prescription drugs has equaled with new users of marijuana (Kuehn, 2007). The mean age of the first non-prescribed use of sedatives and stimulants is 13 years. 60 % of adolescents who have abused prescription pain relievers first experienced them before age 15; additionally, about 18% used them at least weekly (SAMHSA, 2007).

These statistics indicate consistently hundreds and thousands of students are dependent on drugs. One does not need to be an impressionable teenager, or an addict or alcoholic to become dependent on prescription drugs. This problem can affect all; even those people who have never used street drugs, cigarettes, or alcohol are just as susceptible to prescription drug abuse as those who have. The abuse of prescription drugs usually starts with the abuser taking their problem as normal since a physician recommended the prescription. Overall, this is a hazardous assumption.

A tragic example of prescription drug abuse is the recovering alcoholic who fractures a bone or has surgery and is prescribed a potent narcotic pain reliever such as Vicodin or Demerol. Though the risks of addiction and abuse of these medications are well known, the prescribing doctor fails to determine whether the patient has a problem with drug abuse. The patient trustingly takes the drug intending to use it in the shortest period but gets hooked into the downward spiral of addiction and dependence. Physicians are all too willing to continue to give prescriptions for patients who insist they require the drugs for their suffering. Vicodin abuse, for instance, is a precise example of unexpected side effects linked with 48 cases of complete and sudden hearing loss (Joranson, 2006).

Drugs used by physicians to treat diseases have been controlled by law for many years. However, it is reported that there is excessive consumption of stimulants like amphetamines and Ritalin, together with tranquilizers such as Valium and Librium, and sedative-hypnotics especially Dalmane and Noludar. Intervention policies must be enhanced to reduce access to these drugs, particularly by students to reduce rates of dependency. Many patients have been provided drugs by well-meaning doctors only to discover that they have an addiction to their treatment. In some countries, drugs are not regulated as they are in America. Prescription drugs can be got in those countries merely by requesting pharmacists for them (CDC, 2007).

Causes of Prescription drugs abuse

Drugs prescribed by medical doctors are often regarded as safer. For this reason, four out of ten adolescents this to be factual, even when they are not prescribed by the physician (PAT, 2006). Furthermore, about one-third believe there is no fault with using prescription drugs without a prescription once in a while. The basic assumption is that people aged 12 and 17 find these drugs readily available and less dangerous than street drugs. It is estimated that 70% of individuals who abuse prescription pain relievers admit getting them from friends or relatives (NSDUH, 2007). Several studies have been carried out to reveal the causes of prescription drug abuse in schools and colleges.

In a survey by Partnership Attitude Tracking Survey (PATS) on 7,218 adolescents in 2005, self-administered measures identified several reasons for use of prescription pain relievers: 62% admitted getting these drugs easily from parents; 52% got them due to availability everywhere; 51% got them because they are not illegal; 50% admitted obtaining them as they easy to get through other people’s prescriptions; 43% for these drugs being cheap; 35% felt safer to use them than illicit drugs; 33% due to less shame attached to using them; 32% due to ease of purchase over the internet; 32% due to fewer side effects than street drugs; and 21% as a result of parent’s don’t care attitude if they get caught (PAT, 2006).

In addition, Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS) also revealed that: 40% of adolescents in the US are in agreement that prescription drugs are much safer to use than illicit drugs, even when a physician has not prescribed them; 31% of teenagers find absolutely nothing wrong with using prescription drugs in some occasions; 29% of teens feel that prescription pain relievers are not addictive; three out of five adolescents admitted prescription pain killers are easy to obtain from medical cabinets of their parents; half admitted how easy it is to get these drugs through other people’s prescriptions; 52% of teens admitted how easy prescription pain killers are available everywhere. 56% of adolescents agree that it is easier to obtain prescription drugs than illegal drugs; only 36% of parents talk to their children about prescription drug abuse, while 70% of these same parents actively warn their children on the dangers of marijuana (PATS, 2006). These statistics reveal the real causes of the abuse of prescribed medications among students. These causes include: easy access to their parent’s medical prescriptions; availability of these drugs are not restrictive; prescription drugs are cheap and affordable; there is less stigma or shame in using them; non-concern by parents; internet explosion where students easy subscribe purchase these drugs through the internet; and other causes.

Counseling and Treatment of Prescription Drug Abuse in Schools and Colleges

Counseling is an important and necessary strategy of intervention by schools and colleges in curbing the problem of prescription drug abuse by students. It takes the concerted involvement of the school administration, parents and friends to get the affected students running. The purpose of this intervention is to get the drug dependent to recognize an abuse problem and accept to seek assistance. There is a wide range of intervention strategies. For instance, a teacher who has figured out that a particular student is always spending sleepless nights cramming for tests may speak to the student privately, praising the abilities of the student to perform well in class but expressing concern that the habit is undermining his grades. The teacher and the student may agree to find a counselor to assist the student fight off the addiction problem.

According to Joranson (2006), the Federation of State Medical Boards has introduced a model policy to regulate the use of controlled substances, some advocate for a public health approach to avoid opioid abuse and diversion. Joranson postulates that improved data collection resulting in more complete databases, information about the motivations for drug use, and more knowledge about the sources of abused prescription drugs are all necessary to reducing abuse and diversion, especially those that end up in the hands of the youth (Joranson, 2006). In 2004, nearly 13,000 incidents of prescription controlled drugs were diverted due to theft (Novak et al., 2004). There also exist non-medical sources of controlled substance diversion. These statistics are important as they send a vital message to providers of health care, and school administrators as well as anyone being prescribed scheduled medications. Getting a better understanding of the etiology of prescription drug abuse will inform fully future programs, particularly in schools aimed at curbing problems of prescription drug abuse.

Diversion is the most common method of getting medications for unintended purposes. Diversion involves some illicit activities such as selling, trading, or sharing drugs that have been prescribed legally by a physician. Adolescents, who endeavor to procure greater quantities than would ordinarily be prescribed by the doctor, may turn to doctor-shopping, falsely claiming a lost prescription, trying to escalate dosing from the provider, or forgery (NIDA, 2007). Given these, school administrations should design counseling programs aimed at sensitizing students on the dangers of using drugs that have not been recommended by the doctor.

Despite the rise in prescriptions for opioids, only about 14% of those used by adolescents are prescribed for them. Most teens who abuse prescription medications get them from peers or family members with legitimate prescriptions. About one-third of those who use prescription opioids rely on Internet No-Prescription Web sites (NPWs) or drug dealers. In a 2005 Web-based survey of 1,086 high school students, 49% had been prescribed a sleeping aid, sedative, stimulant, or pain medication at least once (NIDA, 2007). Among these students, 24% reported having lent their prescriptions or given them to other students. Having their medications stolen or being forced to give them away was often cited as significant problems (NIDA, 2007). From these statistics, it is inherent upon school and college administrators to liaise with government and other agencies in monitoring drug diversion; counsel the students on responsive use of the internet as well as the dangers.

Doctors can decrease effectively prescription drug abuse and diversion by screening the history of drug abuse before commencing treatment. Numerous measures for the assessment of chronic pain have been developed (Butler et al., 2007). The Prescription Drug Use Questionnaire (PDUQ) was designed to be applied in an interview format and has 42 items. This questionnaire has five criteria that make up an abuse checklist; patients who meet three of the five criteria are considered to be opiate abusers (Chabal et al., 1997). According to Maxwell (2006), “Other screening measures include the Current Opioid Misuse Measure (COMM); the Screening Instrument for Substance Abuse Potential (SISAP); the Pain Assessment and Documentation Tool (PADT); and the Pain Medical Questionnaire (PMQ)”.

Prevention of prescription drug abuse can also be done through elaborate media campaigns. The Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) started a media campaign in 2008 aimed at parents regarding prescription drug abuse (ONDCP, 2008). For instance, a drug dealer in one of the television advertisements is portrayed as being out of work and not the one selling kid drugs. This seems to suggest that teens get these drugs from their medical cabinets, friends, and doctors. The advertisement was meant to enlighten parents of the dangers posed by prescription drugs (ONDCP, 2008). Due to the increase in abuse rates in prescription drug abuse, institutions have started national campaigns that involve students to raise awareness about the dangers of illicit drugs.

Illicit drug use may be declining among US teenagers, but prescription drug abuse has risen sharply, with prescription pain relievers leading the list of misused, misappropriated, or diverted substances. Emergency medicine providers and other clinicians must reverse this dangerous trend. Prescription drugs abuse has been a national problem for decades, but recently the number of young people using prescription drugs for non-medical purposes has been increasing at an alarming rate. For the period 1999 and 2006, the US Department of Health and Human Services reports, the number of surveyed 12 to 17-year-olds who reported non-medical use of a psychotherapeutic medication within the previous year rose by more than 60% (ONDCP, 2008).

NSDUH survey of 2005 revealed that about 1.4 million Emergency Department (ED) admissions were prescription drug abuse cases; in 37% of cases, involved abuse of prescription drugs. Prescription drug overdose is common among 12- to 17-year-olds, with more than 13,000 Emergency Department visits per year attributed to overmedication (NSDUH, 2007). It is imperative for physicians, especially emergency medicine providers (EMPs), to appreciate the magnitude of prescription drug abuse among adolescents so that overdoses or chronic abuse can be identified appropriately, and treatment and prevention strategies can be implemented (PATS, 2006).

Awareness of the current trends and demographics of prescription drug abuse will enable Emergency Medicine Providers to reevaluate their prescribing practices. The challenge is to maximize safe and effective treatment while minimizing the diversion of prescription drugs and the development of substance abuse disorders (PAT, 2006.)

Private training and technical assistance can also enhance the fight against prescription drug abuse in schools and colleges. For instance, ONDCP and Community Anti-Drug Coalitions of America (CADCA) have been contracted by Non-Governmental Organizations to offer training and technical aid through National Coalition Institute (NCI) (ONDCP, 2008) to schools, colleges, and other national institutions. CADCA and ONDCP are working hand in hand with community members to form a network of leaders who will tackle the spread of prescription drug abuse within their communities (ONDCP, 2008).

Random drug testing and counseling in schools is an important program that seems to be effective. A randomized control study done in Oregon showed that, after two full school years, schools that had random drug and alcohol testing in practice reported significantly less drug use compared to learners at the control schools without random drug testing (Goldberg et al., 2007). On an occasion a student tested positive for drug use, their parents were informed and mandatory counseling followed (Goldberg et al., 2007).

Random drug testing in schools promotes the prevention of youth from initiating drug use for intervention before dependency commences, and intensifies students with dependency issues to refer them to appropriate treatment facilities (ONDCP, 2008).

School and college administrations together with parents should direct prescription drug abusers to the best available treatments; and enhance their proximity to recovery. The “Access to Recovery” (ATR) initiative is intended to narrow the treatment gap to ensure health providers have the necessary knowledge and tools mandatory to conduct proper treatment. Nationally, policies on prescription drugs can also be directed to help in the prevention of prescription drug abuse. The White House Office of National Drug Control policy released new guidelines for the disposal of unused, not required, or expired drugs by the White House Office of National Drug Control Policy (ONDCP) in 2007. The Environmental Protection Agency, apart from ensuring that prevention of diversion of prescriptions is achieved; is also mandated to apply guidelines to protect waterways. In addition, it ensures that pharmaceuticals are kept safe from potential abusers (ONDCP, 2008).

Conclusion

In sum, the abuse of prescription drugs in the United States is on the rise. Many of these drugs are prescribed narcotics meant to relieve chronic and acute pain. Moreover, the abuse of prescription drugs leads to abuse and dependency. According to Medline Plus (2008) “prescription or over-the-counter drugs may be abused if one takes more than the normal amount of the drug, or when one uses them for illegal purposes”. Again, drugs used by physicians to treat diseases have been controlled by law for many years. However, it is reported that there is excessive consumption of stimulants like amphetamines and Ritalin, together with tranquilizers such as Valium and Librium, and sedative-hypnotics especially Dalmane and Noludar. This calls for improved data collection resulting in more complete databases, information about the motivations for drug use in schools and colleges, and more knowledge about the sources of abused prescriptions drugs. This is particularly necessary to reduce prescription abuse and diversion. This paper has reviewed the literature on; the prevalence of prescription drug abuse among adolescents where, NSDUH data estimates of 2006, were that 15.6% of young adults of ages 18 to 25, equivalent of about 5.1 million people across the US, abused prescription drugs annually during the period; dependency on prescription drug among adolescents; causes of prescription drugs abuse; and prevention of prescription drug abuse.

Reference

Butler, S. (2007). Development and Validation of the Current Opioid Misuse Measure. Pain, 130, 144-156.

Centers for Disease Control. (2007). Unintentional Poisoning Deaths, United States, 1999-2004. Morbity and Mortality Weekly Report. Web. 

Chabal. Erjavec. (1997). Prescription Opiate Abuse in Chronic Pain Patients. Clin J Pain, JUN, 13 (2),150-155.

Flowers, B. (2009). College Crime. New York: McFarland.

Goldberg et al., (2007). Outcome of A Prospective Trial of a student athlete Drug Testing. J Adolesc Healt,. Nov; 41 (5), 421-429.

Joranson, D., & Gilson, A. (2006). Wanted: A Public Health Approach to Prescription Drug Abuse Diversion. Pharmacoepi and Drug Safet, 15, 632-634.

Kuehn, B. (2007). Opioid Prescriptions Soar: Increase in Legitimate use as Well as Abuse, JAMA. 297(3), 249-251.

Maxwell, J. 2006. Trends in the Abuse of Prescription Drugs. The Gulf Coast addiction technology Transfer Center. The University of Texas at Austin. Web.

Medline Plus. (2008). Medical Encyclopedia: Drug abuse. Web.

National Institute of Drug Abuse. (2007). Prescription Medications. Drugs Pages. Web.

National Institute on Drug Use and Health. (2007). Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services. Web.

Novak, S., & Nemeth, K. 2004. Trends in Medical Use And Abuse of Sustained Release opioid Analgesics. Pain Me,. 5(1), 59-65.

Office of National Drug Control Policy. (2008). $5.8 million in New Grants Available for School Based Drug Prevention. Web.

Partnership Attitude Tracking Study (PATS). (2007). Teens in Grade 7 through 12, 2005. Partnership for Adrug free America. Web.

Paulozzi, L., & Budnitz, D. (2006). Increasing Deaths from Opioid Analgesics in the US. Pharmacoepi Drug Safety, 15, 618-627.

Substance Abuse and Mental Health Services Administration. (2006). Emergency Department Visits Involving Nonmedical Use of Selected Pharmaceuticals, The New DAWN Report, Issue 3.

Introduction

Upsurge of illegal immigrant in the United States has led to increased pressure on federal government to take decisive measure to address the issue. Members of public and lawmakers who are calling for strict border control and deportation of illegal immigrant have not critically analyzed the role played by undocumented immigrants to the U.S. economy. Who benefits from illegal immigrants workforce? Which sectors of the economy grow or fail to grow as a result of illegal workers? How the hiring of illegal immigrants by businesses affects employment and recruitment of the U.S. citizen workforce? This paper seeks to show that other major factors besides immigrants are to blame for the upsurge of illegal immigrants in the United States.

Who Is an Illegal Immigrant?

Any person living in any country illegally is referred to as an illegal immigrant. The term “illegal immigrant” encompasses a wide spectrum. Some enter the United States legally but end up being illegal resident as a result of overstaying the period stipulated in their visas. Others enters the country legally and violates the terms and conditions of their visas, green cards or wok permits. The others group of illegal immigrant comprises those who enter the U.S. illegally. This category comprises the vast majority of illegal immigrants (U.S. Immigration Support).

Many people confine the debate over illegal immigrant to the migrant alone. This leaves out complex illegal network and trafficking channels operated by large underground organizations that bring immigrants to the United States. Most of these immigrants do not enter the country voluntarily nor do they initiate the entry process. Take for example young girls and women who are smuggled into the country in the lucrative sex slave trade. Girls from poor families in Asia, Africa, and Caribbean are approached and offered jobs in the United States. Members of organized trafficking cartels deceive them that they will get decent jobs that offer strong financial opportunity in the U.S. To these girls and women, such a proposal is very attractive due to the possibility of helping their family get out of poverty. It’s a rude awakening once they arrive in the country only to discover they were brought in for prostitution purposes. As such, making a clear judgment about the criminality or humanitarian nature of the illegal immigrant becomes hard due to the extreme range of illegal immigration.

Regardless of how immigrants get to U.S. and make it their home country, the main objective is to search a better life (Tapinos). The process involves a lot of risk and sacrifices as some leave behind families and valued processions. There are those who come to U.S. to escape political oppressions in their countries. United States technological advancement and vast resources attract people from all over the world. Many believe that they will be able to offer their children a better life when they work here in the United States.

Employer Choice and Privileges

The “underground” economy forms the main job base for most illegal immigrants. This does not mean that illegal workers have led to the creation of underground economy, although this sector of economy increases opportunities accessible to illegal immigrants. A number of factors like heavy operation taxes, government regulations and social attitudes have been cited as the reason behind the continued existence of underground economy. The need for cheap and unregulated labor forces this economy to depend on desperate illegal immigrants.

According to George Tapinos, political professor at Washington State University, “Being illegal is seldom the migrant’s deliberate choice. When the opportunity to get authorization occurs, most of those meeting the criteria are only too eager to file an application”(Tapinos). Studies have shown that employers benefits most from a workforce consisting of illegal immigrants. Most employers have been found to take advantage of illegal workers who are eager to work. Most of these workers will accept poor pay, way below the federal set minimum wage. The employer will also benefit from contributing little or no payment for insurance, social security and other required payments. The bargaining power of illegal immigrant is low and hence they often end up working for long hours, under terrible working conditions. In most cases, employers will openly discriminated and humiliate the illegal worker. So by the end of the day, it’s the employer who ends up benefiting most from illegal workers.

Effects on Pay Levels for U.S. Legal Workforce

According to a past study by Douglas Massey, the legality status of a worker does not necessary affect his/her pay, but the status has an indirect influence (Douglas 153). Most illegal immigrants tend to limit their job search to general labor sector. This brings the pay level in the underground work force down. Contrary to popular believes that illegal workers make pay level in the real economy to decline, study have shown that only the pay levels in the underground sector that are affected.

Access to Social Services

The issue of illegal immigration cannot be confined to job access without looking at other sectors of the U.S. economy. Regardless a person’s migrant status, everyone have access to capital services and goods which includes; public school, road, welfare services etc. Illegal Immigrants also spends money on goods and services in both the public and private sectors. As such, they are not a drain to economy.

Boarder Control Cost

There are those who claim that the illegal immigrants put a lot of economic pressure through expenditures to control the border. While it’s true that U.S. have put a lot of resources in border control programs, it’s important to put remember that every country spend money to protect its border. Illegal immigration will only be a burden to the U.S. economy only if the cost of border control exceeds the fiscal expenditures already set aside for boarder protection.

The Way Forward

How can the contribution of illegal immigrants be harnessed to contribute to the growth of the real economy. In accelerating the pace of growth of U.S. economy, immigrants provide the power that runs the economy (Nicholson and Orrenius 14). Both illegal and legal migration contributed over 50% increase in labor force in the U.S. economy in the last decade. Studies have shown that migrant workers will continue to play a significant role in the growth of the economy as the baby boomer workforce retires in the near future. Data from Social Security Administration shows that over 80 million baby boomers will leave the “U.S. workforce over the next two decades”(Gallagher).

Business Lifecycle

In terms of business lifecycles, immigration is an integral part to the growth. When there is an increase in demand in labor force, immigrants come to the U.S. in greater number and when that demand is low, most immigrant are willing to move to other area where demand for labor is high. This movement helps to accelerate economic growth while resolving jobs shortages in areas experiencing declined growth. There is need for lawmakers to join force with business sectors to analyze and determine how such accelerated growth benefits citizens in terms of jobs. Such honest assessment backed up by tangible data will help law makers come up with legislations that are beneficial to the business sectors, citizens and hardworking immigrants who are contributed economic growth.

Solving the Issue of Underground Economy

The underground economy has an annual output of $970 billion, this represent 9% of the U.S. real economy. Over 8.5 million of construction workers, nannies, landscapers etc working in this economy are paid “off the book”. Workers and employers don’t pay taxes to the government. As we noted earlier, illegal immigrants are not the reason why underground economy has continued to grow, although illegal worker play a significant role in their growth. Lawmakers have a greater role to play in addressing the root cause of the sprawling underground industry. If the issue of “underground” economy is solved, the Internal Revenue authority will benefit most in that it will collect taxes estimated at $300 billion dollars annually. The government will also be in position to document all undocumented workers in these industries making it easier to control immigrants. These and a host of other measures will lead to accelerated growth of the real economy (McTague)

Documenting all illegal workers, collecting income taxes from them, and affording them benefits like all workers in the U.S., illegal immigrants will have a better bargaining power. Their purchasing power of both private and capital goods and services will increase. This will result into injection of money to the economy as consumer spending is what drives the economy. Immigrants will also contribute revenues needed in provision of capital goods and services such as roads and schools. All these will lead to improved standards of living for both migrants and U.S. citizens.

Conclusion

As lawmakers continue to debate about immigration reform, it’s important to take an honest look at the effect of illegal workers to the U.S. economy. Regardless of the motivations and status of migrants living in the U.S., most immigrants are hard-working and have continued to make huge contribution to the growth of the economy. Most illegal workers are ready to legalize their status and play by the rules in the workforce. There is a need for lawmakers to solve the problem of underground economy. This way, the IRS can collect revenues from this sector of economy and collect taxes from undocumented migrants. These will lead to economic growth and improved standards of living for both citizens and immigrants.

Works Cited

Douglas, Massey. ““Do undocumented migrants earn lower wages than legal immigrants?” International Migration. 2008: 123-176.

Gallagher, John. “Retirement of baby boomers may reverberate in workplace.” 2005. The Seattle Times. Web.

McTague, Jim. “The Underground Economy.” 2008. Wall Street Journal. Web.

Nicholson, Michael and Mark Orrenius. “Immigrants in the U.S. economy: a host-country perspective.” Journal of Business Strategies (2009): 7-19.

Tapinos, Georges. Illegal immigrants and the labour market. 2010. Web.

U.S. Immigration Support. Illegal Immigration. 2009. Web.

Introduction

The internal relationships between Canadians are hard to be estimated as normal. In this respect, the people of Canada are different in their ethnic belonging. The situation proves that it is really inconvenient today to consider some people, as genuine Canadians and the rest, as aliens. The process of alienation in Canada stands on the flows of racism and cultural conflicts. Thus, an observer needs to take a look at the reasons and effects of the immigration and emergence of racism.

The role of a citizen living in a country governed by the rule of law is to follow the prescriptions of this very law. However, in social relationships, people deny the prospects of living in harmony, despite multinational and multicultural diversity. The waves of oppression are impacting newcomers and immigrants with other than European identity. It is a danger for modern Canada. Moreover, the wrong policies of the Canadian government along with local governments need plenty of amendments in order to decrease the situation.

Racism is harmful to young countries, as Canada and the United States. It is a “bomb” that can blow up at any time. No one knows when the hardest times will come. However, it is clear that the start was initiated some few decades ago. Hence, there are several research questions that need to be discussed carefully. The first one concerns reasons for the emergence of racism through the immigration policy provided in the country. The second one relates to gender peculiarities that are fixed in the racial coloring of Canada. It is vital also to work out the situation as of the current policy provided in the state government of the country. Racism in Canada is a result of enormous flows of immigration in the country. However, this global problem pays special attention in multinational countries where crossroads of cultural, religious and ethnic features collide.

Evaluation

Canada is many-faceted in its social, economical, cultural and political shape. It comprises a huge number of nationalities that are constantly growing during the last 70 years. It is a way of reformation that was adopted once by the Canadian government. Such a process speeds up the density of such main cities as Toronto, Vancouver and Montreal. In fact, the territory of Canada is known to be separated between two major lingual groups, namely: Anglophone and Francophone residents. In the example of Toronto and Vancouver, it is seen that immigration policy presupposes an option for migration from different parts of the world. However, in the case of Quebec province, only representatives from French-speaking countries are allowed to immigrate (Petrovic 43). In such a variety of political courses of Canada, the population grows without distinct marks of purity within Canadian people. In other words, it is really hard to evaluate and point out a group of people in the country that has all attributes of being real Canadians. Such criticism is proved in terms of recent researches and observations in Canada in terms of the racial problem in it.

According to one of the previous studies, Canada has even been awarded the Nansen prize for its hostility to immigrants and refugees (Rees 1). In this respect, it is about time to realize that immigration was needful for such a great and huge territorially country as Canada. Furthermore, the research shows that ordinary citizens living here since the French and Indian War were always for racial preferences (Rees 1). It indicates features for having an area that should be populated in order to bring prosperity to the country. However, in post-war time, namely in the 1960s, the internal burst of negative emotions toward immigration began growing. It is no surprise that intensive immigration to Canada provoked racial conflicts. On the other hand, the intentional need of the government to employ people was concerned with making immigration available for everyone in the rest of the world.

Thus, the question of race is striking at the moment. Since the first real conflicts were fixed in the history of Canada, people are struggling for their human rights. It is a paradox when looking at what is happening in Canada. In fact, it reminds of pre-historic fights of human beings for territories. How could one of the most civilized countries let this problem in? How far do the outcomes go? In terms of such terrible formulation of dudgeon, one should be aware of different readings indicating the real state of affairs in the country.

The territorial division of different immigration patterns is varied. An observer should be in the course of historical and social features characterizing the area. “The fact that different cities have different migration patterns suggests that local social and economic environments can have an impact on these movements” (Peters 60). These trends in migration patterns evaluate Canada, as having different reasons for the emergence of immigration struggle in a highly diversified character. The idea is that Native Canadians are considered to be Indians, as it is in the United States. Urban settlement and self-government went around the process of state formation. Since the time of English and French colonization, Aboriginal people have been oppressed distinctly. It is seen through different researches that show points on Aboriginal segregation in Canada (Peters 60).

The role of identity in Canada is of great significance. This is why one may imagine someone’s superiority in terms of a descending scale starting from the European belonging on the top. Such inequality concerned with physical attributes seems to be supported in the politics of race. Hence, one example says about racialized policy of the Canadian government in the post-war baby booming period. It happened in the case of Caribbean nurses. The required qualifications for them were quite higher in comparison to white nurses (Calliste 85). This outrageous feature deepened the struggle on the basis of race. Thus, gender discrimination took place in Canada and is continuing until now. The author of the article is stimulated to admit that since that time such “differential immigration policy reinforced black nurses’ subordination within a racialized and gendered nursing labor force” (Calliste 85). The next point on the whole discussion should then evaluate current reasons for racism.

At this stage, Canada encounters two main social problems counteracting the vortex of human conflicts. These are the language and the migration ones. It is well-known that in Canada more than 60% of people are speaking English and over 20% are French-speaking residents (Petrovic 23). Two languages are declared as national. However, the contradictions between major and minor parts of the society usually go around an assumption of the hegemony of English culture. Being the country of different settlements, Canada can fully be called an analog of the US “melting pot”. It also designates inside the country several huge Diasporas and some smaller ones (mainly refugees and representatives from small countries). Some among the biggest Diasporas are Ukrainian, Chinese and, perhaps, Pakistani. Diasporic identities provide the “national culture” of Canada. It also constitutes that it is different nationalities that made Canada peculiar among other countries. Over the course of time, citizens of Canada seem to have mixed their traditional ways of living in the whole concept of what it is like to be a Canadian (Samuel 97). These parameters are helpful to realize the background of the Canadian nation. It is about time to lay more emphasis on the racial issues apparent in Canada.

Conservative trends in the politics of Canada are predominant in the country. Hence, Progressive Conservatives tend to make more restrictions in the case with religious and gender aspects, as being quite inappropriate for Canadian development (Farney 1). On the other hand, language policies in Canada provide outrage within the population, because of the foreign-born people sharing neither English nor French languages. This problem provokes the majority of the population to get involved in intolerance and infighting. Social grounds of humane seem to have been trite at the moment. The current growth of hatred and aggression within the population of Canada can be proved through qualitative studies about the problem. In accordance with different censuses, it is indicated that “nearly 20% of the Canadian population was reported to be foreign-born” (Recento and Cervatiuc 21). This fact provoked the depolarization of the social process in terms of tolerance and equality.

At this point the emergence of xenophobia took place. It turned out to be that the one’s duration of living in the country determines an option to be a native. For instance, if an immigrant is a newcomer and does not live at least 5 years in Canada, he is automatically considered as an outsider. Having adopted the Citizenship and Immigration Canada Act, the Canadian government did not even make a simple effort by providing facilities for the ethnic minorities (Segal et al 96). It is legislatively normal for Canadians that the principle of equality of status and freedom from discrimination as per languages priorities is taken for granted (Segal et al 96). However, the government should pay close attention to the Immigration and Refugee Protection Act in terms of the adaptation and security of such people from harmful impacts of society. The law should serve in this case, as the main regulatory body.

Though the federal government and local subsidiaries are working over the instruments to decrease the problem of racism, it seems to be stable inside the country. In turn, such a feature of the society results in the deepening of conflicts that result in turmoil that results in destabilization of the economy that results in poverty. In fact, if one looks at the problem inside out, it becomes obvious that there are points on racialization and feminization of poverty. Maria A. Wallis has deepened in the issue of racism in Canada. Thus, her research showed that 74% of Canadians (the vast majority) take racism for granted, as an attribute of the multinational country (Wallis and Kwok 300). The question is that people recognize the problem, as being natural. However, needless to say, the government and higher regulatory instances should provide reforms on improving this social “danger”.

As it comes out to be in the society, principles of the wild within individuals hurt the delicate half of humanity, meaning women, first of all. In this respect feminism took place in Canada, as a means to protect women of all nations residing in Canada from racial and gender discrimination coming from men. Thus, it turned out to be that in Canada, as in the United States, feminist organizations pursue several objectives in social and political life, such as:

1. To engage in electoral politics;
2. To adopt partisan, cross-partisan, or appartisan stances vis-a-vis political parties (Krook and Childs 49).

Of course, such effects in social life yield to the explanation of the versatility in tastes and considerations among women in Canada. Racism and gender discrimination became the problems that were about to be worked out practically. There are enough studies providing the theoretical background for this aim. Canadians should be aware of the danger that is quite near. It is racism through immigration. Moreover, one should grab attention to facts of personal participation in the process of anti-racial movement in the society.

The federal government of Canada provided an investment of $56 million against racial discrimination and misunderstandings grounded on this among citizens (Willis and Kwok 300). In turn, the results are almost unnoticeable. New waves of racial discrimination are felt in Toronto, Vancouver and in other major cities. It is also shown on the example of the novel by Dionne Brand What We All Long For. The plot of the novel was adapted to the realities of urban life in Toronto. It discusses the unequal attitude of the police toward immigrants from such regions as South-East Asia and Northern Africa. Different researches proved the idea that policing in Canada is full of bigotries. As might be seen, this is the point to be resolved primordially. If bodies of power are devoured by prejudices, then there is no talking about constructive changes.

It is vital to admit that Canada possesses a special form of racism that is marked as “systematic racism” (Willis and Kwok 16). The researchers are apt to think that institutional racism is inevitable for Canada. It is all around. Furthermore, it embeds into all spheres of human activities in Canada. Thus, historical background serves, as the main reason for stating essence of racism in the country. As getting involved into different institutions throughout Canada, racism can decrease solely due to effective and somehow intensive measures pointed out in acts and amendments to the law on citizenship in Canada. The outrage of so-called “permanent” citizens of Canada is concerned with four sources of newcomers to the country in the new millennium. These are China, India, the Philippines and Pakistan (Segal et al 98). This is the point for discussion. Once an individual enters the borders of Canada but with another color of skin, the oppression of the white majority grows significantly.

It is absurd when analyzing the prerequisites of democracy in developed Western countries. The features of racism are constant and are still not resolved. It is especially ridiculous when the government of, for instance, the United States, cries worldwide about the necessity of democracy while having internal racial and gender struggles.

While they are no longer forcibly locked away, the beliefs which sustained segregation and assimilation (“breed out to White”) survive and are as integral to Australia’s democracy as racism to democracy in Canada and the United States” (Vickers and Prempeh 78).

Thus, there is a background to think of the feigned nature of democracy in Canada, until the racial and intercultural struggle is diminished. On the other hand, bodies of power should look after the way in which anti-racial process is going on at the moment. Fixing such patterns up would definitely help officials to work out a design for reducing such issue in the Canadian society. The politics of race in Canada leave much to be desired. This fact goes without saying while constituting the nationwide cases of biased attitudes between individuals representing different layers of power and identity as well. This problem touches upon all categories of population: from children up to adults in age. Racism is all-pervading in Canada. One study notes on this dangerous feature of the society on the example of little Canadian girls.

Thus, the study on school life within immigrant girls points out that aggression is the only way to be free from being blamed or hurt. It is also a manifestation of how things go around in places where education and sufficient behavior should be taken to children, meaning schools. It is admitted that “in schools, recent immigrants are called FOBs, an acronym for “fresh off the boat” (Jackson 18). Girls are helpless to contradict the cruel majority of other girls. As a result, it influences their education and state of their psyches. Assimilation seems to be the only or optimal way for such immigrant girls. However, one should think over whether it is a great solution. Just becoming a part of intolerant-to-different-races movement would not be a way out initially. It is an impulse to behave in a wrong way. There should be more effective instruments to slow down racial conflicts in schools. Whatsoever way to be used, it should be under the control of state power and adults, as being responsible for their offspring. The demarche for freedom from discrimination seems to be important in terms of constant demographic change of the Canadian society. The government is to set priorities in this case on how to succeed efficiently.

Conclusion

To conclude, racism in Canada is a result of enormous flows of immigration in the country and a lack of reforms in this direction. People need to bear it in mind that the problem is nationwide for huge Canada. As it came out to be, it touches upon all spheres of peoples’ activities in the country. Moreover, it takes place in the government. The politics of race are quite inefficient in the country. That is why there are grounds to state on the prevalent discrimination in it.

The discussion provided in the paper showed that ethnical entities in Canada are far from being fully secured. The “enemy” is in peoples’ minds. It is reinforced due to the rhetoric of those who oppose countrywide policy of migration to Canada. The vast majority of controversies come from the predominant white part of the Canadian society. Besides, another reason for the flows of racism is in its bilingual characterization. On this basis people are struggling in Canada since the very creation of the nation on the whole. In turn it affected on the Aboriginal groups of residents in Canada. One more movement caused by the discrimination in race and gender was that of feminism. All in all, the discussion in the paper showed a lot of points on racism and immigration politics to be elaborated at the moment.

Works cited

Calliste, Agnes. ‘Women of Exceptional Merit: Immigration of Caribbean Nurses to Canada’ Canadian Journal of Women & Ladies 85 (1993): 85-97.

Farney, James. Social Conservatives and the Boundary of Politics in Canada and the United States. Doctoral dissertation on Political Science. University of Toronto Press (2010). Web.

Jackson, Margaret. ‘Race, Gender and Aggression: The Perceptions of Girls About the Violence in Their Lives.’ Humanitas (2003).

Krook, Mona and Childs, Sarah. Women, Gender, and Politics: A Reader. Oxford: Oxford University Press US, 2010.

Peters, Evelyn J. Canada: The State of the Federation.2003. Reconfiguring Aboriginal-State Relations.London: Institute of Intergovernmental Relations.

Petrovic, John E. International Perspectives on Bilingual Education: Policy, Practice, and Controversy. Cape Canaveral, FL: IAP, 2009.

Rees, Tim. ‘Immigration and Racism.’ Currents 4(1), (1987): 1.

Samuel, Lina. ‘Mating, Dating and Marriage: Intergenerational Cultural Retention and the Construction of Diasporic Identities among South Asian Immigrants in Canada.’ Journal of Intercultural Studies 31(1), (2010): 95 – 110.

Segal, Uma A., Elliott, Doreen and Mayadas, Nazneen S. Immigration Worldwide: Policies, Practices, and Trends. Oxford: Oxford University Press US, 2010.

Vickers, Jill and Prempeh, Edward Osei Kwadwo. The politics of race: Canada, Australia, the United States. Toronto, Canada: Dundurn Press Ltd., 2002.

Wallis, Maria A. and Kwok, Siu-Ming. Daily Struggles: The Deepening Racialization and Feminization of Poverty in Canada. Toronto, Canada: Canadian Scholars’ Press, 2008.

Introduction

A renowned U.S. example of collective attempts aimed to change social construction in context with race, class, gender and culture is none other than ‘Harlem Renaissance’ (HR) which actually took place in 1920s and 1930s. Today HR is remembered for the visions it opened up not only for African Americans but for the new generations to come. That period of HR is considered today a complex era because Africans fought a fight by choosing ‘pen’ and ‘arts’ as their weapons. Their artistic attempts not only changed the social construction and vision of class and race but also provided with the African Americans a new hope to survive with their own cultural identity and dignity.

Known by the name ‘New Negro Renaissance’ and ‘Black Literary Renaissance’ the movement initiated in Harlem with the aim to abolish African American slavery with the involvement of ‘black’ arts and artists. In other words, Harlem Renaissance was a literary period which involved many hidden aspects of cultural and literary history. The participants of Harlem were all writers and artists somehow associated with the cultural aspect of black America. These included actors, performers, dancers, drama artists, musicians, singers, photographers, writers, poets and all those scholars who were directly or indirectly associated with the cultural aspect of black America.

According to Knadler (2004) ‘In an era when African women were identified with stories like ‘monstrous’ and ‘women with knives’ Harlem Renaissance provided the women to seek their own cultural identity and even that in a peaceful manner’. (Knadler, 2004, p. 99).

The Initiators of Harlem Renaissance

Harlem Renaissance was initiated by many artists among whom Claude McCay, Countee Cullen, Langston Hughes, and Zora Neal Hurston are well known for their contributions.

Langston Hughes: A writer who is best known for favoring ‘social equality’ is still remembered by the love his written work reveals about him. His poetry, fiction and visual artistic work mostly highlights the working class lives of black Americans. Langston Hughes contributed in many ways among which the most prominent one is convincing other black artists in The Nation magazine to write from their experience and to stop imitating white writers.

Many writers of Harlem era believed that black Americans should insist upon a need of a Black Aesthetic for, if their African ancestry has not always bound them together, they have nevertheless found identity as a group in their exclusion from certain prerogatives of American citizenship. The concept of a Black Aesthetic in literature was articulated distinctly by those whites who preferred with the conservative literary practices of traditional blacks and with the efforts of Negroes to become assimilated by separating themselves from the folk culture. Langston Hughes was the one who even years before the New Negro movement, insisted upon the right of new artists to express their individual talent without caring whether they pleased white or black audiences. (Russ, 1997, p. 46).

Hughes, in fact, asserted his artistic independence by promising to steer clear as much of the white readers’ stereotypes as those of the black middle-class readers’ taboos. Late in the thirties, Hughes also summed up the Negro writer’s difficulties with white publishers. First of all, he complained, Negro books are considered by editors and publishers as exotic and placed in a special category like Chinese or East Indian material. His more serious charge was that books by black writers cannot sell unless they ‘make our black ghetto in the big cities seem very happy places’. (Russ, 1997, p. 71).

Carl Van Vechten: Another important influential writing to the Harlem Renaissance was that of Carl Van Vechten. According to Langston Hughes, Carl was the one responsible for conducting a ‘know the Negro’ campaign. He brought writers of both races together, striving to overcome prejudice and misunderstanding. He also helped a number of black writers find publishers for their work. His novel Nigger Heaven (1926) explored the seamy and primitive side of Harlem life, much to the shock of some Harlem writers, but it was perfectly packaged for that insatiable white appetite in the 1920s for anything black and primitive.

Louis Thompson: Louise Thompson brought to the movement an awareness of racism in its various disguises that strongly influenced her later life as well as the lives of many of the young black artists and writers with whom she came in contact. She is considered a true anti racist who gave racism the very first exposure with an awareness of isolation.

Jean Toomer: Toomer’s major contribution to the Harlem group was to join Gurdjieff’s system of self-development with a comprehensively intellectual and spiritual response to the racialization of American culture. Thus, the racial component in the writings of the Harlem group is their special contribution to addressing the problem of the world’s condition.

Zora Neal Hurston: A creative writer who was interested not in social problems, but in the problems of individuals, black or white. Her writings reflect she was not influenced by racial discretion.

Movement-based techniques

Harlem Renaissance was escorted by Negro movement based techniques which included all forms of artistic work, from literary expression to visual works, nearly all black artists of that era contributed in that movement, so as to form their own identity and to make the white Americans realize their talent.

Harlem artists were equipped with powerful new concepts and efficient techniques for the evolution of new states of consciousness, which according to them were helpful in transforming American culture. By conducting such a movement African Americans set high hopes to seek social equality which they never had since World War I. So, their techniques were simple and peace loving, a movement without bloodshed.

Racism was always present in the American culture, 1920s was the period which helped racism to bloom in various ways. One of them was the African American segregation and the drastic social and cultural transformations which appeared as the results of industrial modernization, the growth of cities, rural-to-urban shifts in population, and unchecked immigration in the years before the 1920s brought about a wide range of violent and ruthless social responses. These reactions took the forms of brutal labour disputes, curtailment of Asian immigration through the Alien Immigration Laws, terror campaigns of the re-emerged Ku Klux Klan, and founding of new white supremacist groups such as the Anglo-Saxon Clubs of America. In 1920s racism was one of the major causes of high rate at which people were lynch; between 1918 and 1927, 455 persons were lynched in America, 416 of who were African-Americans. Added to these popular expressions of racism were political, medical, and educational institutions that made racism respectable and spread the gospel of racism throughout American society. (Woodson, 1999, p. 4).

The Harlem artists as a response to the bloodshed of World War I began to experiment with an alternative to the modernist aesthetic, an art that had racial subjects without having been derived from the racial ideology of the New Negro movement. In other words, the Harlem artists set out to create a new kind of literary art, a ‘racial’ art that was antiracial. Although the Gurdjieffian school of Harlem literature continued to explore ways to apply the ‘objective’ aesthetic, in contrast to Toomer’s concern with the transformation of the world through a general change in consciousness, their focus was narrow. The Harlem writers solely directed their efforts towards attaining their ideology, psychology, and sociology of race. (Woodson, 1999, p. 24).

Short Term Impacts

Among its short term impacts were the most significant achievements of African Americans. Their high hopes let them able to appear as a new American identity aloof from racial segregation. But that was only a misperception as shortly after the Harlem group began its literary efforts, America entered the Great Depression. Corbould writes, “Harlem riots of 1935 were better than Harlem slum of 1940s”. (Corbould, 2007, p. 859) This clearly elaborates the economic condition of the city Harlem after HR. The collapse of the world’s economy must have seemed to them like the beginning of the end of civilization. Actual depictions of the Depression are absent from the Harlem group’s texts written after 1929, although it certainly contributed to the central role of destruction and involution in their writings.

Despite the huge critics confronted by the artists of Harlem Renaissance, the short term outcome if considered between 1930 (end of HR) and 1934 was positive. Blacks were able to recognize themselves in front of white Americans and up to some extent they were able to alleviate racist perceptions. But according to many critics Harlem Renaissance writing is marked by racialism, but the writers reflect the spirit of the times in their refusal to join causes or movements.

According to Wilson (2003), “Harlem Renaissance was an effort to thrive in the professional world with individuals to accommodate the demands of white, middle-class, and working-class African Americans while simultaneously balancing their expectations for all they need were to create new positive images of African Americans”. (Wilson, 2003, p. 130) However their expectations shattered soon after 1934, when they remained unable to cope up with the increasing poverty in Harlem.

Long Term Impacts

Harlem which used to be a thriving black city, pulsing with vivid passions and packed with many types of classes of people gentrified in the late 1990s, after a long war of racial unrest which later brought inadequate housing and health conditions for the Africans of Harlem, they were able to build up a community which made its own place in U.S., but still there remains a barrier between Harlem and other cities of U.S. This barrier indicates that despite several movements like Harlem Renaissance, Africans are unable to merge themselves with white Americans. Though they are able to make the world realize of a new nation of ‘African Americans’, but still there are obstructions in considering them ‘Americans’, for they remained unable to answer the circumstances which brought them the era of 1970s – the worst economic and social era of injustice and inequality in the history of Harlem.

Work Cited

Corbould Clare, (2007) “Streets, Sounds and Identity in Interwar Harlem” In: Journal of Social History. Volume: 40. Issue: 4. p: 859.

Knadler Stephen, (2004) “Domestic Violence in the Harlem Renaissance: Remaking the Record in Nella Larsen’s Passing and Toni Morrison’s Jazz” In: African American Review. Volume: 38. Issue: 1. p: 99+.

Russ A. Robert, (1997) “Harlem Renaissance Re-Examined”: Whitston Publishing Company: Troy, NY.

Wilson James, (2003) “A Beautiful Pageant: African American Theatre, Drama, and Performance in the Harlem Renaissance, 1910-1927” In: Theatre History Studies. Volume: 23. p: 130+.

Woodson Jon, (1999) “To Make a New Race: Gurdjieff, Toomer, and the Harlem Renaissance”: University Press of Mississippi: Jackson, MS.